EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  

1.Theory of panspermia/ cosmozoic theory

 ŚĂƉƚĞƌͲϳ Early Greek thinkers thought units of life

  (92/87,21 called spores (Cosmozoa) were transferred to
different planets including earth.
       ;EsͿ
2. Spontaneous generation of life/
/theory of abiogenesis
˜‘Ž—–‹‘ƒ”› „‹‘Ž‘‰› ǣ  – ‹• –Š‡ •–—†› ‘ˆ
Š‹•–‘”›‘ˆŽ‹ˆ‡ˆ‘”•‘‡ƒ”–ŠǤ
• –‡ŽŽƒ”†‹•–ƒ…‡•ƒ”‡‡ƒ•—”‡†‹Ž‹‰Š–›‡ƒ”•
• Š‡‘”‹‰‹‘ˆŽ‹ˆ‡‹•…‘•‹†‡”‡†ƒ—‹“—‡‡˜‡–
‹–Š‡Š‹•–‘”›‘ˆ—‹˜‡”•‡Ǥ
‹˜‡”•‡
Š‡ —‹˜‡”•‡ ‹• ˜‡”› ‘Ž† Ȃ ƒŽ‘•– ʹͲ
„‹ŽŽ‹‘ ›‡ƒ”• ‘Ž†Ǥ —‰‡ …Ž—•–‡”• ‘ˆ ‰ƒŽƒš‹‡•
…‘’”‹•‡ –Š‡ —‹˜‡”•‡Ǥ
ƒŽƒš‹‡• …‘–ƒ‹ •–ƒ”• ˆŽƒ• ‘’‡ –‘ ƒ‹”ǡ ‡™ Ž‹˜‹‰ ‘”‰ƒ‹•• ƒ”‘•‡
ƒ†…Ž‘—†•‘ˆ‰ƒ•ƒ††—•–Ǥ‘•‹†‡”‹‰–Š‡•‹œ‡
‘ˆ —‹˜‡”•‡ǡ ‡ƒ”–Š ‹• ‹†‡‡† ƒ •’‡…Ǥ Š‡ ‹‰
ƒ‰ –Š‡‘”› ƒ––‡’–• –‘ ‡š’Žƒ‹ –‘ —• –Š‡
‘”ƒŽ‘‰–‹‡‹–™ƒ•ƒŽ•‘„‡Ž‹‡˜‡†–Šƒ–
Ž‹ˆ‡…ƒ‡‘—–‘ˆ†‡…ƒ›‹‰ƒ†”‘––‹‰ƒ––‡”
Ž‹‡ •–”ƒ™ǡ —†ǡ ‡–…Ǥ Š‹• ™ƒ• –Š‡ –Š‡‘”› ‘ˆ
•’‘–ƒ‡‘—•‰‡‡”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ
 ‘—‹• ƒ•–‡—” „› …ƒ”‡ˆ—Ž
‡š’‡”‹‡–ƒ–‹‘ †‡‘•–”ƒ–‡† –Šƒ– Ž‹ˆ‡ …‘‡•
‘Ž› ˆ”‘ ’”‡Ǧ‡š‹•–‹‰ Ž‹ˆ‡Ǥ ‡ •Š‘™‡† –Šƒ– ‹
’”‡Ǧ•–‡”‹Ž‹•‡†ˆŽƒ••ȋ™ƒ‡…‡†ˆŽƒ•ȌǡŽ‹ˆ‡
†‹†‘–…‘‡ˆ”‘‹ŽŽ‡†›‡ƒ•–™Š‹Ž‡‹ƒ‘–Š‡”
ˆ”‘ Ǯ‹ŽŽ‡† ›‡ƒ•–ǯǤ ’‘–ƒ‡‘—• ‰‡‡”ƒ–‹‘
–Š‡‘”› ™ƒ• †‹•‹••‡† ‘…‡ ƒ† ˆ‘” ƒŽŽǤ
‘™‡˜‡”ǡ–Š‹•†‹†‘–ƒ•™‡”Š‘™–Š‡ˆ‹”•–Ž‹ˆ‡
‘”‹‰‹ ‘ˆ —‹˜‡”•‡Ǥ – –ƒŽ• ‘ˆ ƒ •‹‰—Žƒ” Š—‰‡
‡š’Ž‘•‹‘—‹ƒ‰‹ƒ„Ž‡‹’Š›•‹…ƒŽ–‡”•Ǥ
 Š‡—‹˜‡”•‡‡š’ƒ†‡†ƒ†Š‡…‡ǡ–Š‡
–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ …ƒ‡ †‘™Ǥ ›†”‘‰‡ ƒ†
‡Ž‹— ˆ‘”‡† •‘‡–‹‡ Žƒ–‡”Ǥ Š‡ ‰ƒ•‡•
…‘†‡•‡† —†‡” ‰”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ ƒ† ˆ‘”‡† –Š‡
‰ƒŽƒš‹‡•‘ˆ–Š‡’”‡•‡–†ƒ›—‹˜‡”•‡.
ƒ”–Š
ˆ‘”…ƒ‡‘‡ƒ”–Š.
3. Theory of biogenesis
……‘”†‹‰ –‘ –Š‡‘”› Ž‹˜‹‰ ‘”‰ƒ‹••
ƒ”‡ˆ‘”‡†ˆ”‘’”‡‡š‹•–‹‰Ž‹ˆ‡.
4. Theroy of special creation
‡Ž‹‰‹‘—• Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡ –‡ŽŽ• —• ƒ„‘—– –Š‡
–Š‡‘”› ‘ˆ •’‡…‹ƒŽ …”‡ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‹• –Š‡‘”› Šƒ•
–Š”‡‡…‘‘–ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ
‹Ȍ ŽŽ Ž‹˜‹‰ ‘”‰ƒ‹••ȋ•’‡…‹‡• ‘” –›’‡•Ȍ
 –Š‡ •‘Žƒ” •›•–‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‹Ž› ™ƒ›
‰ƒŽƒš›ǡ ‡ƒ”–Š ™ƒ• •—’’‘•‡† –‘ Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡
ˆ‘”‡† ƒ„‘—– ͶǤͷ „‹ŽŽ‹‘ ›‡ƒ”• „ƒ…Ǥ Š‡”‡
™ƒ• ‘ ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡ ‘ ‡ƒ”Ž› ‡ƒ”–ŠǤ ƒ–‡”
˜ƒ’‘—”ǡ ‡–Šƒ‡ǡ …ƒ”„‘†‹‘š‹†‡ ƒ†
ƒ‘‹ƒ ”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡† ˆ”‘ ‘Ž–‡ ƒ•• …‘˜‡”‡†
–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡Ǥ
 Š‡  ”ƒ›• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ •— „”‘‡—’
™ƒ–‡” ‹–‘ ›†”‘‰‡ ƒ† š›‰‡ ƒ† –Š‡
Ž‹‰Š–‡” ʹ ‡•…ƒ’‡†Ǥ š›‰‡ …‘„‹‡† ™‹–Š
ƒ‘‹ƒ ƒ† ‡–Šƒ‡ –‘ ˆ‘” ™ƒ–‡”ǡ ʹ
ƒ†‘–Š‡”•ǤŠ‡‘œ‘‡Žƒ›‡”™ƒ•ˆ‘”‡†Ǥ•‹–
…‘‘Ž‡†ǡ–Š‡™ƒ–‡”˜ƒ’‘”ˆ‡ŽŽƒ•”ƒ‹ǡ–‘ˆ‹ŽŽƒŽŽ–Š‡
†‡’”‡••‹‘•ƒ†ˆ‘”‘…‡ƒ•Ǥ
”‹‰‹‘ˆŽ‹ˆ‡
Š‡‘”‹‰‹‘ˆŽ‹ˆ‡‹•…‘•‹†‡”‡†ƒ—‹“—‡
‡˜‡– ‹ –Š‡ Š‹•–‘”› ‘ˆ —‹˜‡”•‡ ‹ˆ‡ ƒ’’‡ƒ”‡†
ͷͲͲ‹ŽŽ‹‘›‡ƒ”•ƒˆ–‡”–Š‡ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Šǡ
–Šƒ–™‡•‡‡–‘†ƒ›™‡”‡…”‡ƒ–‡†ƒ••—…ŠǤ
‹‹Ȍ Š‡†‹˜‡”•‹–›™ƒ•ƒŽ™ƒ›•–Š‡•ƒ‡•‹…‡
…”‡ƒ–‹‘ƒ†™‹ŽŽ„‡–Š‡•ƒ‡‹ˆ—–—”‡
‹‹‹Ȍ Š‡‡ƒ”–Š‹•ƒ„‘—–ͶͲͲͲ›‡ƒ”•‘Ž†
5. Chemical evolution/Organic evolution
’ƒ”‹ ‘ˆ —••‹ƒ ƒ† ƒŽ†ƒ‡ ‘ˆ
‰Žƒ† ’”‘’‘•‡† Š‡‹…ƒŽ ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘Ǥ
……‘”†‹‰ –‘ –Š‹• –Š‡‘”›  –Š‡ ˆ‹”•– ˆ‘” ‘ˆ Ž‹ˆ‡
…‘—Ž†Šƒ˜‡…‘‡ˆ”‘’”‡Ǧ‡š‹•–‹‰‘ǦŽ‹˜‹‰
‘”‰ƒ‹… ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡• ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥ ǡ ’”‘–‡‹ǡ ‡–…ǤȌ
ƒ† –Šƒ– ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ Ž‹ˆ‡ ™ƒ• ’”‡…‡†‡† „›
…Š‡‹…ƒŽ ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ǡ ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ †‹˜‡”•‡
‘”‰ƒ‹… ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡• ˆ”‘ ‹‘”‰ƒ‹…
…‘•–‹–—‡–•Ǥ Š‡ …‘†‹–‹‘• ‘ ’”‹‹–‹˜‡
‡ƒ”–Š ™‡”‡ Ȃ Š‹‰Š –‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ǡ ˜‘Ž…ƒ‹…
•–‘”•ǡ ”‡†—…‹‰ ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡ …‘–ƒ‹‹‰
Ͷǡ͵ǡ‡–…Ǥ
Experimental proof of chemical evolution
‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ ƒŽ‘•– ˆ‘—”„‹ŽŽ‹‘›‡ƒ”•„ƒ…Ǥ Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡  ͳͻͷ͵ǡ ǤǤ ‹ŽŽ‡”ǡ ƒ ‡”‹…ƒ
•‡˜‡”ƒŽ –Š‡‘”‹‡• –‘ ‡š’Žƒ‹ –Š‡ ‘”‹‰‹ ‘ˆ Ž‹ˆ‡Ǥ •…‹‡–‹•– …”‡ƒ–‡† •‹‹Žƒ” …‘†‹–‹‘• ‹ ƒ
‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡–Š‡‘”›ƒ”‡‰‹˜‡„‡Ž‘™ Žƒ„‘”ƒ–‘”› •…ƒŽ‡ •‹‹Žƒ” –‘ –Šƒ– ‘ˆ ’”‹‹–‹˜‡
 ‡ƒ”–ŠǤ ‡ …”‡ƒ–‡† ‡Ž‡…–”‹… †‹•…Šƒ”‰‡ ‹ ƒ
 …Ž‘•‡† ˆŽƒ• ȋ’ƒ”Ž‡ †‹•…Šƒ”‰‡ ƒ’’ƒ”ƒ–—• Ȍ
…‘–ƒ‹‹‰ Ͷǡ ʹǡ ͵ ȋʹǣʹǣͳȌ ƒ† ™ƒ–‡”
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  ŶĂǀĂƐϵϴϵϱΛŐŵĂŝů͘ĐŽŵ
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  
˜ƒ’‘—” ƒ– ͺͲͲͲǤ ‡ ‘„•‡”˜‡† ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ
ƒ‹‘ ƒ…‹†•Ǥ  •‹‹Žƒ” ‡š’‡”‹‡–• ‘–Š‡”•
‘„•‡”˜‡†ǡ ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ •—‰ƒ”•ǡ ‹–”‘‰‡
„ƒ•‡•ǡ’‹‰‡–ƒ†ˆƒ–•Ǥ
• ‹‘ƒ…‹†•ǡ•—‰ƒ”ǡ‰Ž›…‡”‘Žǡƒ†ˆƒ––›ƒ…‹†•
‰ƒ˜‡ ”‹•‡ –‘ ’‘Ž›‡”•Ǥǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒ› Šƒ˜‡
ƒ••‡„Ž‡†  ‹–‘ •’Š‡”‹…ƒŽ •–”—…–—”‡• …ƒŽŽ‡†
”‘–‘„‹‘–Ǥ”‘–‘„‹‘– ƒ†‡ ‘ˆ
’‘Ž›’‡’–‹†‡ ƒ”‡ …ƒŽŽ‡† ‹…”‘•’Š‡”‡ ȋ–‡”
…‘‹‡† „› ‹†‡› ‘šȌǡ –Š‘•‡ ‘ˆ Ž‹’‹†• ƒ”‡
…ƒŽŽ‡† ‹’‘•‘‡•ǤŠ‘•‡ ‘ˆ …‘„‹ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ
’‘Ž›’‡’–‹†‡ǡ —…Ž‡‹… ƒ…‹†•ǡ ’‘Ž›•ƒ……Šƒ”‹†‡
ƒ”‡ …ƒŽŽ‡† …‘ƒ…‡”˜ƒ–‹˜‡ ȋ‡” …‘‹‡† „›
’ƒ”‹Ȍ
• Š‡ …‘ƒ…‡”˜ƒ–‹˜‡ •–ƒ”–‡† –‘ ƒ„•‘”„ ‘”‰ƒ‹…
•—„•–ƒ…‡‘ˆ‘…‡ƒƒ†„‡…ƒ‡ƒ‡”‘„‡•
• ƒŽ›•‹• ‘ˆ ‡–‡‘”‹–‡ …‘–‡– ƒŽ•‘
”‡˜‡ƒŽ‡† •‹‹Žƒ” …‘’‘—†• ‹†‹…ƒ–‹‰
–Šƒ– •‹‹Žƒ” ’”‘…‡••‡• ƒ”‡ ‘……—””‹‰
‡Ž•‡™Š‡”‡ ‹ •’ƒ…‡Ǥ ‹–Š –Š‹• Ž‹‹–‡† ˜‹†‡…‡•‘ˆ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘Ǥ
‡˜‹†‡…‡ǡ …Š‡‹…ƒŽ ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ ™ƒ• ‘”‡ ‘”
Ž‡••ƒ……‡’–‡†Ǥ 1. paleontological evidence
• Š‡ ˆ‹”•– ‘Ǧ…‡ŽŽ—Žƒ” ˆ‘”• ‘ˆ Ž‹ˆ‡ …‘—Ž† –—†› ‘ˆ ˆ‘••‹Ž• ‹• …ƒŽŽ‡† ’ƒŽ‡‘–‘Ž‘‰›Ǥ
Šƒ˜‡ ‘”‹‰‹ƒ–‡† ͵ „‹ŽŽ‹‘ ›‡ƒ”• „ƒ…Ǥ – ‘••‹Ž• ƒ”‡ –Š‡ ’‡–”‹ˆ‹‡† ”‡ƒ‹• ‘ˆ ‘”‰ƒ‹•
™‘—Ž† Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡ ‰‹ƒ– ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡• ȋǡ –Šƒ– Ž‹˜‡† ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ•–Ǥ ‘”‰ƒ‹•• Ǥ Š‡›
”‘–‡‹ǡ ‘Ž›•ƒ……Šƒ”‹†‡•ǡ ‡–…ǤȌǤ Š‡•‡ ”‡’”‡•‡–‡š–‹…–‘”‰ƒ‹••ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ‹‘•ƒ—”•ȌǤ
…ƒ’•—Ž‡• ”‡’”‘†—…‡† –Š‡‹” ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡• Significance of fossil study
’‡”Šƒ’•Ǥ ‹Ǥ – Š‡Ž’ –‘ •–—†› –Š‡ ˆ‘” ƒ† •–”—…–—”‡
• Š‡ ˆ‹”•– …‡ŽŽ—Žƒ” ˆ‘” ‘ˆ Ž‹ˆ‡ †‹† ‘– ‘ˆ‡š–‹…–ƒ‹ƒŽ
’‘••‹„Ž› ‘”‹‰‹ƒ–‡ –‹ŽŽ ƒ„‘—– ʹͲͲͲ ‹ŽŽ‹‘
›‡ƒ”• ƒ‰‘Ǥ Š‡•‡ ™‡”‡ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› •‹‰Ž‡Ǧ
…‡ŽŽ•Ǥ  ŽŽ Ž‹ˆ‡ ˆ‘”• ™‡”‡ ‹ ™ƒ–‡”
‡˜‹”‘‡– ‘Ž›Ǥ Š‹• ˜‡”•‹‘ ‘ˆ ƒ
„‹‘‰‡‡•‹•ǡ ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ –Š‡ ˆ‹”•– ˆ‘” ‘ˆ Ž‹ˆ‡ ƒ”‘•‡
‹‹Ǥ –Š‡Ž’–‘•–—†›–Š‡Šƒ„‹–ƒ†„‡Šƒ˜‹‘—•
‘ˆ‡š–‹…–‘”‰ƒ‹••
‹‹‹Ǥ  •–—†› ‘ˆ ˆ‘••‹Ž• ‹ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–
•‡†‹‡–ƒ”› Žƒ›‡”• ‹†‹…ƒ–‡• –Š‡
‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ’‡”‹‘†‹™Š‹…Š–Š‡›‡š‹•–‡†
•Ž‘™Ž› –Š”‘—‰Š ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ƒ”› ˆ‘”…‡• ˆ”‘
‘ǦŽ‹˜‹‰ ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡• ‹• ƒ……‡’–‡† „›
ƒŒ‘”‹–›. 
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ
‹˜Ǥ –Š‡Ž’–‘•–—†›–Š‡‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ƒ”›Š‹•–‘”›
ȋŠ›Ž‘‰‡›Ȍ ‘ˆ …‡”–ƒ‹ ƒ‹ƒŽ• Ž‹‡
Š‘”•‡ǡ‡Ž‡’Šƒ–ǡƒ‡–…
‰ǣ‘Š‹’’—•Ǧ凕‘Š‹’’—•Ǧε
‡”›…Š‹’’—•Ǧε“——•
˜Ǥ Š‡ ’”‡•‡…‡ ‘ˆ ‹–‡”‡†‹ƒ–‡ ˆ‘”• ‹
ˆ‘••‹Ž ”‡…‘”†• ‹†‹…ƒ–‡ –Š‡ …‘‡…–‹‰
Ž‹ „‡–™‡‡ –™‘ ‰”‘—’ ‘ˆ ‘”‰ƒ‹••Ǥ
‰Ǣ ”…Šƒ‡‘’–‡”‹š •Š‘™• –Š‡ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡ ‘ˆ
„‘–Š”‡’–‹Ž‡•ƒ†„‹”†•Ǥ‡…‡‹–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†
ƒ• ‡’–‹Ž‡ „‹”†Ǥ Archaeopterix had a beak
like the birds but the beak had teeth like
reptiles
¾ Its forelimbs is modified into
wings like birds. But the wings
possess 3 free digits bearing claws
like reptiles
 ŶĂǀĂƐϵϴϵϱΛŐŵĂŝů͘ĐŽŵ
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  
¾ Wings are made of feathers like
birds, But scales are also present
like reptile
¾ It has feathery tail like the birds
and had tail vertebra
™ The age of the fossils are calculated by
radioactive dating
2. Comparative anatomy and morphology
‘’ƒ”ƒ–‹˜‡ ƒƒ–‘› ƒ† ‘”’Š‘Ž‘‰›
•Š‘™• •‹‹Žƒ”‹–‹‡• ƒ† †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡• ƒ‘‰
‘”‰ƒ‹••‘ˆ–‘†ƒ›ƒ†–Š‘•‡–Šƒ–‡š‹•–‡†›‡ƒ”•
ƒ‰‘Ǥ —…Š •‹‹Žƒ”‹–‹‡• …ƒ „‡ ‹–‡”’”‡–‡† –‘
—†‡”•–ƒ† ™Š‡–Š‡” …‘‘ ƒ…‡•–‘”•
™‡”‡•Šƒ”‡†‘”‘–Ǥ
a)Homologous organs
‘‘Ž‘‰—• ‘”‰ƒ• ƒ”‡ ‘”‰ƒ• Šƒ˜‹‰
•ƒ‡ •–”—…–—”‡ ƒ† ‘”‹‰‹ „—– †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–
ˆ—…–‹‘•Ǥ Š‹• ’Š‡‘‡‘ ‹• …ƒŽŽ‡†
Š‘‘Ž‘‰›Ǥ •—…Š ‘”‰ƒ• ƒ”‡ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡† †—‡ –‘
†‹˜‡”‰‡–‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘Ǥ
‰ǣͳȌ ™ŠƒŽ‡•ǡ „ƒ–•ǡ Š‡‡–ƒŠ ƒ† Š—ƒ ȋƒŽŽ
ƒƒŽ•Ȍ •Šƒ”‡ •‹‹Žƒ”‹–‹‡• ‹ –Š‡ ’ƒ––‡”
‘ˆ„‘‡•‘ˆˆ‘”‡Ž‹„• b) Analogous organ
 Š‘—‰Š –Š‡•‡ ˆ‘”‡Ž‹„• ’‡”ˆ‘” ”‰ƒ• Šƒ˜‹‰ •ƒ‡ ˆ—…–‹‘ „—–
†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ˆ—…–‹‘• ‹ –Š‡•‡ ƒ‹ƒŽ•ǡ –Š‡› Šƒ˜‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– •–”—…–—”‡ ƒ† ‘”‹‰‹Ǥ Š‹•
•‹‹Žƒ”ƒƒ–‘‹…ƒŽ•–”—…–—”‡ȂƒŽŽ‘ˆ–Š‡Šƒ˜‡ ’Š‡‘‡‘‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒŽ‘‰›Ǥ—…Š‘”‰ƒ•ƒ”‡
Š—‡”—•ǡ”ƒ†‹—•ǡ—Žƒǡ…ƒ”’ƒŽ•ǡ‡–ƒ…ƒ”’ƒŽ•ƒ† †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡††—‡–‘‘˜‡”‰‡–‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘Ǥ
’ŠƒŽƒ‰‡• ‹ –Š‡‹” ˆ‘”‡Ž‹„•Ǥ ‡…‡ǡ ‹ –Š‡•‡ ‰ǢͳȌ ‹‰• ‘ˆ „—––‡”ˆŽ› ƒ† ‘ˆ „‹”†• Ž‘‘
ƒ‹ƒŽ•ǡ –Š‡ •ƒ‡ •–”—…–—”‡ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡† ƒŽ‘‰ ƒŽ‹‡Ǥ Š‡› ƒ”‡ ‘– ƒƒ–‘‹…ƒŽŽ› •‹‹Žƒ”
†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– †‹”‡…–‹‘• †—‡ –‘ ƒ†ƒ’–ƒ–‹‘• –‘ •–”—…–—”‡• –Š‘—‰Š –Š‡› ’‡”ˆ‘” •‹‹Žƒ”
†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‡‡†•Ǥ Š‹• ‹• †‹˜‡”‰‡– ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ ˆ—…–‹‘•Ǥ Ȃ Š‡”‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– •–”—…–—”‡• ‡˜‘Ž˜‹‰
ƒ†–Š‡•‡•–”—…–—”‡•ƒ”‡Š‘‘Ž‘‰‘—• ˆ‘” –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ˆ—…–‹‘ ƒ† Š‡…‡ Šƒ˜‹‰
‰ǢʹȌ–Š‡–Š‘”ƒ†–‡†”‹Ž•‘ˆ‘—‰ƒ‹˜‹ŽŽ‡ƒ •‹‹Žƒ”‹–›
ƒ†—…—”„‹–ƒ”‡’”‡•‡–Š‘‘Ž‘‰› ‰ǢʹȌ –Š‡ ‡›‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘…–‘’—• ƒ† ‘ˆ
‰Ǣ͵Ȍ˜‡”–‡„”ƒ–‡Š‡ƒ”–•‘”„”ƒ‹• ƒƒŽ•
‰Ǣ͵Ȍ–Š‡ˆŽ‹’’‡”•‘ˆ‡‰—‹•ƒ†‘Ž’Š‹•Ǥ
‰ǢͶȌ™‡‡–’‘–ƒ–‘ȋ”‘‘–‘†‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘Ȍƒ†
’‘–ƒ–‘ȋ•–‡‘†‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘Ȍ
• ‘ ‘‡ …ƒ  •ƒ› –Šƒ– ‹– ‹• –Š‡ •‹‹Žƒ”
Šƒ„‹–ƒ––Šƒ–Šƒ•”‡•—Ž–‡†‹•‡Ž‡…–‹‘‘ˆ
•‹‹Žƒ” ƒ†ƒ’–‹˜‡ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ‹ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–
‰”‘—’• ‘ˆ ‘”‰ƒ‹•• „—– –‘™ƒ”† –Š‡
•ƒ‡ ˆ—…–‹‘Ǥ – ”‡•—Ž–• ‹ –Š‡
ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‘˜‡”‰‡–‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘
3. Biochemical evidence
‹‹Žƒ”‹–‹‡• ‹ ’”‘–‡‹• ƒ† ‰‡‡•
’‡”ˆ‘”‹‰ ƒ ‰‹˜‡ ˆ—…–‹‘ ƒ‘‰ †‹˜‡”•‡
‘”‰ƒ‹••‰‹˜‡…Ž—‡•–‘…‘‘ƒ…‡•–”›Ǥ
4. Molecular evidence
‹‹Žƒ”‹–› ‘ˆ ‘”‰ƒ‹• ƒ– –Š‡ ‘Ž‡…—Žƒ”
Ž‡˜‡Ž ‹†‹…ƒ–‡ ’Š›Ž‘‰‡‡–‹… ȋ˜‘Ž—–‹‘ƒ”›
Š‹•–‘”› Ȍ ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’Ǥ —ƒ  †‹ˆˆ‡”• ‹
‘Ž›ͳǤͺΨ‘ˆ‹–•„’ˆ”‘…Š‹’ƒœ‡‡ƒ†
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  ŶĂǀĂƐϵϴϵϱΛŐŵĂŝů͘ĐŽŵ
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  
–Š‡”‡ ‹• ‘ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ „‡–™‡‡ –™‘ ‹ –Š‡
ƒ‹‘ƒ…‹†•‡“—‡…‡ˆ‘”’”‘–‡‹…›–‘…Š”‘‡Ǥ
‹‹Žƒ”Ž› ‘Ž‡…—Žƒ” •–”—…–—”‡ ‘ˆ ƒ…–‹ ƒ†
–—„—Ž‹ ’”‘–‡‹ ‹ ƒŽŽ ƒ‹ƒŽ ’‘‹– –Š‡‹”
…‘‘ƒ…‡•–‘”›Ǥ
 …‘‘ ‰‡‡–‹… …‘†‡ ‹• ‘˜‡”Š‡Ž‹‰
‡˜‹†‡…‡–Šƒ–ƒŽŽ‘”‰ƒ‹••ƒ”‡”‡Žƒ–‡†
5.Embryological evidence
– ‹• ’”‘’‘•‡† „› ƒ”•– ‡…‡ŽǤ
……‘”†‹‰ –‘ Š‹• ‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘ …‡”–ƒ‹ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•
ƒ”‡ …‘‘ –‘ ƒŽŽ ˜‡”–‡„”ƒ–‡• †—”‹‰ –Š‡‹”
‡„”›‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ •–ƒ‰‡Ǥ – ‹• ƒ„•‡– ‹ –Š‡‹” ƒ†—Ž–
ȋ–‘‰‡› ”‡’‡ƒ–• ’Š›Ž‘‰‡›Ȁ ”‡ …ƒ’‹–—Žƒ–‹‘
–Š‡‘”›Ȍ
‰ǣƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ…‡‘ˆ˜‡•–‹‰‹ƒŽ‰‹ŽŽ•Ž‹–„‡Š‹†–Š‡
Š‡ƒ† †—”‹‰ ‡„”›‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– ‹ ƒŽŽ
˜‡”–‡„”ƒ–‡•Ǥ—–‹–‹•ˆ—…–‹‘ƒŽ‘Ž›‹ˆ‹•Š‡•
Š‹• ‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘ ™ƒ• †‹•’”‘˜‡† „› ‘ ƒ‡”Ǥ
‡‘–‡†–Šƒ–‡„”›‘•‡˜‡”’ƒ••–Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡
ƒ†—Ž–•–ƒ‰‡‘ˆ‘–Š‡”ƒ‹ƒŽǤ
‘”–‹…—Ž—–”‡ ǣThe art or practice of garden
cultivation and management

‡ƒƒ’–‹•–‡†‡ƒƒ”…
‡ ™ƒ• ƒ ”‡…Š ƒ–—”ƒŽ‹•–Ǥ ˜‡
„‡ˆ‘”‡ƒ”™‹ǡ Š‡ ’”‘’‘•‡† –Šƒ– ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ ‘ˆ
Ž‹ˆ‡ˆ‘”•Šƒ†‘……—””‡†„—–†”‹˜‡„›—•‡ƒ†
†‹•—•‡‘ˆ‘”‰ƒ•Ǥ
‡‰ƒ˜‡–Š‡‡šƒ’Ž‡•‘ˆ
‹”ƒˆˆ‡•™Š‘‹ ™‹–Š Ž‹ˆ‡ ˆ‘”• –Šƒ– ‡š‹•–‡† ‹ŽŽ‹‘• ‘ˆ ›‡ƒ”•
ƒƒ––‡’––‘ˆ‘”ƒ‰‡Ž‡ƒ˜‡•‘–ƒŽŽ–”‡‡•Šƒ†–‘
ƒ†ƒ’– „› ‡Ž‘‰ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡‹” ‡…•Ǥ • –Š‡›
’ƒ••‡†‘–Š‹•ƒ…“—‹”‡†…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‘ˆ‡Ž‘‰ƒ–‡†
‡… –‘ •—……‡‡†‹‰ ‰‡‡”ƒ–‹‘•ǡ
‹”ƒˆˆ‡•ǡ ˆ‘”• ‘ˆ Ž‹ˆ‡ ƒ”‘•‡ ƒ– †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ’‡”‹‘†• ‘ˆ
•Ž‘™Ž›ǡ ‘˜‡” –Š‡ ›‡ƒ”•ǡ …ƒ‡ –‘ ƒ…“—‹”‡ Ž‘‰
‡…•Ǥ Š‹• –Š‡‘”› ™ƒ• †‹•’”‘˜‡† „› —‰—•–
‡‹•ƒ
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ

9 ƒƒ”…ǯ• –Š‡‘”› ‹• …ƒŽŽ‡† Š‡‘”› ‘ˆ
‹Š‡”‹–ƒ…‡ ‘ˆ ƒ…“—‹”‡† …Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”• Ǥ‡
’—„Ž‹•Š‡†–Š‹•–Š‡‘”›‹Š‹•ˆƒ‘—•„‘‘
Š‹Ž‘•‘’Š‹‡œ‘‘Ž‘‰‹“—‡Ǥ

Šƒ”Ž‡•ƒ”™‹ 
Š‡‘”› ‘ˆ •’‡…‹ƒŽ …”‡ƒ–‹‘ ™‡”‡
•–”‘‰Ž› …ŠƒŽŽ‡‰‡† †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ‹‡–‡‡–Š
…‡–—”›Ǥƒ•‡†‘‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‡†—”‹‰ƒ
•‡ƒ ˜‘›ƒ‰‡ ‹ ƒ •ƒ‹Ž •Š‹’ …ƒŽŽ‡† ǤǤǤ ‡ƒ‰Ž‡
”‘—† –Š‡ ™‘”Ž†ǡ …‘…Ž—†‡† –Šƒ– ‡š‹•–‹‰
Ž‹˜‹‰ ˆ‘”• •Šƒ”‡ •‹‹Žƒ”‹–‹‡• –‘ ˜ƒ”›‹‰
†‡‰”‡‡• ‘– ‘Ž› ƒ‘‰ –Š‡•‡Ž˜‡• „—– ƒŽ•‘
ƒ‰‘Ǥ ƒ› •—…Š Ž‹ˆ‡ ˆ‘”• †‘ ‘– ‡š‹•– ƒ›
‘”‡Ǥ Š‡”‡ Šƒ† „‡‡ ‡š–‹…–‹‘• ‘ˆ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–
Ž‹ˆ‡ ˆ‘”• ‹ –Š‡ ›‡ƒ”• ‰‘‡ „› Œ—•– ƒ• ‡™
Š‹•–‘”› ‘ˆ ‡ƒ”–ŠǤ Š‡”‡ Šƒ• „‡‡ ‰”ƒ†—ƒŽ
‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘‘ˆŽ‹ˆ‡ˆ‘”•Ǥ›’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘Šƒ•„—‹Ž–
‹ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘ ‹ …Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…•Ǥ Š‘•‡
…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…• ™Š‹…Š ‡ƒ„Ž‡ •‘‡ –‘ •—”˜‹˜‡
„‡––‡” ‹ ƒ–—”ƒŽ …‘†‹–‹‘• ȋ…Ž‹ƒ–‡ǡ ˆ‘‘†ǡ
’Š›•‹…ƒŽ ˆƒ…–‘”•ǡ ‡–…ǤȌ ™‘—Ž† ‘—–„”‡‡† ‘–Š‡”•
–Šƒ– ƒ”‡ Ž‡••Ǧ‡†‘™‡† –‘ •—”˜‹˜‡ —†‡” •—…Š
ƒ–—”ƒŽ …‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥ ‘–Š‡” ™‘”† —•‡† ‹•
ˆ‹–‡•• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ‘” ’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‡
ˆ‹–‡••ǡ ƒ……‘”†‹‰ –‘ ƒ”™‹ǡ ”‡ˆ‡”• —Ž–‹ƒ–‡Ž›
ƒ† ‘Ž› –‘ ”‡’”‘†—…–‹˜‡ ˆ‹–‡••Ǥ ‡…‡ǡ –Š‘•‡
™Š‘ ƒ”‡ „‡––‡” ˆ‹– ‹ ƒ ‡˜‹”‘‡–ǡ Ž‡ƒ˜‡
‘”‡ ’”‘‰‡› –Šƒ ‘–Š‡”•Ǥ Š‡•‡ǡ –Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ
™‹ŽŽ •—”˜‹˜‡ ‘”‡ ƒ† Š‡…‡ ƒ”‡ •‡Ž‡…–‡† „›
ƒ–—”‡Ǥ ‡ …ƒŽŽ‡† ‹– ƒ–—”ƒŽ •‡Ž‡…–‹‘ ƒ†
‹’Ž‹‡†‹–ƒ•ƒ‡…Šƒ‹•‘ˆ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘Ǥ
 ŶĂǀĂƐϵϴϵϱΛŐŵĂŝů͘ĐŽŵ
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  
• The work of Thomas Malthus (His book name &RQYHUJHQWHYROXWLRQ
: Principles of populations) on populations Š‡‘”‡–Šƒ‘‡ƒ†ƒ’–‹˜‡”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘
influenced Darwin ƒ’’‡ƒ”‡† –‘ Šƒ˜‡ ‘……—””‡† ‹ ƒ ‹•‘Žƒ–‡†
• Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in
‰‡‘‰”ƒ’Š‹…ƒŽ ƒ”‡ƒ ȋ”‡’”‡•‡–‹‰ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–
Malay Archipelago had also come to similar
Šƒ„‹–ƒ–•Ȍǡ ‘‡ …ƒ …ƒŽŽ –Š‹• …‘˜‡”‰‡–
conclusions around the same time
‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘
$GDSWLYHUDGLDWLRQ ‰ǣŽƒ…‡–ƒŽƒƒŽ•‹—•–”ƒŽ‹ƒƒ’’‡ƒ”•–‘
'LYHUJHQWHYROXWLRQ „‡ Ǯ•‹‹Žƒ”ǯ –‘ ƒ …‘””‡•’‘†‹‰ ƒ”•—’‹ƒŽ
Š‡ ’”‘…‡•• ‘ˆ ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ ‘ˆ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‡Ǥ‰ǤǡŽƒ…‡–ƒŽ™‘Žˆƒ†ƒ•ƒ‹ƒ™‘Žˆ
•’‡…‹‡• ‹ ƒ ‰‹˜‡ ‰‡‘‰”ƒ’Š‹…ƒŽ ƒ”‡ƒ •–ƒ”–‹‰
ˆ”‘ ƒ ’‘‹– ƒ† Ž‹–‡”ƒŽŽ› ”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‰ –‘ ‘–Š‡”
ƒ”‡ƒ• ‘ˆ ‰‡‘‰”ƒ’Š› ȋŠƒ„‹–ƒ–•Ȍ ‹• …ƒŽŽ‡†
ƒ†ƒ’–‹˜‡”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘Ǥ
‰ǣͳȌ ǣ
ƒŽƒ’‘‰‘•ˆ‹…Š‡• ǣ†—”‹‰ Š‹• Œ‘—”‡›
ƒ”™‹ ™‡– –‘
ƒŽƒ’ƒ‰‘• •Žƒ†•Ǥ Š‡”‡ Š‡
‘„•‡”˜‡†ƒƒƒœ‹‰ †‹˜‡”•‹–›‘ˆ…”‡ƒ–—”‡•Ǥˆ
’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ” ‹–‡”‡•–ǡ •ƒŽŽ „Žƒ… „‹”†• Žƒ–‡”
…ƒŽŽ‡† ƒ”™‹ǯ• ‹…Š‡• ƒƒœ‡† Š‹Ǥ ‡
”‡ƒŽ‹•‡† –Šƒ– –Š‡”‡ ™‡”‡ ƒ› ˜ƒ”‹‡–‹‡• ‘ˆ
ˆ‹…Š‡• ‹–Š‡ •ƒ‡ ‹•Žƒ†Ǥ ŽŽ –Š‡ ˜ƒ”‹‡–‹‡•ǡ Š‡
…‘Œ‡…–—”‡†ǡ ‡˜‘Ž˜‡† ‘ –Š‡ ‹•Žƒ† ‹–•‡ŽˆǤ ”‘
–Š‡ ‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ•‡‡†Ǧ‡ƒ–‹‰ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǡ ƒ› ‘–Š‡”
ˆ‘”• ™‹–ŠƒŽ–‡”‡†„‡ƒ•ƒ”‘•‡ǡ‡ƒ„Ž‹‰–Š‡
–‘ „‡…‘‡ ‹•‡…–‹˜‘”‘—• ƒ† ˜‡‰‡–ƒ”‹ƒ
ˆ‹…Š‡•Ǥ


‰ǣʹȌ —•–”ƒŽ‹ƒ ƒ”•—’‹ƒŽ•Ǥ  —„‡” ‘ˆ †—•–”‹ƒŽ‡Žƒ‹•
ƒ”•—’‹ƒŽ•ǡ ‡ƒ…Š †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ‘–Š‡”
‡˜‘Ž˜‡†ˆ”‘ƒƒ…‡•–”ƒŽ•–‘…ǡ„—–ƒŽŽ ™‹–Š‹ –‡”‡•–‹‰ ‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘ •—’’‘”–‹‰
–Š‡—•–”ƒŽ‹ƒ‹•Žƒ†…‘–‹‡–Ǥ ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ „› ƒ–—”ƒŽ •‡Ž‡…–‹‘ …‘‡• ˆ”‘
‰ǣ͵ȌŽƒ…‡–ƒŽƒƒŽ•‹—•–”ƒŽ‹ƒ ‰Žƒ†Ǥ  ƒ …‘ŽŽ‡…–‹‘ ‘ˆ ‘–Š• ƒ†‡ ‹
ͳͺͷͲ•ǡ ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ „‡ˆ‘”‡ ‹†—•–”‹ƒŽ‹•ƒ–‹‘ •‡– ‹ǡ ‹–
™ƒ• ‘„•‡”˜‡† –Šƒ– –Š‡”‡ ™‡”‡ ‘”‡ ™Š‹–‡Ǧ
™‹‰‡†‘–Š•‘–”‡‡•–Šƒ†ƒ”Ǧ™‹‰‡†‘”
‡Žƒ‹•‡† ‘–Š•Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ‹ –Š‡ …‘ŽŽ‡…–‹‘
…ƒ””‹‡† ‘—– ˆ”‘ –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ƒ”‡ƒǡ „—– ƒˆ–‡”
‹†—•–”‹ƒŽ‹•ƒ–‹‘ǡ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ‹ͳͻʹͲǡ–Š‡”‡™‡”‡‘”‡
†ƒ”Ǧ™‹‰‡† ‘–Š• ‹ –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ƒ”‡ƒǡ ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ –Š‡
’”‘’‘”–‹‘™ƒ•”‡˜‡”•‡†Ǥ
 Š‡ ‡š’Žƒƒ–‹‘ ’—– ˆ‘”–Š ˆ‘” –Š‹•
‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘ ™ƒ• –Šƒ– Ǯ’”‡†ƒ–‘”• ™‹ŽŽ •’‘– ƒ
‘–Šƒ‰ƒ‹•–ƒ…‘–”ƒ•–‹‰„ƒ…‰”‘—†ǯǤ—”‹‰
’‘•– ‹†—•–”‹ƒŽ‹œƒ–‹‘ ’‡”‹‘†ǡ –Š‡ –”‡‡ –”—•
„‡…ƒ‡ †ƒ” †—‡ –‘ ‹†—•–”‹ƒŽ •‘‡ ƒ†
•‘‘–•Ǥ †‡” –Š‹• …‘†‹–‹‘ –Š‡ ™Š‹–‡Ǧ™‹‰‡†
‘–Š †‹† ‘– •—”˜‹˜‡ †—‡ –‘ ’”‡†ƒ–‘”•ǡ †ƒ”Ǧ
 ™‹‰‡† ‘” ‡Žƒ‹•‡† ‘–Š •—”˜‹˜‡†Ǥ ‡ˆ‘”‡
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  ŶĂǀĂƐϵϴϵϱΛŐŵĂŝů͘ĐŽŵ
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  
‹†—•–”‹ƒŽ‹•ƒ–‹‘ •‡– ‹ǡ –Š‹… ‰”‘™–Š ‘ˆ Eg: adaptive radiation
ƒŽ‘•– ™Š‹–‡Ǧ…‘Ž‘—”‡† Ž‹…Š‡ …‘˜‡”‡† –Š‡
–”‡‡• Ǧ ‹ –Šƒ– „ƒ…‰”‘—† –Š‡ ™Š‹–‡ ™‹‰‡†
‘–Š •—”˜‹˜‡† „—– –Š‡ †ƒ”Ǧ…‘Ž‘—”‡† ‘–Š
™‡”‡ ’‹…‡† ‘—– „› predators. the lichens can
be used as industrial pollution indicators They
will not grow in areas that are polluted. Hence,
moths that were able to camouflage themselves,
i.e., hide in the background, survived. This
understanding is supported by the fact that in
areas where industrialisation did not occur e.g., in
rural areas, the count of melanic moths was low.
This showed that in a mixed population, those
that can better-adapt, survive and increase in
population size
(YROXWLRQE\DQWKURSRJHQLFDFWLRQ
Š‡‡š…‡••—•‡‘ˆŠ‡”„‹…‹†‡•ǡ’‡•–‹…‹†‡•ǡ
‡–…Ǥǡ Šƒ• ‘Ž› ”‡•—Ž–‡† ‹ •‡Ž‡…–‹‘ ‘ˆ ”‡•‹•–ƒ–
˜ƒ”‹‡–‹‡• ‹ ƒ —…Š Ž‡••‡” –‹‡ •…ƒŽ‡Ǥ Š‹• ‹•
ƒŽ•‘ –”—‡ ˆ‘” ‹…”‘„‡• ƒ‰ƒ‹•– ™Š‹…Š ™‡
‡’Ž‘› ƒ–‹„‹‘–‹…• ‘” †”—‰• ƒ‰ƒ‹•– ‡—ƒ”›‘–‹…
‘”‰ƒ‹••Ȁ…‡ŽŽǤ
‡…‡ǡ ”‡•‹•–ƒ– ‘”‰ƒ‹••Ȁ…‡ŽŽ• ƒ”‡
—‰‘†‡”‹‡•
ƒ’’‡ƒ”‹‰ ‹ ƒ –‹‡ •…ƒŽ‡ ‘ˆ ‘–Š• ‘” ›‡ƒ”• ƒ”™‹‡‹–Š‡”‹‰‘”‡†‘”‡’–•‹Ž‡…‡
ƒ† ‘– …‡–—”‹‡•Ǥ Š‡•‡ ƒ”‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• ‘ˆ ƒ„‘—– –Š‡ ˆƒ…–‘”• ‡†‡Ž –ƒŽ‡† ƒ„‘—–Ǥ  –Š‡
‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ „› ƒ–Š”‘’‘‰‡‹… ƒ…–‹‘Ǥ Š‹• ƒŽ•‘ ˆ‹”•– †‡…ƒ†‡ ‘ˆ –™‡–‹‡–Š …‡–—”›ǡ —‰‘
–‡ŽŽ•—•–Šƒ–‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘‹•‘–ƒ†‹”‡…–‡†’”‘…‡•• †‡”‹‡• „ƒ•‡† ‘ Š‹• ™‘” ‘ ‡˜‡‹‰
‹ –Š‡ •‡•‡ ‘ˆ †‡–‡”‹‹•Ǥ – ‹• ƒ •–‘…Šƒ•–‹…
’”‘…‡••„ƒ•‡†‘…Šƒ…‡‡˜‡–•‹ƒ–—”‡ƒ†
…Šƒ…‡—–ƒ–‹‘‹–Š‡‘”‰ƒ‹••
• Branching descent and natural selection are
the two key concepts of Darwinian Theory
of Evolution
7\SHVRI1DWXUDOVHOHFWLRQ
a)Stabilsing selection/Normalizing selection
 ‡”‡  ‘”‡ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ• ƒ…“—‹”‡ ‡ƒ
…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡” ˜ƒŽ—‡Ǥ Š‹• ‘……—”• ™Š‡ –Š‡
‡˜‹”‘‡– †‘‡•‘– …Šƒ‰‡Ǥ ‘••‹Ž ‡˜‹†‡…‡
•Š‘™• –Šƒ– ǡ ƒ› •’‡…‹‡• ”‡ƒ‹ —…Šƒ‰‡†
ˆ‘” Ž‘‰ ’‡”‹‘† ‘ˆ ‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ –‹‡Ǥ ‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡
’”‹”‘•‡„”‘—‰Š–ˆ‘”–Š–Š‡‹†‡ƒ‘ˆ—–ƒ–‹‘•Ȃ
Žƒ”‰‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ ƒ”‹•‹‰ •—††‡Ž› ‹ ƒ
’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘Ǥ
 ‡ „‡Ž‹‡˜‡† –Šƒ– ‹– ‹• —–ƒ–‹‘ ™Š‹…Š
…ƒ—•‡• ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ ƒ† ‘– –Š‡ ‹‘” ˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘•
ȋŠ‡”‹–ƒ„Ž‡Ȍ–Šƒ–ƒ”™‹–ƒŽ‡†ƒ„‘—–Ǥ—–ƒ–‹‘•
ƒ”‡ ”ƒ†‘ ƒ† †‹”‡…–‹‘Ž‡•• ™Š‹Ž‡ ƒ”™‹‹ƒ
˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ •ƒŽŽ ƒ† †‹”‡…–‹‘ƒŽǤ ˜‘Ž—–‹‘
ˆ‘”ƒ”™‹™ƒ•‰”ƒ†—ƒŽ™Š‹Ž‡†‡”‹‡•„‡Ž‹‡˜‡†
—–ƒ–‹‘…ƒ—•‡†•’‡…‹ƒ–‹‘ƒ†Š‡…‡…ƒŽŽ‡†‹–
•ƒŽ–ƒ–‹‘ ȋ•‹‰Ž‡ •–‡’ Žƒ”‰‡ —–ƒ–‹‘ȌǤ
–—†‹‡• ‹ ’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘ ‰‡‡–‹…•ǡ Žƒ–‡”ǡ „”‘—‰Š–
‘—–•‘‡…Žƒ”‹–›‘–Š‹•Ǥ
‘•– •–ƒ„Ž‡ ‡˜‹”‘‡– ‘ ‡ƒ”–Š ‹• –Š‡ †‡‡’ Ǧ

•‡ƒǤ
‰ǣ‹”–Š™‡‹‰Š–‘ˆŠ—ƒǤŠ‡Š‡ƒ˜‹‡•–ƒ† 
Ž‹‰Š–‡•–„ƒ„‹‡•Šƒ˜‡–Š‡Š‹‰Š‡•–‘”–ƒŽ‹–› Proposed by G.H Hardy and Wilhelm
b)Directional selection Weinerg. This principle says that allele
Here more individuals acquire value other frequencies in a population are stable and is
than the mean character constant from generation to generation. The gene
Eg:Industrial melansim pool (total genes and their alleles in a
c)Disruptive selection population) remains a constant. This is called
Here more individuals acquire peripheral genetic equilibrium.
character value at both ends of the distribution Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.
curve
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  ŶĂǀĂƐϵϴϵϱΛŐŵĂŝů͘ĐŽŵ
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ
Disturbance in genetic equilibrium, or Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium, i.e., change of frequency
of alleles in a population would then be
interpreted as resulting in evolution
Five factors are known to affect Hardy
Weinberg equilibrium. These are
i) Gene migration or gene flow,
ii) Genetic drift,
iii) Mutation,
iv) Genetic recombination and
v) Natural selection.
9 When migration of a section of population
to another place and population occurs,
gene frequencies change in the original as
well as in the new population. New
genes/alleles are added to the new
population and these are lost from the old
population. There would be a gene flow if
this gene migration, happens multiple
times.
ƒ™Ž‡••ˆ‹•Š’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‡˜‘Ž˜‡† ƒ”‘—† ͵ͷͲ
9 Change in gene frequency occurs by
chance, it is called genetic drift.
 
population becomes founders and the effect is
called founder effect.
A brief account of evolution
9 About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first
…‡ŽŽ—Žƒ”ˆ‘”•‘ˆŽ‹ˆ‡ƒ’’‡ƒ”‡†‘‡ƒ”–Š
9 ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‡…‡ŽŽ•Šƒ†–Š‡ƒ„‹Ž‹–›–‘”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡
ʹǤ
9 Š‡ ”‡ƒ…–‹‘ ’‡”‹‘†• …‘—Ž† Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡
•‹‹Žƒ” –‘ –Š‡ Ž‹‰Š– ”‡ƒ…–‹‘ ‹
’Š‘–‘•›–Š‡•‹• ™Š‡”‡ ™ƒ–‡” ‹• •’Ž‹– ™‹–Š
–Š‡ Š‡Ž’ ‘ˆ •‘Žƒ” ‡‡”‰› …ƒ’–—”‡† ƒ†
…Šƒ‡Ž‹•‡†„›ƒ’’”‘’”‹ƒ–‡Ž‹‰Š–Šƒ”˜‡•–‹‰
’‹‰‡–•Ǥ
9 Ž‘™Ž› •‹‰Ž‡Ǧ…‡ŽŽ‡† ‘”‰ƒ‹•• „‡…ƒ‡
—Ž–‹Ǧ…‡ŽŽ—Žƒ”Ž‹ˆ‡ˆ‘”•Ǥ
9 › –Š‡ –‹‡ ‘ˆ ͷͲͲ ›ƒǡ ‹˜‡”–‡„”ƒ–‡•
™‡”‡ˆ‘”‡†ƒ†ƒ…–‹˜‡Ǥ
9
›ƒǤ
9 ‡ƒ ™‡‡†• ƒ† ˆ‡™ ’Žƒ–• ‡š‹•–‡†
’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ƒ”‘—†͵ʹͲ›ƒǤ
9 –Š‡ ˆ‹”•– ‘”‰ƒ‹•• –Šƒ– ‹˜ƒ†‡† Žƒ† ™‡”‡
’Žƒ–•Ǥ Š‡› ™‡”‡ ™‹†‡•’”‡ƒ† ‘ Žƒ†
™Š‡ƒ‹ƒŽ•‹˜ƒ†‡†Žƒ†Ǥ
9 ‹•Š ™‹–Š •–‘—– ƒ† •–”‘‰ ˆ‹• …‘—Ž† ‘˜‡
‘ Žƒ† ƒ† ‰‘ „ƒ… –‘ ™ƒ–‡”Ǥ Š‹• ™ƒ•
9 Š‡ƒ’Š‹„‹ƒ•‡˜‘Ž˜‡†‹–‘”‡’–‹Ž‡•ǤŠ‡›
9 The founder effect is change in allele
ƒ„‘—– ͵ͷͲ ›ƒǤ  ͳͻ͵ͺǡ ƒ ˆ‹•Š …ƒ—‰Š– ‹
‘—–Š ˆ”‹…ƒ Šƒ’’‡‡† –‘ „‡ ƒ ‘‡Žƒ…ƒ–Š
™Š‹…Š ™ƒ• –Š‘—‰Š– –‘ „‡ ‡š–‹…–Ǥ Š‡•‡
ƒ‹ƒŽ• …ƒŽŽ‡† Ž‘„‡ˆ‹• ‡˜‘Ž˜‡† ‹–‘ –Š‡
ˆ‹”•–ƒ’Š‹„‹ƒ•–Šƒ–Ž‹˜‡†‘„‘–ŠŽƒ†ƒ†
™ƒ–‡”Ǥ  Š‡•‡ ™‡”‡ ƒ…‡•–‘”• ‘ˆ ‘†‡”
†ƒ›ˆ”‘‰•ƒ†•ƒŽƒƒ†‡”•Ǥ
Žƒ› –Š‹…•Š‡ŽŽ‡† ‡‰‰• ™Š‹…Š †‘ ‘– †”›
—’‹•——Ž‹‡–Š‘•‡‘ˆƒ’Š‹„‹ƒ•Ǥ
frequency that occurs when a new population 9  –Š‡ ‡š– ʹͲͲ ‹ŽŽ‹‘• ›‡ƒ”• ‘” •‘ǡ
is established by a very small number of ”‡’–‹Ž‡• ‘ˆ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– •Šƒ’‡• ƒ† •‹œ‡•
individuals from a larger population. Here the †‘‹ƒ–‡† ‘ ‡ƒ”–ŠǤ
‹ƒ– ˆ‡”•
change in allele frequency is so different in the ȋ’–‡”‹†‘’Š›–‡•Ȍ ™‡”‡ ’”‡•‡– „—– –Š‡› ƒŽŽ
new sample of population that they become a ˆ‡ŽŽ–‘ˆ‘”…‘ƒŽ†‡’‘•‹–••Ž‘™Ž›Ǥ
different species. The original drifted
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  ŶĂǀĂƐϵϴϵϱΛŐŵĂŝů͘ĐŽŵ
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  
9 ‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡•‡ Žƒ† ”‡’–‹Ž‡• ™‡– „ƒ… ‹–‘ 9 ™‘ ›ƒǡ —•–”ƒŽ‘’‹–Š‡…‹‡• ’”‘„ƒ„Ž›
™ƒ–‡” –‘ ‡˜‘Ž˜‡ ‹–‘ ˆ‹•Š Ž‹‡ ”‡’–‹Ž‡• Ž‹˜‡† ‹ ƒ•– ˆ”‹…ƒ ‰”ƒ••Žƒ†•Ǥ ˜‹†‡…‡
’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ʹͲͲ›ƒȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥ…Š–Š›‘•ƒ—”•ȌǤ
9 Š‡ Žƒ† ”‡’–‹Ž‡• ™‡”‡ǡ ‘ˆ …‘—”•‡ǡ –Š‡
†‹‘•ƒ—”•Ǥ Š‡ „‹‰‰‡•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ǡ ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ
›”ƒ‘•ƒ—”—• ”‡š ™ƒ• ƒ„‘—– ʹͲ ˆ‡‡– ‹
Š‡‹‰Š– ƒ† Šƒ† Š—‰‡ ˆ‡ƒ”•‘‡ †ƒ‰‰‡”
Ž‹‡–‡‡–ŠǤ
9 „‘—– ͸ͷ ›ƒǡ –Š‡ †‹‘•ƒ—”• •—††‡Ž›
†‹•ƒ’’‡ƒ”‡† ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ‡ƒ”–ŠǤ ‡ †‘ ‘–
‘™ –Š‡ –”—‡ ”‡ƒ•‘Ǥ ‘‡ •ƒ› …Ž‹ƒ–‹…
ƒ˜ƒ‹ͳͺͻͳ”‡˜‡ƒŽ‡†
…Šƒ‰‡• ‹ŽŽ‡† –Š‡Ǥ ‘‡ •ƒ› ‘•– ‘ˆ
–Š‡ ‡˜‘Ž˜‡† ‹–‘ „‹”†•Ǥ ƒŽŽ •‹œ‡†
”‡’–‹Ž‡•‘ˆ–Šƒ–‡”ƒ•–‹ŽŽ‡š‹•––‘†ƒ›Ǥ
9 Š‡ˆ‹”•–ƒƒŽ•™‡”‡Ž‹‡•Š”‡™•ǤŠ‡‹”
ˆ‘••‹Ž• ƒ”‡ •ƒŽŽ •‹œ‡†Ǥ ƒƒŽ• ™‡”‡
˜‹˜‹’ƒ”‘—• ƒ† ’”‘–‡…–‡† –Š‡‹” —„‘”
›‘—‰ ‹•‹†‡ –Š‡ ‘–Š‡”ǯ• „‘†›Ǥ ƒƒŽ•
™‡”‡ ‘”‡ ‹–‡ŽŽ‹‰‡– ‹ •‡•‹‰ ƒ†
ƒ˜‘‹†‹‰†ƒ‰‡”ƒ–Ž‡ƒ•–Ǥ
9 Š‡ ”‡’–‹Ž‡• …ƒ‡ †‘™ ƒƒŽ•
–‘‘‘˜‡”–Š‹•‡ƒ”–ŠǤ
9 Š‡”‡ ™‡”‡ ‹ ‘—–Š ‡”‹…ƒ ƒƒŽ•
”‡•‡„Ž‹‰ Š‘”•‡ǡ Š‹’’‘’‘–ƒ—•ǡ „‡ƒ”ǡ
”ƒ„„‹–ǡ ‡–…Ǥ —‡ –‘ …‘–‹‡–ƒŽ †”‹ˆ–ǡ ™Š‡
‘—–Š‡”‹…ƒŒ‘‹‡†‘”–Š‡”‹…ƒǡ–Š‡•‡
ƒ‹ƒŽ• ™‡”‡ ‘˜‡””‹††‡ „› ‘”–Š
‡”‹…ƒ ˆƒ—ƒǤ —‡ –‘ –Š‡ •ƒ‡
…‘–‹‡–ƒŽ †”‹ˆ– ’‘—…Š‡† ƒƒŽ• ‘ˆ
—•–”ƒŽ‹ƒ •—”˜‹˜‡† „‡…ƒ—•‡ ‘ˆ Žƒ… ‘ˆ
…‘’‡–‹–‹‘ˆ”‘ƒ›‘–Š‡”ƒƒŽǤ
9 •‘‡ ƒƒŽ• Ž‹˜‡ ™Š‘ŽŽ› ‹ ™ƒ–‡”Ǥ
ŠƒŽ‡•ǡ†‘Ž’Š‹•ǡ•‡ƒŽ•ƒ†•‡ƒ…‘™•ƒ”‡
•‘‡‡šƒ’Ž‡•Ǥ
9 Š‡ ‘•– •—……‡••ˆ—Ž •–‘”› ‹• –Š‡ ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘
‘ˆ ƒ ™‹–Š Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ •‹ŽŽ• ƒ† •‡ŽˆǦ
…‘•…‹‘—•‡••Ǥ
•Š‘™• –Š‡› Š—–‡† ™‹–Š •–‘‡ ™‡ƒ’‘•
„—–‡••‡–‹ƒŽŽ›ƒ–‡ˆ”—‹–Ǥ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡„‘‡•
ƒ‘‰–Š‡„‘‡•†‹•…‘˜‡”‡† ™‡”‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–Ǥ
Š‹•…”‡ƒ–—”‡™ƒ•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡ˆ‹”•–Š—ƒǦŽ‹‡
„‡‹‰ –Š‡ Š‘‹‹† ƒ† ™ƒ• …ƒŽŽ‡† ‘‘
Šƒ„‹Ž‹•Ǥ Š‡ „”ƒ‹ …ƒ’ƒ…‹–‹‡• ™‡”‡ „‡–™‡‡
͸ͷͲǦͺͲͲ……Ǥ Š‡› ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› †‹† ‘– ‡ƒ–
‡ƒ–Ǥ
9 ‘••‹Ž•†‹•…‘˜‡”‡†‹
–Š‡ ‡š– •–ƒ‰‡ǡ ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ ‘‘  ‡”‡…–—•ƒ„‘—– ͳǤͷ
›ƒǤ‘‘‡”‡…–—•Šƒ†ƒŽƒ”‰‡„”ƒ‹ƒ”‘—†
ͻͲͲ……Ǥ‘‘‡”‡…–—•’”‘„ƒ„Ž›ƒ–‡‡ƒ–Ǥ
9 Š‡ ‡ƒ†‡”–ŠƒŽ ƒ ™‹–Š ƒ „”ƒ‹ •‹œ‡ ‘ˆ
ͳͶͲͲ…… Ž‹˜‡† ‹ ‡ƒ” ‡ƒ•– ƒ† …‡–”ƒŽ •‹ƒ
„‡–™‡‡ ͳǡͲͲǡͲͲͲǦ ͶͲǡͲͲͲ ›‡ƒ”• „ƒ…Ǥ Š‡›
—•‡† Š‹†‡• –‘ ’”‘–‡…– –Š‡‹” „‘†› ƒ†
„—”‹‡†–Š‡‹”†‡ƒ†Ǥ
9 ‘‘ •ƒ’‹‡• ƒ”‘•‡ ‹ ˆ”‹…ƒ ƒ† ‘˜‡†
ƒ…”‘•• …‘–‹‡–• ƒ† †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡† ‹–‘
†‹•–‹…–”ƒ…‡•Ǥ
9 —”‹‰ ‹…‡ ƒ‰‡ „‡–™‡‡ ͹ͷǡͲͲͲǦͳͲǡͲͲͲ
›‡ƒ”•ƒ‰‘‘†‡”‘‘•ƒ’‹‡•ƒ”‘•‡Ǥ
9 ”‡ǦŠ‹•–‘”‹… …ƒ˜‡ ƒ”– †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡† ƒ„‘—–
ͳͺǡͲͲͲ ›‡ƒ”• ƒ‰‘Ǥ ‰”‹…—Ž–—”‡ …ƒ‡ ƒ”‘—†
ͳͲǡͲͲͲ ›‡ƒ”• „ƒ… ƒ† Š—ƒ •‡––Ž‡‡–•
•–ƒ”–‡†Ǥ

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

9 „‘—– ͳͷ ›ƒǡ ’”‹ƒ–‡• …ƒŽŽ‡†
”›‘’‹–Š‡…—• ƒ† ƒƒ’‹–Š‡…—• ™‡”‡
‡š‹•–‹‰Ǥ Š‡› ™‡”‡ Šƒ‹”› ƒ† ™ƒŽ‡† Ž‹‡
‰‘”‹ŽŽƒ•ƒ†…Š‹’ƒœ‡‡•Ǥƒƒ’‹–Š‡…—•™ƒ•
‘”‡ƒǦŽ‹‡™Š‹Ž‡”›‘’‹–Š‡…—•™ƒ•‘”‡
ƒ’‡ǦŽ‹‡Ǥ
9 ‡™ ˆ‘••‹Ž• ‘ˆ ƒǦŽ‹‡ „‘‡• Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡
†‹•…‘˜‡”‡† ‹ –Š‹‘’‹ƒ ƒ† ƒœƒ‹ƒ Ǥ
Š‡•‡ ”‡˜‡ƒŽ‡† Š‘‹‹† ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• Ž‡ƒ†‹‰ –‘
–Š‡ „‡Ž‹‡ˆ –Šƒ– ƒ„‘—– ͵ǦͶ ›ƒǡ ƒǦŽ‹‡
’”‹ƒ–‡• ™ƒŽ‡† ‹ ‡ƒ•–‡” ˆ”‹…ƒǤ Š‡›
™‡”‡ ’”‘„ƒ„Ž› ‘– –ƒŽŽ‡” –Šƒ Ͷ ˆ‡‡– „—–
™ƒŽ‡†—’”‹‰Š–Ǥ
EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  ŶĂǀĂƐϵϴϵϱΛŐŵĂŝů͘ĐŽŵ
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EĂǀĂƐĐŚĞĞŵĂĚĂŶ  ŶĂǀĂƐϵϴϵϱΛŐŵĂŝů͘ĐŽŵ