GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

Introduction:
Steam power plants are widely utilized throughout the world for electricity
generation, and coal is often used to fuel these plants. Although the world’s
existing coal reserves are sufficient for about two centuries, the technology largely
used today to produce electricity from coal causes a significant negative
environmental impact. To utilize coal more effectively, efficiently, and cleanly in
electricity generation processes, efforts are often expended to improve the
efficiency and performance of existing plants through modifications and retrofits,
and to develop advanced coal utilization technologies.
Today, many electrical generating utilities are striving to improve the efficiency
(or heat rate) at their existing thermal electric generating stations, many of which
are over 25 years old. Often, a heat rate improvement of only a few percent appears
desirable as it is thought that the costs and complexity of such measures may be
more manageable than more expensive options.
To assist in improving the efficiencies of coal-to-electricity technologies, their
thermodynamic performances are usually investigated. In general, energy
technologies are normally examined using energy analysis. A better understanding
is attained when a more complete thermodynamic view is taken, which uses the
Second Law of Thermodynamics in conjunction with energy analysis, via exergy
methods.
Of the analysis techniques available, exergy analysis is perhaps the most important
because it is a useful, convenient, and straightforward method for assessing and
improving thermal generating stations. The insights gained with exergy analysis
into plant performance are informative (e.g., efficiencies are determined that
measure the approach to ideality, and the causes and locations of losses in
efficiency and electricity generation potential are accurately pinpointed). Exergy
analysis results can aid efforts to improve the efficiency, and possibly the
economic and environmental performance, of thermal generating stations.
Improvement, design, and optimization efforts are likely to be more rational and
comprehensive if exergy factors are considered. One reason is that exergy methods
can prioritize the parts of a plant in terms of greatest margin for improvement by
focusing on plant components responsible for the largest exergy losses. For
example, the authors previously showed that efficiency-improvement efforts for
coal-fired electrical generation should focus on the steam generator (where large

RJ CLARIDAD 1
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

losses occur from combustion and heat transfer across large temperature
differences), the turbines, the electrical generator, and the transformer. In addition,
however, other components should be considered where economically beneficial
improvements can be identified, even if they are small.
In most countries, numerous steam power plants driven by fossil fuels like oil,
coal, and natural gas or by other energy resources like uranium are in service
today. During the past decade, many power-generation companies have paid
attention to process improvement in steam power plants by taking measures to
improve the plant efficiencies and to minimize the environmental impact (e.g., by
reducing the emissions of major air pollutants such as CO2, SO2, and NOx). Exergy
analysis is a useful tool in such efforts.
In this chapter, energy and exergy analyses are utilized to examine and better
understand the performance of steam power plants and to identify and evaluate
possible process modifications to improve the plant efficiencies. Some alternative
process configurations are then proposed. Exergy is useful for providing a detailed
breakdown of the losses, in terms of waste exergy emissions and irreversibilities,
for the overall plants and their components. Some illustrative examples are
presented to demonstrate the importance of exergy in performance improvement of
the steam power plants.

Geothermal Power Plant

Geothermal energy is energy stored below earth’s surface. The word geothermal is
derived from the Greek words geo (earth) and thermos (heat), and combining these
two meanings yields “earth heat”.
Although geothermal energy is one of the youngest types of renewable energy, it is
certainly auspicious. While other renewable energy sources depend on the sun,
geothermal energy originates in the earth’s interior. This underground heat
generation is caused mostly by the radioactive decay of persistent isotopes. On
average, the temperature increases 3°C every 100 m of depth. This increase in
temperature with depth is called the geothermal gradient. Therefore, 99 percent of
Earth is hotter than 1.000°C, while 99 percent of the remaining 1 percent is even
hotter than 100°C. At depths of about 1 kilometer, temperatures of 35 – 40°C can
be achieved. In areas of geological anomalies, such as the Oberrheintalgraben or

RJ CLARIDAD 2
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

the Red Sea, geothermal gradients of about 6°C / 100 m can be found, which
allows economically viable use of deep geothermal systems.
This vast geothermal energy reservoir can be exploited with the aid of suitable
methods. Therefore, the assignment of geothermal engineers is to explore these
areas and develop them for use to cool / heat buildings and generate electricity.
In Germany, no high-enthalpy reservoirs exist. To use the given low-enthalpy
potential and generate geothermal power efficiently, technological improvements
must be made. For this reason, research programs and pilot projects are already
being performed. Outstanding shallow and deep geothermal projects in Germany
are discussed in this paper to aid in the understanding of geothermal development.
Geothermal power plants are used in order to generate electricity by the use of
geothermal energy (the Earth's internal thermal energy). They essentially work the
same as a coal or nuclear power plant, the main difference being the heat source.
With geothermal, the Earth's heat replaces the boiler of a coal plant or the reactor
of a nuclear plant.
Hot water or steam is extracted from the Earth through a series of wells and feeds
the power plant. In most geothermal plants the water pulled up from the ground is
returned back to the subsurface. The rate of water used is often larger than the rate
of water returned, so make-up water supplies are generally needed.
Geothermal power plants use heat deep in the earth to generate steam, which in
turn powers generator to generate electricity.
These systems don’t generate electricity. Rather, they use the fact that at a depth of
10 feet or so the earth’s temperature is stable between 50 and 60 degrees. The heat
pump transfers heat from the ground to reduce the energy needed to heat a
building.
Geothermal power plants use hydrothermal resources that have both water (hydro)
and heat (thermal). Geothermal power plants require high-temperature (300°F to
700°F) hydrothermal resources that come from either dry steam wells or from hot
water wells. People use these resources by drilling wells into the earth and then
piping steam or hot water to the surface. The hot water or steam powers a turbine
that generates electricity. Some geothermal wells are as much as two miles deep.

RJ CLARIDAD 3
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

Geothermal Power Plant: International

1. The Geysers Geothermal Field, California

The Geysers is a geothermal field located in California’s Mayacamas Mountains,

approximately 115km north of San Francisco. It is the world’s biggest single
geothermal field, comprising of 22 geothermal power plants with an installed
capacity of 1,517MW. The Geysers is also the area where the US’s first
geothermal power plant was put into commercial operation.
The number of geothermal power plants currently operating within the region is 18
and the present combined generation capacity of these plants is 900MW, enough to
power 900,000 homes.
Most of the power plants (19 of the 22 plants) within The Geysers are owned and
operated by Calpine. US Renewables Group (USRG) owns one plant. The other
two plants are owned jointly by the Northern California Power Agency (NCPA)
and Silicon Valley Power.

RJ CLARIDAD 4
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

History of The Geysers geothermal field

The first effort to study the power potential of The Geysers was made in 1922. The
project, however, was abandoned due to the unavailability of advanced pipes and
turbines.
A second attempt was made in the 1950s jointly by Magma Power Company and
Thermal Power Company. It succeeded this time thanks to the advancement in well
drilling and power plant technologies.
In 1950, a series of experiments and studies were undertaken by the Pacific Gas
and Electric Company (PG&E). PG&E’s efforts led to the drilling of the first
commercial geothermal well in 1955 and the first commercial geothermal power
plant in The Geysers was put into operation in September 1960.
Construction of the 23rd geothermal power plant in 1989 brought the total installed
capacity of The Geysers to 2,043MW.
Details of the significant Californian geothermal region
The Geysers geothermal resource field is spread over 117 square kilometers in the
counties of Sonoma, Lake and Mendocino.
More than 350 steam production wells have been drilled within The Geysers
region to tap natural steam. Some of these wells are as deep as three kilometers.
The steam which rises is brought overland through pipes and then supplied to a
network of interconnected power plants. Here, the steam spins conventional steam
turbines which, in turn, run generators to produce green electricity
Electricity generated from The Geysers field is supplied to Sonoma, Lake,
Mendocino, Marin and Napa counties. The Geysers account for 20% of the green
power generated in California and the area is considered as one of the most reliable
sources for energy in the state.
Reservoir supplying the world’s biggest single geothermal field
Steam for the power plants is harnessed from a greywacke sandstone reservoir
located at the top of a heterogeneous mix of low permeability rocks.
Heat for the steam reservoir comes from a large molten rock chamber, spanning
over seven kilometres beneath the ground. The diameter of this chamber is about
14km.

RJ CLARIDAD 5
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

In late 1980s, it was found that the flow of steam across the geothermal field had
reduced and the reservoir was not recharging quickly enough to meet the required
steam supply. As a result, inefficient power plants were shut down.
The Geysers geothermal reservoir is now recharged by injecting recycled
wastewater from the city of Santa Rosa and the Lake County sewage treatment
plants. Now, 18 million gallons of treated wastewater is supplied to The Geysers
each day.
2. Larderello Geothermal Complex, Italy

Larderello Geothermal Complex, comprising of 34 plants with a total net capacity

of 769MW, is the second biggest geothermal power plant in the world. The power
produced from the geothermal field, located in Tuscany, Central Italy, accounts for
ten percent of all geothermal energy produced worldwide and caters for 26.5% of
regional power needs.
Enel Green Power owns the power plants at the complex serving approximately
two million families, 8,700 residential and business customers and 25 hectares of
greenhouses. Reservoir depths at the geothermal field range from 700m to 4,000m
below the surface. The first plant at the geothermal field was commissioned a
century ago, in 1913, making it the first of its kind in the world.

RJ CLARIDAD 6
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

The first Larderello power plant had a generating capacity of 250kW comprising of
a turbine designed and built by Tosi Electromechanical Company. The geothermal
plants at the field were rebuilt after they were destroyed during World War II.
History
The world’s first Geothermal power station was built in 1911 in Larderello, in
Southern Tuscany, Italy. Since Roman times steam and hot water springs emerging
from this geologically active ground has been used for hot water and for bathing.
In 1904 emerging steam was used to turn a small turbine which in turn powered
five light bulbs – the first ever demonstration of geothermal electricity generation.
In 1911 the Valle del Diavolo (Devil’s Valley) was chosen as the site of what
would remain the world’s only geothermal power station for almost half a century.
By 1913 a 250kW power station had been built which provided power for the
Italian electric railway system.
Cold water is pumped down to super hot granite rocks located close to the surface.
High pressure 200+ degree celcius steam is returned which turns turbines and
generates electricity. Currently around one million homes are powered by
geothermal electricity from Landerello – almost 5,000 GWh per year, or 10% of
the world’s total geothermal electricity production.
Although geothermal is a renewable energy source, eventually the hot rocks below
the surface will cool. Since the 1950’s the steam pressure from the Valle del
Diavolo site has falled by 30%.
3. Cerro Prieto Geothermal Power Station, Mexico

RJ CLARIDAD 7
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

At 720MW, Cerro Prieto Geothermal Power Station in south Mexicali, Baja

California in north Mexico, is the second third geothermal plant in the world.
The power plant, like all other geothermal fields in Mexico, is owned and operated
by the Comisión Federal de Electricidad (CFE). The power station features four
plants, comprising of 13 units. The first plant was commissioned in 1973, while the
fourth plant was commissioned in 2000.
The turbines at the complex include four 110MW condensing type, four 110MW
double-flash type, four single-flash of 37.5MW each, four single-flash of 25MW
each and one 30MW single-flash. They were supplied by Toshiba and Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries. A fifth plant, which will comprise of two 50MW turbines, is
currently under construction.
4. CalEnergy Generation’s Salton Sea Geothermal Plants, United States

CalEnergy Generation’s Salton Sea Geothermal Plants include a cluster of 10

generating geothermal plants in Calipatria, near the Salton Sea in Southern
California’s Imperial Valley. With a combined generating capacity of 340MW, it is
the fifth largest geothermal facility in the world.

RJ CLARIDAD 8
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

CalEnergy Generation, the operator of the field, has a 50% interest in the facilities,
while the remaining 50% is held by MidAmerican Geothermal. The generated
power is supplied to Southern California Edison Company.
Unit 1 with an output capacity of 10MW was the first to come online in 1982. It
was built by a joint venture comprising of Union Oil Company and Southern
California Edison. The 10th field came online in 2000. CalEnergy Generation is
currently developing new projects in the area, including the Black Rock Project,
which will consist of three new 50MW geothermal plants.
5. Hellisheidi Geothermal Power Plant, Iceland

Hellisheidi geothermal power plant is a flash steam, combined heat and power
plant (CHP) located at Mount Hengill, approximately 20km east of the capital city
of Reykjavik. The plant has a production capacity of 303MW of electric energy
and 400MW of thermal energy.
The sixth largest geothermal power plant is owned by Orkuveita Reykjavikur. It
was constructed by Mannvit Engineering and Verkís Engineering. Power generated
from the plant is supplied primarily to the nearby aluminum refineries.

RJ CLARIDAD 9
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

The power plant was commissioned in five phases from 2006-2011. It covers an
area of approximately 13,000m². Six high pressure (HP) turbines for the plant were
supplied by Mitsubishi, while a low pressure (LP) turbine was supplied by
Toshiba.
Hellisheidi Power Plant Development
Orkuveita Reykjavikur decided to build the geothermal power plant in 2002, based
on the conclusions of research drilling that was completed in 2001. The first phase
of the project included installation of two high-pressure 45MW turbines and
commenced production in 2006. A low-pressure steam turbine of 33MW capacity
was added to the plant in 2007, as part of the second phase of development.
The third phase, commissioned in 2008, involved the installation of two more
high-pressure turbines of 45MW capacity each. Steam from Skarðsmýrarfjall
Mountain is used for power generation in the third phase.
The geothermal plant started producing hot water in its fourth phase of
development which was completed in 2010. A hot water main pipeline for district
heating purpose was also installed in this phase.
The fifth and final stage of development comprised of the installation of two
45MW turbines in 2011.
Hellisheidi Power Plant Make Up
The Hellisheidi geothermal power plant was developed in an area of 13,000m2
near Mount Hengill in the Hengill geothermal area, one of the largest high
temperature geothermal fields in Iceland covering an area of 110km2. Power is
generated using a combination of six high-pressure and one low-pressure steam
turbines.
Hot fluid is extracted through 30 wells at a depth of 2,000m to 3,000m. The
extracted fluid passes through steam and mist separators. The separated hot steam
propels the turbines for electricity generation. The plant uses about 500kg/s of
geothermal steam at 180°C for producing electricity.
The electrical system of each generating unit of the power station comprises of a
50MVA generator, a 50MVA/220kV step-up transformer, and an 11/11 kV
transformer for connection to the 11kV station service system.

RJ CLARIDAD 10
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

The power generated from the plant is transmitted to the national grid’s substation
located 1km away from the power plant.
Hellisheidi Hot Water Production and Supply
Fresh ground water is heated to 50°C with the steam from the turbines. The water
is heated again by heat exchange up to 83°C.
The reheated water is pumped to a 950m3 capacity hot water storage tank at the
plant site via a 1m wide and 360m long pipe. The hot water is further supplied to
the Reykjavík city via a 19.5km long pre-insulated underground pipe line with
diameter of 0.9m to 1m.
Construction of the Hellisheidi hot water main pipeline started in 2008. The
pipeline was brought into service towards the end of 2010 and has a maximum
flow rate of 2,250l/s.
Contractors / suppliers involved with the Hellisheidi Power Plant
Development
The Hellisheidi power plant design and construction contract was awarded to
Mannvit Engineering.
Verkís Engineering was awarded the design and construction contract for the
Hellisheidi hot water main pipeline.
Mitsubishi supplied six 45MW high-pressure steam turbines and Toshiba provided
one 33 MW low-pressure steam turbine for the power plant.
The counter-flow wet cooling system used at the power plant was supplied by SPX
Cooling Technologies. Siemens supplied control and protection system for the
power plant.

RJ CLARIDAD 11
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

6. Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Plant, Indonesia

Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Plant is located in Pangalengan, approximately

40km south of Bandung City in the province of West Java. The geothermal plant,
with an output capacity of 227MW, is the ninth biggest in the world.
Magma Nusantara Limited (MNL), a wholly-owned subsidiary of Star Energy,
operates the field. The engineering services for the first two units were provided by
Aecom. Major contractors involved in the plant’s construction included Sumitomo
Corporation, Fuji Electric and Rekayasa Industri.
The first unit of the power plant started operation in 2000. It is comprised of an
110MW turbine supplied by Fuji Electric. The second unit, featuring a 117MW
turbine, was commissioned in 2009. The third unit, with a generation capacity of
127MW, is expected to be commissioned in mid-2014.
A second turbine-generator unit has been added to the Wayang Windu geothermal
field in West Java, Indonesia. The 117MW unit more than doubles the plant’s
output, adding to the existing 110MW turbine. At a total cost of around $200m,
Wayang Windu is now the largest geothermal power plant in Indonesia. The field
is itself Indonesia’s largest geothermal development, and one of the largest in the
world.
Development
Another two units are planned to come on stream by 2010, bringing the total plant
capacity to 500MW at an additional cost of around US $450m.

RJ CLARIDAD 12
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

Wayang Windu powers 117MW Geothermal Turbine

Star Energy acquired the 110MW Wayang Windu geothermal plant in November
2004. It owns the plant through its 100%-owned subsidiary Magma Nusantara
Limited (MNL).
Aecom provided the engineering and design services for Units 1 and 2.
MNL appointed Maunsell to provide engineering review, design and supervision
consulting services for Unit 2 construction and development, excluding the
geothermal wells themselves.
Maunsell also provided support for administration and cost management, QA/QC,
certification of construction status, sub-surface advisory services, and training.
Much of the preparation and infrastructure works for Unit 2 was completed as part
of Unit 1 development between 1997 and 2000.
Besides the 117MW geothermal turbine generator unit, Unit 2 has auxiliary plant
including condenser, cooling tower, non-condensable gas extraction facilities and
H2S removal system. A steam above-ground pipeline system (SAGS) connects the
new geothermal wells to the turbine. The plant-wide distributed control system has
also been extended and integrated.
World’s Largest Single Cylinder Turbine
Unit 1 began operation in 2000, with power equipment supplied by Fuji Electric.
At the time, the 110MW turbine was the world’s largest single cylinder machine.
There are two-phase fluid pipelines with central separators, and integrated pressure
control. Since startup, the generator has supplied 110MW at night and 105MW in
the day into the State Electricity Company PLN’s grid.
The plant uses flash steam technology, with the steam generating electricity by
driving the turbine directly. The steam is produced at more than 300°C, and
contains virtually no pollutant gasses or CO2. Wayang Windu is the world’s most
efficient geothermal facility. The first Unit 2 development well MBD-5 was also
found to be the largest dry steam well in the world at more than 40MW.
MNL has a Joint Operating Contract with Pertamina Geothermal Energy (PGE),
and an Energy Sales Contract with Pertamina and PLN to supply up to 400MW to
PLN for 30 years. The plant feeds Java, Madura and Bali.

RJ CLARIDAD 13
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

7. Darajat Power Station, Indonesia

Darajat Power Station is located at Garut in Pasirwangi District, West Java. It is

the tenth biggest geothermal plant in the world, with an installed capacity of
259MW. It is managed by Darajat GPP Amoseas Indonesia, a subsidiary of
Chevron Texaco.
The power station comprises of three plants serving the provinces of Java and Bali.
The plants were commissioned respectively in 1994, 2000 and 2007. Plants II and
III share common facilities, including the steam gathering system.
The latest commissioned plant was built by Thiess Contractors Indonesia in
collaboration with Kanematsu Corporation. It features a turbine supplied by
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI). The turbine for the second plant was also
supplied by MHI. Hyundai Engineering supplied the equipments for the first two
plants.

RJ CLARIDAD 14
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

Geothermal Power Plant: Local

1. Makban Geothermal Complex, Philippines

Makban Geothermal Power Complex, also known as Makiling-Banahaw Power

Plants, is located in the municipalities of Bay and Calauan in the Laguna province
and Santo Tomas, in the Batangas province. It is the fourth biggest geothermal
power facility in the world, with an output capacity of 458MW.
The geothermal power complex is owned by AP Renewables, a wholly-owned
subsidiary of Aboitiz Power. The complex consists of six power plants comprising
of 10 units, including a binary plant with five 3MW units and one 0.73MW unit.
The complex, covering an area of 700ha, commenced operations in 1979.
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries was one of the turbine suppliers for the plants at the
complex.
The Bulalo (also called Mak-Ban) geothermal reservoir is located about 70 km
southeast of Manila on the island of Luzon. The geothermal field lies at the foot of
Mt. Makiling and within the Macolod corridor, a 40-km wide “rift-like feature”
that crosses the Luzon arc and separates the northern “Bataan” and southern
“Mindoro” segments of the volcanic arc. Recent and active volcanism within the
Macolod corridor has formed young (<1- 2 Million years old) silicic calderas (e.g.,
Taal and Laguna de Bay), andesitic to dacitic stratocone and dome complexes (<2-
0.02 Million years old), and maar and cinder cone fields (<0.02 Million years old).

RJ CLARIDAD 15
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

The structural setting of the Macolod corridor is complex, but the earth’s crust in
this area is “stretching” or extending due to the influence of regional strike-slip
faults at its northern and southern margins. Within the Macolod corridor, the major
features are NE-trending normal faults that have produced horst and graben
structures and NW-trending left-lateral strike-slip faults that may bound them.
There is also some evidence for older E-W directed structures. Alignment of scoria
cones and maars in some areas, and andesite to dacite domes in others, also
indicates that recent magmas most commonly reached the surface through NE-
directed extensional structures.
The hydrothermal system developed at Bulalo is associated with two dacitic domes
(Mt. Bulalo and Mt. Olila) present on the SE flank of Mt. Makiling. Mt. Makiling
is a larger Quaternary volcanic complex consisting of overlapping andesitic to
dacitic stratocones and domes. Bulalo and Olila domes have been dated by the
40Ar/39Ar method at <20 thousand years old, providing evidence for sustained
silicic magma intrusion into the upper crust, which is the ultimate heat source of
the Bulalo hydrothermal system. A NE-trending line connecting these domes has
the same trend as the dominant fault and fracture directions revealed by surface
and subsurface geology. The spatial association of the highly permeable and
productive portion of the Bulalo reservoir with the Mt. Bulalo dacite dome
suggests that permeability is related to intersections of faults with its deep conduit
system. The resistivity anomaly roughly coincides with the current production area
but extends about 6 km to the north along the eastern flank of Mt. Makiling.
The Reservoir
The Bulalo reservoir is a liquid-dominated, fracture-controlled hydrothermal
system. The productive reservoir contains hot two-phase fluid and is approximately
7 km2 in area. It is roughly circular in plan view, and is bounded by hot, lower-
permeability rocks to the NW and SE, and by lower temperature rocks to the NE
and SW. Partially open boundaries or deep outflows have been identified on the N,
E and W; the NW boundary of the resource appears to be the Cabulugan fault. The
top of the reservoir occurs between 100 m (328’) and 1,250 m (4,100’) below sea
level. It is shallowest near the field’s center, deepening gradually to the west and
north, and deepening abruptly to the east and south. Upflow occurs in the central
and SE portions of the reservoir. Relatively porous volcanic tuff units provide
important fluid flowpaths at the reservoir top, especially on the western side of the

RJ CLARIDAD 16
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

main production zone. The bottom of the reservoir is unknown, but appears to be
deeper than 3,050 m (10,000’) bsl beneath the central production area.
The reservoir fluid is a neutral-pH sodium chloride liquid with low total dissolved
solids and low gas content relative to other geothermal systems in the Philippines,
making it especially attractive as an alternative energy source to fossil fuels. The
fluid salinity is also low, with an average Cl concentration of 2800 mg/kg. The
average reservoir temperature is 280°C, and the maximum temperature is around
300°C in the SE sector of the field.
Performance
Bulalo is the largest geothermal facility in the Philippines with 425.73 megawatts
of installed generating capacity. Since commercial operations began in 1979 and
up until December 2002, the Makiling-Banahaw (Mak-Ban) andTiwi geothermal
operations have combined to produce 88,500 Gigawatt-hours (GWH) in gross
cumulative generation. Over this 23-year period, it is estimated that power
generated from Mak-Ban and Tiwi displaced 152.6 million barrels of oil thus
saving the country an estimated US$ 3.21 billion in terms of foreign exchange.
As of 2003, 109 wells have been drilled throughout the field. Of these, 71 wells
provide current steam requirements, 15 wells are used for brine and condensate re-
injection, while the remaining wells are inactive, plugged and abandoned, or
unproductive. The deepest well has a measured depth of 3,625 m (11,890’) while
the shallowest is 655 m (2,148’). The average well depth is about 1830 m (6000’).
Average steam and brine flow rates are 13 and 14 kg/s (102 and 111 klbs./hr),
respectively from a design pressure of 0.7 MPa (95 psig) down to pressure below
atmospheric (vacuum). Sub-atmospheric pressure at the turbine outlet is
maintained by direct-contact condensation of the expanded steam. This process,
which occurs at the condenser, liberates the non-condensable gases that were
fractionated into the steam phase during the steam/brine separation. To prevent
pressure gas build-up in the condenser, equipment is employed which diminishes
carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide gas present in the steam.
Resource Monitoring
Chevron’s philosophy is to carry out essential reservoir monitoring needed for field
management on a cost-effective basis. We are committed to developing and using
innovative technologies where possible, but most reservoir monitoring techniques
employed by PGI are conventional “tried and true” technologies. These core
RJ CLARIDAD 17
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

monitoring activities supply the necessary information to reliably provide

geothermal energy at a competitive price.
The primary measure of reservoir performance is steam deliverability. This is
established from knowledge of reservoir permeability, reservoir pressure, and
individual well production. Reservoir pressure is directly measured downhole
across known permeable zones using heat-resistant pressure and temperature
registering tools. Permeability is estimated using production and injection test
methods in conjunction with Enthalpy/Flow tests, various types of downhole logs.
Accounting of individual well geochemistry, production rate and enthalpy values
are determined through chemical analysis and flow measurements using
immiscible tracer chemicals (tracer flow testing or TFT). The tracer chemicals are
injected at the wellhead and samples are taken downstream along the production
line. Since the reservoir produces two-phase fluid, both pressure and enthalpy are
needed to establish the thermodynamic state of the fluid and properly apportion
steam and brine in the total flow.
To explore the development potential and/or limitation of the resource, numerical
simulation of the reservoir is employed. Detailed simulations matching field
production history including gravity changes have been accomplished and are
periodically updated. Numerical simulation is an important tool in validating both
the tactical field operational plans and the reservoir development strategies to
maximize the benefit of exploiting the resource. Geochemical monitoring is among
the most important means of quickly understanding and responding to changes in
the geothermal system. The monitoring program at Bulalo encompasses quarterly
sampling of production wells and injected brine, semi-annual sampling of steam
lines, and daily sampling of steam entering the power plants. All analyses are
currently performed at the ISO 25 certified onsite laboratory facility. These data
are used along with flow rate data to “take the pulse” of producing wells.
Geophysical monitoring provides data critical for management of geothermal
reservoirs. The most important geophysical monitoring method has been precision
gravity and leveling surveys, done annually or bi-annually since 1980. Gravity
models have therefore been utilized in reservoir simulation based on well data as a
“matching or calibration tool,” or independent check of results. Gravity modeling
for the period 1980 to 1984 suggested that known mass withdrawals did not require
extensive recharge to the main area of production, however, recharge may have
increased to about 30% of the total mass extracted during the period from 1984 to

RJ CLARIDAD 18
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

1991. Efforts to integrate more recent gravity survey with reservoir modeling are
currently underway.
Outlook
Bulalo is a mature geothermal field having produced for over two decades. The
field has remained relatively problem free aside from the need to move injection
outward on the western side. PGI, in cooperation with NPC, has responded to
overcome this problem in the early 1990’s. The decision to push through and
accelerate the development of the indigenous resource was most astute and
beneficial to the Philippines at that time. When the NPC-PGI service contract was
signed, oil price was less than US$4/bbl. By the time commercial operation
commenced, prices had quadrupled. A financial study conducted by ELC-
Electroconsult for the Asian Development Bank showed that the net cash flows
including avoided oil cost had paid for the project in 1986.
The center of production will remain the currently developed area, although new
wells will tap deeper sources of steam. PGI’s strategy is now focused on deep
development to maximize the generation potential of the field and ensure its long-
term sustainability. Rehabilitation of the power plants will improve steam usage,
improve reliability and increase capacity. Currently available steam based on
current usage rate of the power plants is equivalent to about 290 MW. Ongoing
projects should increase steam availability to 402 MW at the steam usage rate of
the rehabilitated plants by January 2005.
2. Tiwi Geothermal Complex, Philippines

RJ CLARIDAD 19
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

Tiwi Geothermal Complex is located at Tiwi in the province of Albay, about

300km south-east of Manila. The 289MW (net) complex is the seventh biggest
geothermal facility in the world.
The Tiwi complex is owned by Aboitiz Power’s subsidiary AP Renewables. It
comprises of three power plants featuring two units each. Drilling works at the
geothermal field commenced in 1972 and the power plant became operational in
1979.
The project was developed by National Power Corporation and Philippine
Geothermal. Mitsui and F.F. Cruz were the construction contractors. The power
plants use Toshiba generator units.
Development History
Between 1964 and 1968, the Commission on Volcanology initiated exploration of
the Tiwi geothermal field. Geologic mapping and geological surveys were
undertaken and temperature gradient holes were drilled during that period.
In early 1971, upon the invitation of the Philippine Government, Union Oil
Company of California (Unocal) formed Philippine Geothermal, Inc. (PGI) to
explore for and develop geothermal resources. Through a service contract entered
into with the state-owned National Power Corporation (NPC) on September 10,
1971, PGI provided the technical expertise and a portion of the funding for
exploration and subsequent development of the Tiwi geothermal area. NPC, for its
part, was responsible for building and operating the power plants.
The Reservoir
The reservoir rocks consist of andesitic lavas and flow breccias of Mt. Malinao and
the underlying Miocene-Pliocene Polangui Volcanics. The reservoir rocks thicken
from the east to west across the field as the basement rocks deepen toward the
volcano. Basement rocks below the reservoir are metasediments overlain by about
600 m of intercalated mudstone, limestone, and volcaniclastic rock. The reservoir
rocks are altered to a propylitic mineral assemblage that formed by the interaction
with hot geothermal fluids. A clay cap seals the top and the sides of the reservoir.
Faults in the Tiwi area trend predominantly NE-SW. Four of the important
structures are the Kagumihan (K), Tiwi (T), Naglagbong (N), and Takla (TK)
faults. Reservoir data indicate that the Kagumihan and Tiwi faults serve to partially
isolate the Matalibong area from the Naglagbong area.

RJ CLARIDAD 20
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

The production area of the Tiwi geothermal field is about 13 km2 and is divided
into four geographic areas: Naglagbong (N-Nag), Kapipihan (K-Kap), Matalibong
(M-Mat), and Bariis (B-Bar). Naglagbong is a lowland area in the eastern part of
the field. The Kapipihan area is in the rugged valley to the west. Matalibong and
Bariis areas occupy high ridges to the north and far west of the field, respectively.
Other areas (Joroan, Sadurong, and Tagoytoy) within the contract area were
explored but results were not of commercial value.
Commercial production in the Naglagbong and Kapipihan started in 1979 with the
commissioning of the first 110 MWe power plant (Units 1 and 2). As these areas
suffered encroachment of cool fluids, development was shifted west towards
Matalibong. Most current producers are in the Matalibong and Kapipihan sectors.
Units 3 to 6, each 55 MWe began generating electricity in January, 1980, March
1980, December 1981, and March 1982, respectively.
As of 2003, 156 wells have been drilled throughout the field. Of these, 48 wells
provide current steam requirements and 16 wells are used for brine and condensate
re-injection. The deepest well has a measured depth of 2784 m (9130’) while the
shallowest is 938 m (3078’). The total installed piping in the field is equivalent to
81 km. The brine injection in Tiwi progressed from zero brine re-injection in 1979,
when commercial production began, to 100% brine and plant condensate injection
by 1993.
Performance
Tiwi is the second largest geothermal facility in the Philippines with 275
megawatts of installed generating capacity. Since commercial operations began in
1979 and up until December 2002, Tiwi and the Makiling-Banahaw (Mak-Ban)
geothermal operations have combined to produce 88,500 Gigawatt-hours (GWH)
in gross cumulative generation.
Over this 23-year period, it is estimated that power generated from Tiwi and Mak-
Ban displaced 152.6 million barrels of oil thus saving the country an estimated
US$ 3.21 billion in terms of foreign exchange.
Outlook
Tiwi is a mature geothermal field having produced for over two decades. The field
has experienced every problem common to geothermal reservoirs. PGI, in
cooperation with NPC, has responded to and largely overcome these problems. The

RJ CLARIDAD 21
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

decision to push through and accelerate the development of the indigenous

resource was most astute and beneficial to the Philippines at that time. When the
NPC-PGI service contract was signed, oil price was less than US$4/bbl. By the
time commercial operation commenced, prices had quadrupled. A financial study
conducted by ELC-Electroconsult for the Asian Development Bank showed that
the net cash flows including avoided oil cost had paid for the project in 1986.
The center of production will continue to be the steam zone in Kapipihan,
Matalibong and Bariis. There are no more large sources of additional steam, so
PGI’s development strategy is now focused at maximizing the generation potential
of the field and ensuring its long-term sustainability.
The single biggest source of additional generation, however, is rehabilitation of the
power plants. Rehabilitation will improve steam usage, improve reliability and
increase capacity. Currently available steam based on current usage rate of the
power plants is equivalent to 160 MW. Ongoing projects should increase steam
availability to 232 MW at the steam usage rate of the rehabilitated plants by
January 2005.
3. Malitbog Geothermal Power Station, Philippines

RJ CLARIDAD 22
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

The 232.5MW Malitbog Geothermal Power Station, located approximately 25km

north of Ormoc City in Leyte Island, is the eighth biggest geothermal power plant
in the world.
The plant was earlier owned by Visayas Geothermal Power Company (VGPC),
which later transferred the ownership rights to Philippine National Oil-Energy
Development Company (PNOC). The plant is currently owned by Energy
Development Corporation. Power from the field is supplied to the Luzon Island.
The Malitbog geothermal power plant construction commenced in 1993 and was
completed in 1996. It was built by Sumitomo Corporation and Fuji Electric. The
plant features three 77.5MW single-cylinder double flow condensing turbines
supplied by Fiji Electric.
The power plant is one of four operating in the Leyte Geothermal Production Field;
the power plants serve 10 million households in the Visayas with an average of
160 kiloWatthour per Household of 3 per month. The other 7 million is served by
the Panlipin-on Geothermal Power of 100 Megawatts.
Formerly owned and operated by the California Energy under a build-operate-
transfer scheme known as CE Luzon, it was transferred to PNOC-EDC in 2007,
and since 2009 has been owned and operated privately by the Energy Development
Corporation.
In November 2013, the plant was damaged by Super Typhoon Yolanda and
restored operations in January 2014.
The Smokey Mountains in the eastern parts of Kananga and Ormoc is Leyte's pride
home of five major geothermal power plants (former Leyte Geothermal Power
Plant of NPC; Upper Mahiao, Malitbog and Mahanagdong A and B) and four
optimization geothermal power plants (Tongonan, Malitbog, Mahanagdong A and
B) all privately owned and operated by the Energy Development Corporation.
Types of Geothermal Power Plant
There are 3 main types of geothermal power plants, with the flash cycle being the
most common. The choice of plant depends on how much geothermal energy is
available, and how hot the resource is. The hotter the resource, the less fluid needs
to flow from the ground to take advantage of it, the more useful it is.

RJ CLARIDAD 23
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

1. Dry Steam Plants

These plants use dry steam that is naturally produced in the ground. This steam
travels from the production well to the surface and through a turbine, and after
transferring its energy to the turbine it condenses and is injected back into the
Earth. These types are the oldest types of geothermal power plants, the first one
was built back in 1904 in Italy. Because this type of power plant requires the
highest temperatures they can only be used where the temperature underground is
quite high, but this type requires the least fluid flow.
The dry steam plants at the Geysers in northern California, first drilled in 1924, are
the largest geothermal source of electricity. At their peak production in the late
1980s they produced a whopping 2 GW of electricity - the equivalent of two large
coal or nuclear power plants. However due to high rates of extraction, power has
since declined to 1.5 GW of capacity, with an average output of less than 1 GW.

RJ CLARIDAD 24
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

2. Flash Cycle Steam Plants

These types are the most common due to the lack of naturally occurring high-
quality steam. In this method, water must be over 180°C, and under its own
pressure it flows upwards through the well. This is a lower temperature than dry
steam plants have. As its pressure decreases, some of the water "flashes" to steam,
which is passed through the turbine section. The remaining water that did not
become steam is cycled back down into the well and can also be used for heating
purposes. The cost of these systems is increased due to more complex parts;
however, they can still compete with conventional power sources.
Flash Steam Power Plants are the most common form of geothermal power plant.
The hot water is pumped under great pressure to the surface. When it reaches the
surface, the pressure is reduced and as a result some of the water changes to steam.
This produces a ‘blast’ of steam. The cooled water is returned to the reservoir to be
heated by geothermal rocks again.

RJ CLARIDAD 25
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

3. Binary Cycle Plants

Binary power plants are expected to be the most commonly used type of
geothermal power plant in the future, as locations outside of the known hot spots
begin to use geothermal energy. This is because binary cycle plants can make use
of lower temperature water than the other two types of plants. They use a
secondary loop (hence the name "binary") which contains a fluid with a low
boiling point, such as pentane or butane. The water from the well flows through a
heat exchanger which transfers its heat to this fluid, which vaporizes due to its low
boiling point. It is then passed through a turbine, accomplishing the same task as
steam.
If the water that reaches the surface is not hot enough to produce steam, it can still
be used to produce electricity by feeding it into a Binary Power Plant. The hot
water is fed into a heat exchanger. The heat from the water is absorbed by a liquid
such as isopentane which boils at a lower temperature. The isopentane steam is
used to drive turbines, producing electricity. The isopentane then condenses back
to its liquid state and is used again.

RJ CLARIDAD 26
 GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER PLANT

RJ CLARIDAD 27