Z-7232

Pathogen/ Parasite Transmitted

by Arthropods as Vector or Host

IQRA ZAFAR
657-MPHIL-17
Z-7232
“Pathogen/Parasite Transmitted
by Arthropods as Vector or Host”

Submitted to
Prof. Dr. Nusrat Jahan
Dept. of Zoology

Submitted by
Iqra Zafar
657-MPhil-2017
Semester 2

Course code
Z-7232

Course title
Medical Entomology

Date of Submission
9 April, 2018.

Department of Zoology,
Government College University, Lahore
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
VECTORS INVOLVED IN VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE EPIDEMICS .................................... 1
ARTHROPODS & DISEASE-CAUSING AGENTS .................................................................... 4
GROUPS OF DISEASE AGENTS (PATHOGEN/PARASITE) TRANSMITTED BY
ARTHROPODS .............................................................................................................................. 4
PATHOGENS ............................................................................................................................. 5
Arbo-bacteria ........................................................................................................................... 5
Examples of Bacterial Arthropods diseases ......................................................................... 5
Plague: .............................................................................................................................. 5
Tularemia: ........................................................................................................................ 6
ARBOVIRUSES ..................................................................................................................... 6
Examples of Arboviral diseases ........................................................................................... 7
1- Yellow Fever:............................................................................................................... 7
2- West Nile Virus: .......................................................................................................... 7
3- Zika Virus: ................................................................................................................... 8
3- Dengue Virus: .............................................................................................................. 8
4- Japanese Encephalitis: ................................................................................................. 9
5- Eastern Equine Encephalitis: ....................................................................................... 9
6- Western Equine Encephalitis: ...................................................................................... 9
RICKETSIA .......................................................................................................................... 10
1-Spotted fever biogroup ................................................................................................... 10
2-Typhus: ........................................................................................................................... 11
3- Scrub Typhus group: ..................................................................................................... 11
PARASITES.............................................................................................................................. 12
PROTOZA ............................................................................................................................. 12
1-Malaria: ........................................................................................................................... 12
2- Leishmaniasis: ............................................................................................................... 13
3- Trypanosomiasis: ........................................................................................................... 13
HELMINTHS ........................................................................................................................ 14
 1-Filariasis: ........................................................................................................................ 15
CONCLUSION: ............................................................................................................................ 16
REFERNCES ................................................................................................................................ 17
 ARTHROPODS AND VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES

INTRODUCTION
Arthropods are the member of largest phylum of Animal Kingdom comprising of 84%
of all known species of animals and inhabiting a wide range of habitats. Arthropods are
characterized by the presence of a jointed skeletal covering composed of chitin, segmented
body, joint appendages. Many a rthropods play vital role in transmission and spread of certain
diseases. According to World Health Organization, The major vector-borne diseases account
for more than 17% of all infectious diseases resulting into more than 700 000 deaths annually.
One in every six persons has an arthropod-borne illness at any given time. The burden of these
diseases is highest in tropical and subtropical areas and affects the poorest populations.
Mosquitoes, fleas, ticks, lice, and flies are the arthropods that usually act as vectors for
various pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms), including bacteria, viruses, helminths
(parasitic worms), and protozoa. Transmission of these pathogens to humans by the arthropod
vector can cause a variety of human diseases, including malaria, yellow fever, Chagas disease,
and dengue fever. These and other arthropod-borne diseases can result in a wide range of
effects, from mild flulike symptoms to death.
Distribution of vector-borne diseases is determined by complex demographic,
environmental and social factors. Global travel and trade, unplanned urbanization, changes in
agricultural practices, the growth of urban slums, lacking reliable piped water or adequate solid
waste management, can render people at risk of viral diseases spread by insects. Together, such
factors influence the reach of vector populations and the transmission patterns of disease-
causing pathogens.

VECTORS INVOLVED IN VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE EPIDEMICS

Vectors are the transmitters of disease-causing organism as they carry disease causing
pathogens/ parasite from one host to another. Vectors of human disease are typically species of
mosquitoes, flies and ticks that are able to transmit viruses, bacteria, or parasites to humans and
other warm-blooded hosts. Important insect vectors include;

1- Mosquitoes: Mosquitoes are a large arthropod group with 3,100 species occurring in the
world. Only about a hundred of them are vectors of human disease. Mosquitoes can be divided
into two subfamily groups;
The anopheline subfamily including the most important mosquito genus Anopheles
which is responsible for transmitting malaria.

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 The culicine subfamily where the important genera Aedes, Culex, and Mansonia
belong. Several diseases are transmitted by them such as yellow fever, dengue
encephalitis and filariasis.

2- Non-biting flies: Domestic flies, including the housefly are probably the most widespread
insects in the world and certainly the one most closely associated with man. Like mosquitoes
they belong to the order Diptera. All of these species, Musca domestica (Housefly), Musca
sorbens (Facefly), and Chrysomya spp. are considered to be of medical importance because
they transmit diseases by transporting pathogens between people or from faeces to food causing
diarrhoeal diseases and trachoma

3- Lice: Three species/subspecies of human louse occur in the world. They are all, male and
female, blood-sucking ectoparasites. Three stages constitute their life cycle; egg, nymph, and
adult. Only the body louse is a vector of disease (typhus). Lice are spread by close contact
between humans.

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.4- Mites: Mites belong to the order Acarina (Class Arachnida). There are over a thousand
species which are parasitic on mammals, birds, and some species on humans. Two species of
human mite are of medical importance; the biting mites called "chiggers" (Trombiculid mites),
and scabies mites (Sarcoptes scabeie). Transmission of scabies mites between humans occurs
by direct contact.

5 Fleas: The fleas, both male and female are blood-feeding and belong to the order
Siphonaptera. Around 3,000 species occur worldwide, but only a dozen species take a blood-
meal on humans. Rat fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis) and human fleas (Pulex irritans) are the most
important from a medical viewpoint.

6- Ticks: Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) transmit a wide variety of pathogens to vertebrates including
viruses, bacteria, protozoa and helminthes. Tick-borne pathogens are believed to be
responsible for more than 100,000 cases of illness in humans throughout the world. Ticks are
considered to be second worldwide to mosquitoes as vectors of human diseases, but they are
the most important vectors of disease-causing pathogens in domestic and wild animals.
Other vectors may involve bugs, Tsetse fly, sandflies etc. which act as the potential the potential
vectors for humans and animals.

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 ARTHROPODS & DISEASE-CAUSING AGENTS

Vector-borne diseases (VBD) are responsible for inordinate mortality, morbidity and
economic loss worldwide. According to epidemiological triad model, vector-borne disease
spread requires the interaction among a susceptible host and an infective agent and a vector
which co-exist in an environment that brings them together. Disease-causing agents are
delivered to body through various carriers, and they can get inside in all sorts of ways. The
relationship between pathogens and their vectors can range from highly specific associations,
in which the pathogen depends on a single species of vector for transmission, to more general
associations, in which the pathogen can be transmitted by a wide range of vector taxa.

The relationship between a vector and a pathogen has three components.

Uptake of the pathogen by the vector dependent on the ability of the vector to actually
acquire the pathogen i.e. structure of mouthparts and active vector even when the pathogen/
parasite is present in reservoir animal.

Development of the pathogen within the vector i.e. after the pathogen is picked up by the
vector it must move to suitable site within the vector where it must develop into a form can
be transmitted to a susceptible host.

Output, transmission of the pathogen by the vector to infect a host.

GROUPS OF DISEASE AGENTS (PATHOGEN/PARASITE)

TRANSMITTED BY ARTHROPODS

There are many insects that are the primary or intermediate hosts or carriers of human diseases.
Pathogens/ parasites that are capable of being transmitted by insects include

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 Bacteria (pathogen)
Viruses (pathogen)
Rickettsia (pathogen)
Protozoa (parasite)
Helminthes (parasite)

PATHOGENS
1- Arbo-bacteria

Arthropod-borne bacterial diseases affect more than 25,000 Americans every year and thousands
more around the world. In practice, these diseases are often difficult to distinguish because of the
lack of specific signs or symptoms – one disease can mimic or coexist with another. They can
cause further severe complications when they are not easily recognized. Diseases caused by these
bacteria are basically zoonoses, i.e. diseases transmittable from animals to humans, and have been
known as such for about 100 years. A part of the individual pathogens have not been described
until the past few decades.

Bacterial arthropod diseases are numerous and unevenly distributed within countries, depending
on the presence of specific arthropod vectors. Among the most important Lyme disease, different
spotted fevers, tick borne and louse-borne relapsing fevers, human anaplasmoses and ehrlichioses
are important.

Examples of Bacterial Arthropods diseases

Plague: Plague is an infectious disease caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, zoonotic bacteria,
usually found in small mammals and their fleas. It is transmitted between animals through fleas.
Humans can be infected through: the bite of infected vector fleas, unprotected contact with
infectious bodily fluids or contaminated materials or the inhalation of respiratory droplets/small
particles from a patient with pneumonic plague. The risk of plague is highest in areas that have
poor sanitation, overcrowding, and a large population of rodents. Plague occurs in three clinical
forms.

Bubonic plague: The most common form of plague is bubonic plague, usually occur when
an infected rodent or flea bites you characterized by buboes formation in lymphatic nodes.
Septicemic plague: It occurs when the bacteria enter the bloodstream directly and multiply
there, it’s known as septicemic plague.
Pneumonic plague: When the bacteria spread to or first infect the lungs, it’s known as
pneumonic plague — the most lethal form of the disease and can be transmitted from
person to person.

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Plague is characterized by fever and chills, headache, muscle pain, general weakness, seizures,
buboes, abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, shock, skin turning black or trouble
breathing, chest pain, cough and bloody sputum in extreme conditions.

Tularemia: Tularemia is a disease of animals and humans caused by the bacterium Francisella
tularensis. Rabbits, hares, and rodents are especially susceptible and often die in large numbers
during outbreaks. Humans can become infected through several routes, including tick and deer fly
bites, skin contact with infected animals and ingestion of contaminated water etc. Clinical
manifestations include some combination of fever, chills, anorexia, and malaise. Patients also may
complain of headache, fatigue, soreness in the chest or muscles, abdominal pain, or diarrhea.

2- ARBOVIRUSES

Arbovirus is a term used to describe a group of viral infections transmitted to humans from a group
of insects known as arthropods. There are many strains of arbovirus. The viruses range in severity
from no symptoms to mild flu-like symptoms to very severe symptoms. Insects that can infect
humans with arboviruses include fleas, ticks, gnats, and mosquitoes. There are over 130 different
arboviruses that affect humans.

There are many types of arboviruses. The different types of arbovirus are broken down into
specific genera. The three main genera for arboviruses that cause infections in humans are as
follows:

Flavivirus (yellow fever, west nile virus, zika virus, dengue virus, Japanese encephalitis
virus)
Togavirus (Eastern equine virus, western equine virus, ross river virus)
Bunyavirus (other uncommon viruses)
Transmission: The arboviruses spread mainly through insect bites. The most common insect that
spreads arboviruses is the mosquito. However, other arthropods such as ticks, fleas, and gnats can
also spread these diseases if they bite a human. While insect bites are the most common way
arboviruses are transmitted, the viruses can also spread through:

blood transfusion

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 organ transplant
sexual contact
pregnancy and childbirth from mother to child
Human to human transmission of most arboviruses through casual, everyday contact has not been
documented.

Examples of Arboviral diseases

1- Yellow Fever: Yellow fever is a viral haemorrhagic fever caused by a Flavivirus: the yellow fever
virus. It is transmitted by the bite of a mosquito of the Aedes genus. The natural host of the virus is a
particular species of monkey living in forest regions. The virus can be transmitted, accidentally, to
human communities. It affects the tropical and subtropical regions of South America and Africa.
The disease is absent from Asia, the Pacific and the Indian Ocean. The disease typically begins
with a highly feverish state with headaches and lower back pain. It then progresses, in the typical
forms, in 2 stages.

A red stage with fever, congested appearance to the face, headaches. There is a remission
in the 3rd-4th day
A yellow stage with recurrence of the fever, deterioration of the general condition,
jaundice, black vomit (vomitus containing blood), haemorrhaging, reduction in urine
volume. The progression can be fatal. There are many milder or subclinical forms.

2- West Nile Virus: It is an infection caused by a Flavivirus: the West Nile virus. The vector is a
mosquito of the Culex genus. The reservoir of the virus consists of birds. The disease initially
affected Africa, part of central and southern Europe, the Middle East, and India. A gradual
expansion is being observed with a spread across the American continent from East to West, and
to Eastern Europe and Russia.
No symptoms in most people About 1 in 5 people who are infected develop a fever with other
symptoms such as headache, body aches, joint pains, vomiting, diarrhea, or rash. Symptoms of
severe illness include high fever, headache, neck stiffness, stupor, disorientation, coma, tremors,
convulsions, muscle weakness, vision loss, numbness and paralysis.

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3- Zika Virus: Zika virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that was first identified in Uganda in
1947. Zika virus is primarily transmitted to people through the bite of an infected mosquito from
the Aedes genus, mainly Aedes aegypti in tropical regions. Aedes mosquitoes usually bite during
the day, peaking during early morning and late afternoon/evening along with sexual transmission.
People with Zika virus disease can have symptoms including mild fever, skin rash, conjunctivitis,
muscle and joint pain, malaise or headache. These symptoms normally last for 2-7 days. There is
scientific consensus that Zika virus is a cause of microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome
(paralysis) along with subsequent birth defects in pregnant women.

3- Dengue Virus: Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral disease that has rapidly spread. Dengue virus
is transmitted by female mosquitoes mainly of the species Aedes aegypti and, to a lesser extent, Ae.
albopictus. Dengue is widespread throughout the tropics, with local variations in risk influenced
by rainfall, temperature and unplanned rapid urbanization. There are 4 distinct, but closely related,
serotypes of the virus that cause dengue (DEN-1 to DEN-4).
Symptoms may include sudden, high fever, severe headaches, pain behind the eyes, severe joint
and muscle pain, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, skin rash, which appears two to five days after the onset
of fever, mild bleeding. Serious problems include dengue hemorrhagic fever, a rare complication
characterized by high fever, damage to lymph and blood vessels, bleeding from the nose and gums,
enlargement of the liver, and failure of the circulatory system. The symptoms may progress to massive
bleeding, shock, and death. This is called dengue shock syndrome (DSS).

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4- Japanese Encephalitis: Japanese encephalitis virus JEV is the most important cause of viral
encephalitis in Asia. It is a mosquito-borne flavivirus first reported in 1871 in Japan. Most JEV
infections are mild (fever and headache) or without apparent symptoms, but approximately 1
in 250 infections results in severe clinical illness. Severe disease is characterized by rapid onset
of high fever, headache, neck stiffness, disorientation, coma, seizures, spastic paralysis and
ultimately death. JEV is transmitted to humans through bites from infected mosquitoes of
the Culexspecies (mainly Culex tritaeniorhynchus). Humans, once infected, do not develop
sufficient viraemia to infect feeding mosquitoes.

5- Eastern Equine Encephalitis: Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is transmitted to

humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) is a rare illness
in humans, and only a few cases are reported in the United States each year. Most cases occur
in the Atlantic and Gulf Coast states. Most persons infected with EEEV have no apparent
illness. Severe cases of EEE (involving encephalitis, an inflammation of the brain) begin with
the sudden onset of headache, high fever, chills, and vomiting. The illness may then progress
into disorientation, seizures, or coma. EEE is one of the most severe mosquito-transmitted
diseases in the United States with approximately 33% mortality and significant brain damage
in most survivors.

6- Western Equine Encephalitis: Western equine encephalitis (WEE) is an illness transmitted to

people and horses through the bite of a mosquito infected with WEE virus. WEE is normally
maintained between Culex tarsalis mosquitoes and birds. Most people infected with WEE virus
will have no symptoms or a very mild illness. A small percentage of people, especially infants and
possibly elderly people may develop encephalitis (inflammation of the brain).

Symptoms: Most of the severe human cases begin with a sudden onset of fever, headache, stiff
neck, vomiting, and lethargy. Within two to four days, the illness may progress to disorientation,
irritability, seizures and coma. There is no treatment for WEE other than supportive care until the
acute phase of the illness is over. Horses and humans are often referred to as "dead-end" hosts for
WEE, because the virus does not build to high enough levels in our blood to infect other
mosquitoes that bite us.

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 3- RICKETSIA

Rickettsiae comprise a group of microorganisms that phylogenetically occupy a position between

bacteria and viruses. The genus Rickettsia is included in the bacterial tribe Rickettsiae, family
Rickettsiaceae, and order Rickettsiales. They are obligate intracellular gram-negative
coccobacillary forms that multiply within eukaryotic cells. Rickettsiae do not stain well with Gram
stain, but they take on a characteristic red color when stained by the Giemsa or Gimenez stain.
They lack flagella. Their genome is very small, composed of 1-1.5 million bases.

Rickettsial diseases, important causes of illness and death worldwide, exist primarily in endemic
and enzootic foci that occasionally give rise to sporadic or seasonal outbreaks. Rickettsial
pathogens are highly specialized for obligate intracellular survival in both the vertebrate host and
the invertebrate vector. While studies often focus primarily on the vertebrate host, the arthropod
vector is often more important in the natural maintenance of the pathogen. Consequently,
coevolution of rickettsiae with arthropods is responsible for many features of the host-pathogen
relationship that are unique among arthropod-borne diseases, including efficient pathogen
replication, long-term maintenance of infection, and transstadial and transovarial transmission.

Rickettsial illnesses, caused by organisms within the genus of rickettsiae, are recognized and can
be divided into the following 3 biogroups
Spotted fever biogroup
Typhus group
Scrub typhus biogroup (Tsutsugamushi disease)
1-Spotted fever biogroup: Spotted fever group rickettsioses (spotted fevers) are a group of
diseases. These organisms are spread to people through the bite of infected mites and ticks. The
most serious and commonly reported spotted fever group rickettsiosis in the United States is Rocky
Mountain spotted fever (RMSF).

Other causes of spotted fever group rickettsioses (spotted fevers) in the United States include:

 Rickettsia parkeri rickettsiosis, caused by R. parkeri

 Pacific Coast tick fever, caused by Rickettsia philipii
 Rickettsialpox, caused by Rickettsia akari

Spotted fevers can range from mild to life-threatening. Most people who get sick with a spotted
fever other than RMSF will have an eschar (dark scab at the site of tick or mite bite), fever,
headache, and rash. Doxycycline is the treatment of choice for all spotted fever infections.

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2-Typhus: It is also known as typhus fever, is a group of infectious diseases that
include epidemic typhus, scrub typhus and murine typhus. Common symptoms include fever,
headache, and a rash.]Typically these begin one to two weeks after exposure. The diseases are
caused by specific types of bacterial infection. Epidemic typhus is due to Rickettsia
prowazekii spread by body lice, scrub typhus is due to Orientia tsutsugamushi spread by chiggers,
and murine typhus is due to Rickettsia typhi spread by fleas.

3- Scrub Typhus group: Scrub typhus is an acute, febrile, infectious illness that is caused by
Orientia (formerly Rickettsia) tsutsugamushi. It is also known as tsutsugamushi disease. Scrub
typhus was first described from Japan in 1899. Humans are accidental hosts in this zoonotic
disease. O. tsutsugamushi includes heterogeneous strains classified in five major serotypes:
Boryon, Gilliam, Karp, Kato and Kawazaki. Scrub typhus is transmitted to humans and rodents by
some species of trombiculid mites (“chiggers”, Leptotrombidium deliense and others). The illness
begins rather suddenly with shaking chills, fever, severe headache, infection of the mucous
membrane lining the eyes (the conjunctiva), and swelling of the lymph nodes. A spotted rash on
the trunk may be present.

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PARASITES
1- PROTOZA

Protozoa are one-celled animals found worldwide in most habitats. Most species are free living,
but all higher animals are infected with one or more species of protozoa. Infections range from
asymptomatic to life threatening, depending on the species and strain of the parasite and the
resistance of the host. When they invade a human they are able to multiply easily, which helps
them survive in the human body and causes a serious infection even with the arrival of a single
protozoan.

Protozoa that live in the blood or tissue of humans are transmitted to other humans by an arthropod
vector (for example, through the bite of a mosquito or sand fly). Some of the important protozoan
diseases of medical importance are as follows.

1-Malaria: Malaria is a life-threatening disease typically found in tropical and subtropical

climates. It’s typically transmitted through the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito. Infected
mosquitoes carry the Plasmodium parasite. When this mosquito bites you, the parasite is released
into your bloodstream. Once the parasites are inside body, they travel to the liver, where they
mature. After several days, the mature parasites enter the bloodstream and begin to infect red blood
cells. Within 48 to 72 hours, the parasites inside the red blood cells multiply, causing the infected
cells to burst open. The parasites continue to infect red blood cells, resulting in symptoms that
occur in cycles.

There are four kinds of malaria parasites that can infect humans: Plasmodium vivax, P. ovale, P.
malariae, and P. falciparum. P. falciparum causes a more severe form of the disease and those
who contract this form of malaria have a higher risk of death. An infected mother can also pass
the disease to her baby at birth. This is known as congenital malaria. Malaria is transmitted by
blood, so it can also be transmitted through an organ transplant, transfusion, use of shared needles
or syringes Common symptoms of malaria include: shaking chills that can range from moderate
to severe, high fever, profuse sweating, headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea,
anemia, muscle pain, convulsions etc.

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2- Leishmaniasis: Leishmaniasis is caused by a protozoa parasite from over
20 Leishmania species. Over 90 sandfly species (Lutzomia (old world), Phlebotmus (new
world)) are known to transmit Leishmania parasites. There are 3 main forms of the disease:
Visceral leishmaniasis: (VL), also known as kala-azar. It is fatal if left untreated in
over 95% of cases. It is characterized by irregular bouts of fever, weight loss,
enlargement of the spleen and liver, and anaemia. Most cases occur in Brazil, East
Africa and in South-East Asia.
Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is the most common form of leishmaniasis and causes
skin lesions, mainly ulcers, on exposed parts of the body, leaving life-long scars and
serious disability. About 95% of CL cases occur in the Americas, the Mediterranean
basin, the Middle East and Central Asia.
Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis leads to partial or total destruction of mucous
membranes of the nose, mouth and throat. Over 90% of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis
cases occur in Bolivia, Brazil, Ethiopia and Peru.

The life cycle is relatively simple. When the sand fly bites a human, it injects small numbers of
parasites which are rapidly taken up by mononuclear blood cells. This stage is called the
promastigote stage. Once inside the human mononuclear cells, the parasite enters the amastigote
stage and begins to multiply and infect other cells and tissues. Uninfected sand flies acquire the
parasite by feeding on infected people or infected animals.

3- Trypanosomiasis: Trypanosomiasis is the name of several diseases in vertebrates caused

by parasitic protozoan trypanosomes of the genus Trypanosoma. In humans this includes African
trypanosomiasis and American trypanosomiasis or Chagas disease.

1. African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)

It is caused protozoan parasites Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense.
Infection occurs through the bite of infected tsetse flies. Humans are the main reservoir
host for T. b. gambiense. Domestic cattle and wild animals, including antelopes, are the
main animal reservoir of T. b. rhodesiense. T. b. gambiense causes a chronic illness with
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 onset of symptoms after a prolonged incubation period of weeks or months. T. b.
rhodesiense causes a more acute illness, with onset a few days or weeks after the infected
bite. Initial clinical signs include severe headache, insomnia, enlarged lymph nodes,
anaemia and rash. In the late stage of the disease, there is progressive loss of weight and
involvement of the central nervous system. Without treatment, the disease is invariably
fatal. T. b. gambiense is present in tropical countries of western and central Africa. T. b.
rhodesiense occurs in eastern Africa, extending south as far as Botswana.

2. American trypanosomiasis (Chaga’s disease)

It is caused by Protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Infection is transmitted by blood-
sucking triatomine bugs (“kissing bugs”). During feeding, infected bugs excrete
trypanosomes, which can then contaminate the conjunctiva, mucous membranes, abrasions
and skin wounds including the bite wound. Transmission also occurs by blood transfusion
or during pregnancy. T. cruzi infects many species of wild and domestic animals as well
as humans. In adults, T. cruzi causes a chronic illness with progressive myocardial damage
leading to cardiac arrhythmias and cardiac dilatation, and gastrointestinal involvement
leading to mega-oesophagus and megacolon. T. cruzi causes acute illness in children,
which is followed by chronic manifestations later in life. American trypanosomiasis occurs
in Mexico and in central and South America (as far south as central Argentina and Chile).
The vector is found mainly in rural areas where it lives in the walls of poorly-constructed
housing.

2- HELMINTHS

Parasitic worms that inhabit the intestinal tract (blood, tissue and organs) of humans are referred
to as helminths. They receive nourishment and protection by living within the host where they
cause disease. The parasitic intestinal helminths can be divided into three groups which include
Nematodes (roundworms), Cestodes (tapeworms), and Trematodes (flukes).

Arthropods that serve as vectors include mosquitoes, fleas, sand flies, lice, ticks, and mites. These
arthropods are responsible for the transmission of numerous diseases. These types of vectors are

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considered to be hematophagous. These arthropod vectors are characterized as feeding on blood
at some or all stages of their life cycles. The arthropods feed on the blood which typically allows
parasites to enter the bloodstream of the host.

Many important helminths are transmitted by arthropods as vectors and complete their lifecycle in
the body as host. These worms are known to cause following diseases

1-Filariasis: Filariasis is a disease group caused by filariae that affects humans and animals (ie,
nematode parasites of the family Filariidae). Of the hundreds of described filarial parasites, only 8
species cause natural infections in humans. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified
lymphatic filariasis as a major cause of disability worldwide, with an estimated 40 million
individuals affected by the disfiguring features of the disease.

Lymphatic Filariasis: Lymphatic filariasis, commonly known as elephantiasis, is a tropical

disease. Infection occurs when filarial parasites are transmitted to humans through mosquitoes.
Infection is usually acquired in childhood causing hidden damage to the lymphatic system. In
lymphatic filariasis, repeated episodes of inflammation and lymphedema lead to lymphatic
damage, chronic swelling, and elephantiasis of the arms, scrotum, vulva, and breasts.
Lymphatic filariasis is caused by infection with parasites classified as nematodes (roundworms)
of the family Filariodidea. There are 3 types of these thread-like filarial worms:
 Wuchereria bancrofti, which is responsible for 90% of the cases
 Brugia malayi, which causes most of the remainder of the cases
 Brugia timori, which also causes the disease.

Transmission Cycle: Adult worms lodge in the lymphatic vessels and disrupt the normal
function of the lymphatic system. The worms can live for an average of 6–8 years and, during
their life time, produce millions of microfilariae (immature larvae) that circulate in the blood.
Lymphatic filariasis is transmitted by different types of mosquitoes for example by
the Culex mosquito, widespread across urban and semi-urban areas, Anopheles, mainly found
in rural areas, and Aedes, mainly in endemic islands in the Pacific.
Mosquitoes are infected with microfilariae by ingesting blood when biting an infected host.
Microfilariae mature into infective larvae within the mosquito. When infected mosquitoes bite
people, mature parasite larvae are deposited on the skin from where they can enter the body.

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The larvae then migrate to the lymphatic vessels where they develop into adult worms, thus
continuing a cycle of transmission.

River Blindness: Onchocerciasis – or “river blindness” – is a parasitic disease caused by the

filarial worm Onchocerca volvulus transmitted by repeated bites of infected blackflies
(Simulium spp.). These blackflies breed along fast-flowing rivers and streams, close to remote
villages located near fertile land where people rely on agriculture.
Transmission: In the human body, the adult worms produce embryonic larvae (microfilariae)
that migrate to the skin, eyes and other organs. When a female blackfly bites an infected person
during a blood meal, it also ingests microfilariae which develop further in the blackfly and are
then transmitted to the next human host during subsequent bites.
Symptoms are caused by the microfilariae, which move around the human body in the
subcutaneous tissue and induce intense inflammatory responses when they die. Infected people
may show symptoms such as severe itching and various skin changes. Some infected people
develop eye lesions which can lead to visual impairment and permanent blindness. In most
cases, nodules under the skin form around the adult worms.

CONCLUSION
All these pathogen/ parasite groups are known to cause important vector-borne infectious diseases, such as
malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and plague, cause a significant fraction of the global infectious disease
burden. The considerable economic, ecological, and public health impacts of vector-borne diseases are
expected to continue. Arthropods play an important role in transmission in transmission of diseases along
with maintaining a reservoir of these diseases in nature.

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