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Cross-Correlation of Sound Pressure and Heat Release

Rate for Oscillating Flames with Several Frequencies
Excited
a a
W. LANG & D. VORTMEYER
a
Institut B für Thermodynamic Technische Universitat Munchen , Arcisstr. 21 2, München,
8000, West Germany
Published online: 16 May 2007.

To cite this article: W. LANG & D. VORTMEYER (1987) Cross-Correlation of Sound Pressure and Heat Release Rate
for Oscillating Flames with Several Frequencies Excited, Combustion Science and Technology, 54:1-6, 399-406, DOI:
10.1080/00102208708947063

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00102208708947063

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 Combust. Sci. and Tech.. 1987. Vol. 54. pp. 399-406 C 1987 Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. Inc .
Photocopying permitted by license only Printed in Great Britain

BRIEF COMMUNICATION

Cross-Correlation of Sound Pressure and Heat Release Rate

for Oscillating Flames with Several Frequencies Excited

W. LANG and D. VORTMEYER Institut B fOr Thermodynamik, Technische

Universitst MOnchen, Arcisstr. 21, 8000 MOnchen 2, West Germany

(Received September 16, 1986; in final form April 6. 1987)

Abstract-Subject of the note are combustion oscillations in a small laboratory burner with premixed
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flames. Oscillations of sound pressure, energy conversion and gas velocity were measured
simultaneously within the domain of the flame. Having evaluated amplitudes and phase shifts of the
various oscillations, it was possible to find by an inspection of the graphical representation how the
conditions required for oscillations are fulfilled. The burner shows different forms of vibrations:
sinusoidal vibrations with one frequency, superposition of independent frequencies (beats) and
harmonic frequencies. A parameter study shows for which circumstances the different forms occur.
For periodic oscillations the experimental data support the known stability criteria (Rayleigh
integral). In the case of aperiodic oscillations we propose to replace the Rayleigh integral by a
corresponding cross-correlation function of sound pressure and conversion oscillations. It is suggested
that the cross-correlation function has to approach a positive limiting value which has been found for
all investigated cases.

1 INTRODUCTION

The analysis of self-sustained combustion chamber oscillations has in many cases

the result that more than one frequency is present in the combustion chamber and
that different forms of superposition occur dependent on the amplitudes of the
different frequencies. To sustain a pressure oscillation, a combustion oscillation
has to feed in energy at the right moment. Oscillations of pressure and heat release
rate have to be correlated in such a way that their maxima coincide. If only one
frequency is present we find a standing wave and the situation is easy to imagine:
oscillations of pressure and energy conversion either coincide or are phase-shifted
by a phase angle, such that

This is the "Rayleigh stability criterion" for flame oscillations.

In the case of superposed oscillations there are some open questions concerning
the adaption of the combustion oscillation to the pressure oscillation, since the
flame is not able to adapt to such complicated pressure fluctuations. Joos and
Vortrneyer showed that the simultaneous occurrence of several frequencies has a
destabilizing effect on the flame (Joos and Vortrneyer, 1986; Joos, 1984). If one
attempts to apply the known stability criteria-the Rayleigh criterion and the
Rayleigh integral-to such oscillations, it becomes apparent that application is
difficult.
We have examined such situations, especially with a view to how these
difficulties can be overcome and how a generally applicable stability criterion
would have to be formulated.
399
 400 BRIEF COMMUNICATION

Simultaneous measurements of the sound pressure, gas velocity and oscillation

of the heat release rate were made. Futhermore, the changes in the shape of the
flame were recorded by Schlieren photographs. Different cases of increasing
complexity were considered:
i) sine oscillations;
ii)oscillations with harmonic frequencies;
iii)aperiodic oscillations.
By making use of the recordings obtained, we were in a position to analyze the
oscillations. In particular, we studied the relations between the oscillations of
sound pressure and of heat release rate.
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2 APPARATUS

The experiments were carried out using a laboratory burner for premixed
propane-air flames as described by Joos and Vortmeyer (1986). The variable
length of the mixing chamber and the combustion chamber (5-80 ern) leads to
longitudinal natural frequencies ranging between 200 and 1000 Hz. The length of
the side of the channel of square cross-section is 4 em. Since the natural
frequencies of transversal modes are too high to be excited (above 6000 Hz),
unidimensional acoustics can be applied. The flame holder was a multiple orifice
plate with 80 holes of 1.5 rom diameter each, generating laminar flames of about
3 rom length. The sound pressure P of the system was measured by capacitor
microphones, the heat release rate Q by a photomultiplier which measures the
radiation of the OH- -radical, an intermediate combustion product. Care is taken
to ensure that the radiation of the entire flame is measured. The intensity of the
OH- -radiation is a linear measurement of the energy conversion. The linearity
was checked in a preliminary experiment with a stable flame. The measurement of
the reaction rate by the radiation of the OH- -radical has been used by several
authors (John and Summerfield, 1955; Hurle et al; 1968; Lenz, 1979; Joos and
Vortmeyer, 1986). Recently Keller and Westbrook (1986) proved the applicability
of the method by comparison of measurements with calculated chemical
conversion rates. The velocity U was measured by a hot-wire probe just below the
flame holder and the shape of the flame by the Schlieren method .
In order to obtain correct phase relations, it was ensured by preliminary
experiments that there were no time lags due to the experimental setup. The data
were stored in a transient recorder and transmitted to a computer for digital
storage and processing.

TABLE I
Experimental parameter of oscillation measurements

Figure 1,2,6 7 8

Volume flow (mils) 270 270 153

Length of mixing chamber (ern) 23 23 23
Length of burning chamber (em) 21 6 21
Equivalence rat io 1.0 1.0 1.13
 BRIEF COMMUNICATION 401

3 MEASUREMENT OF SINE VIBRATIONS

The typical cycle of a flame oscillation is shown by an example: For stoichiometric

combustion we find a very strong sine vibration. The experimental parameters of
the measurements are given in Table I. Without oscillation, flames of a height of
3.5 mm form above the bores. Figure 1 shows the vibrations of the flow velocity
U, the sound pressure P and the heat release rate Q. The dots at the top of Figure
1 indicate the height of the flame tips above the multiple orifice plate. According
to Figure 1, the pressure wave runs strictly sinusoidally and the velocity precedes
the pressure by 150°. Conversion is almost in phase with the pressure as required
by the Rayleigh criterion. The amplitude of the sound pressure is 600 N/m 2 at the
flame. The heat release rate has a mean value of 1090 W and an oscillation
amplitude of 490 W. The height of the oscillating flame varies between 1 and
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5 mm as shown by the Schlieren photographs in Figure 2. Furthermore, it is

observed that the flame front breaks away when the flow is decreasing. This flame
behaviour is reflected in Figure 1 as a nonsinusoidal wave in heat release
compared with sinusodial waves of pressure and velocity. The fact that the
response of the flame to a sinusoidal excitation is a nonsinusoidal oscillation in
heat release on the other hand means that the flame acts as a nonlinear system. As
already known from other systems, nonlinear contributions in a oscillating system
generate harmonic frequencies.

,... ," ..;.-

H ..0_ .. ""
,.. ,"

u
'-------r------.-----.....,Jf
2 4 lmsl
FIGURE I Oscillation measurements. Velocity (V ), sound pressure (P), heat release rate (1) , and
height of flame (H ). For experimental data compare with Table I.

4 VARIATION OF TIlE EXPERIMENTAL PARAMETERS

Harmonic vibrations and beats were observed when the chamber length and/or
the air equivalence ratio were varied. Those effects are plotted in Figure 3.
At first the equivalence ratio was changed from stoichiometric combustion to
the lean side. For stoichiometric combustion we find a very strong sine vibration.
When the mixture is lean, 1 = 1.15, another vibration mode with a lower frequency
is found. When the air equivalence ratio is increased, the flame speed decreases.
 402 BRIEF COMMUNICATION

FIGURE 2 Motion pictures showing the break-away of the flame front. O· respresents the zero
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passage from plus to minus of the sound pressure.

CL
[em!

20

1S
•
10
• • •
• • •
• • •
SL-_---r_~---,--_f_-.__--
0,7 O,B 0,9 1.0 1,1

Sinus, low frequency

Sinus, high frequency
+ Beats
• Harmonic frequencies

FIGURE 3 Variation of the parameters in the plane of combustion chamber length and air equivalence
ratio.

Thus the characteristic response time of the flame to an acoustic excitation will
increase, which favours the excitation of the low frequency mode . The amplitudes
of both the vibration modes were scanned for a constant throughput of 200 mIls
and an equivalence ratio between 0.85 and 1.2 and are shown in Figure 4. The
high frequency mode has a high amplitude at stoichiometric combustion and
extinguishes at 1 = 1.15. The low frequency mode starts at 1 = 1.1 and extinguishes
at 1 = 1.2. In the region between 1 = 1.1 and 1 = 1.15 we find beats.
Beats are the simultaneous vibration of two independent oscillation modes. The
phase of the two modes changes with time. For harmonic frequencies, the phase of
the fundamental and the harmonic is constant with time. So the resulting
movement is a periodic process.
 BRIEF COMMUNICATION 403

The laboratory burner shows harmonic frequencies, especially when the

combustion chamber is short in comparison with the premixing chamber. While a
combustion chamber of 21 em shows sine vibrations a short chamber with a length
of 6 em shows harmonic frequencies . The amplitudes of the harmonic frequencies
were measured in the region between LC= 4 cm and LC= 21 em. Figure 5 shows
the ratio of the amplitudes of the harmonic frequencies and the amplitude of the
fundamental. The measurements show the form of resonance curves. The
amplitudes of the harmonic frequencies can be calculated by a resonance model
(Lang, 1986). The result of this calculation is given by the line in Figure 5.

A
[Dbl ------------- .... ,
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", \

140 I
I
I
I
I

120 ~
--'O.-9·--1""T'".O---1~
!l- 1:2 ·l

~ High freq. --~0i41/4d

Beats Low freq.
HGURE 4 Beats. The amplitude A of the two vibration modes is shown as a function of the air
equivalence ratio 1.- - - High frequency mode; - - low frequency mode.

A
\.5 , . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . . ,

1.0

.5

a CL
5 10 15

FIGURE 5 Amplitudes of harmonic frequencies. The ratio I of the amplitude of the first and second
harmonic to the amplitude of the natural fequency is shown as a function of the length of the burning
chamber.•, First harmonic; + , second harmonic; - - -, theoretical calculation.
 404 BRIEF COMMUNICATION

5 SIMULTANEOUS OCCURRENCE OF SEVERAL FREQUENCIES,

STABILITY CRITERIA

Figures 8 to 11 show measurements of vibrations of increasing complexity to

demonstrate the application of stability criteria. The plots show the sound pressure
P and the oscillation of the heat release rate Q. A sinusoidal vibration (Figure 6)
can be explained with the Rayleigh criterion as shown in Chapter 3. In the case of
harmonic frequencies, Figure 7, the Rayleigh criterion is not as easy to apply than
in the case of a sine oscillation. There is no longer a definite sound pressure
maximum, but two maxima of approximately equal height. One occurs at the
minimum of heat release, the other at a zero passage. Which of these maxima has
to be compared with the oscillation of heat release? The Rayleigh criterion gives
no answer to this question. However, Putnam and Dennis (1954) have already
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shown the way out of this situation with an integral criterion which not only takes
into consideration the location of the maximum but also the entire course of the
wave. Vibrations are excited if the Rayleigh integral is positive:

1 P *Qdt> O. (1)

The integral covers the entire cycle of an oscillation. Figures 6 to 8 show the
integrand of the Rayleigh integral which is the product of P and Q. One cycle is
indicated by two arrows. In Figures 6 and 7 it can be seen that the integral is
positive for one cycle.
The integral condition, Eq. (1), is a special case of a more general condition
which also requires integration over the volume (Lawn, 1982). However, since the
flames are small compared to the wavelength, the change of sound pressure along
the flame is negligible.
For aperiodic oscillations, e.g., beating (Figure 8), well-defined periods no longer
exist. So the Rayleigh integral, which requires integration over a single period,
cannot be applied. If, for example, the time between the two zero passages marked
in Figure 8 is considered to be a period, we find a negative integral. Certainly the
integration limits have to be extended to longer times. A criterion must be found
which is independent of the integration limits. This can be achieved by applying a
statistical criterion instead of an integral one. Therefore, averaging of the product
of P *(2 in terms of time appears to be a logical extension of the Rayleigh integral.
Now the postulation for the occurrence of an oscillation is:
Oscillations are induced if

limK(T» 0, (2)
T-«>

where

K=-1 JT P*Qdt (3)

T 0

holds.

The function K(T} is the cross-correlation function .

 BRIEF COMMUNICATION 405

I ems]
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FIGURE 6 Sine oscillation, stoichiometric combustion.

Urns]

FIGURE 7 Periodic oscillation with harmonic frequencies.

p
Hmsl
15 30
FIGURE 8 Beats.

FIGURES 6-8 Measurements for the discussion of stability criteria. P, oscillation of sound pressure;
Q, oscillation of heat release rate; p*Q, integrand of the Rayleigh integral; K, cross-correlation function.
The experimental parameters are given in Table I.
 406 BRIEF COMMUNICATION

In the figures, the course of the cross-correlation is shown as a function of time

(uppermost curve). In the first figures it can be seen that the cross-correlation
rapidly converges towards a constant positive value. In the case of beating,
convergence is slower in view of the fact that there are more extended structures
expressed in terms of time, but an approximation to a positive limiting value can
clearly be seen.

6 SUMMARY

Experiments conducted on combustion chamber oscillations show that, depending

on the burner geometry and the combustion parameters, the flame induces several
frequencies. Different acoustic modes of the burner may be oscillating
simultaneously and form beats . The flame acts as a nonlinear system and may
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induce harmonic frequencies.

Measurement of the sound pressure and the heat release rate show that the
Rayleigh criterion in its original form is applicable only to simple sine vibrations.
As soon as harmonic frequencies occur it can no longer be definitely interpreted.
Its extension by Putnam and Dennis to an integral criterion is applicable to all
periodic forms of vibration, but not to aperiodic processes. For the latter we
propose a new criterion in the form of the cross-correlation function which can be
applied to all processes we have examined so far.
From this it can be seen that the Rayleigh criterion and the Rayleigh integral can
be regarded as special cases of the statistical representation for simple periodic
oscillations. If the cross-correlation function is confirmed by further experiments,
it would be the most general criterion.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The experiments are being conducted with the support of the Stiftung Volkswagenwerk under the
programme "Fundamentals of industrial combustion proces ses".

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John , R R , and Summerfield, M. (1955). Jet Prop. 25, 535 .
Jo os, E , and Vortmeyer, D. (1986). Self-exicted oscillations in combustion chambers with premixed
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Joos, Franz (1984). Stabilitiitsuntersuchungen selbsterregter Schwingungen in Brennraumen mitl1achen
Flammen beim Auftreten mehrerer Frequenzen. Dissertati on , Miinchen.
Keller, J. 0., and Westbrook, C. K. (1986). Twenty-first Symposium i lntemationati on Combustion.
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mehrerer Frequenzen. Ein erweitertes Stabilitatskriterium, Dissertation, Miinchen.
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Mugridge, B. D. (1980). J. ofSound and Vibration, 70(3), 437.
Putnam, A. A. (1971). Combustion Driven Oscillations In Industry. Elsevier, New York.
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Rayleigh, J. (1878). Nature, July 18,319.
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