Microsoft PowerPoint - MOC Approach For Open Cooling Water System

MOC Approach for
Open Cooling Water System

Essential Expertise for Water, Energy and Air SM
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Essential Expertise for Water, Energy and Air 1
Agenda
• Mechanical
– Cooling tower
– Heat exchanger
– Metallurgy
• Operation
– pH
– Cycle
• Chemical
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Only if you understand the ‘basic principles,’ you
can solve the difficult and complex problems
Dr. M.S. Willis Ph.D., Thermodynamic and Transport Phenomena, 1974
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Cooling Tower
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Why cooling is important?
• Cooling tower performance provide significant

contribution to the plant performance and efficiency
• Poor cooling tower performance could limit the plant

production
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Cooling Tower
What We Need to Know ?
• How it works
• Type of cooling tower
• Major components and impact
• Performance monitoring
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Cooling Tower – Why Important?
• A loss of 2.8 degrees C in

approach to wet bulb
temperature will result in
a 10-15% loss in cooling
load.
– Tower
o
water increase of
0.56 C = 2% increase in
energy use.
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Function of Cooling Towers
• Remove heat from process operation
• Mostly by evaporation (80%)

– partially by sensible heat loss (20%)
• contact of hot water with cooler air
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Cooling Tower Process
• As ambient air is drawn past a

flow of water, a small portion of
the water evaporate. The energy
released by water for
evaporation reduces the
remaining water temperature
• Evaporation results in saturated

air conditions and lowers the
temperature of the water to a
value close to wet bulb air
temperature
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Types of Cooling Towers
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Crossflow Cooling Tower
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Counterflow Cooling Tower
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Cooling Tower Fill
• Purposes of Tower Fills

– Increases the water surface
area for air contact
– Increases contact time
• Main Types of Fill

– Splash Fill
– Film Fill
Tower Fill
Essential Expertise for Water, Energy and Air
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14
14
Splash Bar and Film Fill
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Fill Characteristics
SPLASH FILM
EFFICIENCY Medium High
DURABILITY Medium Low/Medium
FOULING Low High
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Problems with Film Fill
• Easily fouled with

microbio and solids
• Hard to clean once

fouled
• Quick loss of
efficiency
Tower Fill
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Factors Affecting Cooling Tower Performance
• Wet bulb temperature

• Dry bulb temperature
• Plant (heat) load
– Cooling water ∆T
• Cooling water flow
– No of pump running
• Air flow
– Fan (tip, angle, motor; etc)
• Cooling water distribution
– Distribution system
– Fill cleanliness
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Wet Bulb Temperature Measurement
Sling Psychrometer
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Temperature Range and Approach
Note: typically 2.8 0C to design wet bulb is the coldest water temperature
that cooling tower manufacturer guarantee
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Air Flow Issue
• Air flow is a critical component to

Air Recycling
(Incorrect Tip)
ensuring the proper heat
rejection from a cooling system
• Many cooling tower performance

issues may well be airflow
problems
ROTATION
Air In-leakage
From Fan Shaft Fan Stall
(Incorrect Pitch)
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Liquid to Gas Ratio
• L/G = Liquid to Gas Ratio

– L = cw mass flow
– G = air mass flow
• The higher it is, the worst

tower perform or
• Typical range 1 – 2.5

– L/G < 1: tower oversized
– L/G > 2.5: tower undersized
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What is the Correct Way to
Evaluate Cooling Tower Performance ?
1) CW temperature range (∆T)
2) Cooling tower heat load

• M x Cp x ∆T
3) CW supply temperature
4) Approach temperature
5) Evaporation rate
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Performance Monitoring – Cooling Tower
GPSA Nomograph:
(require ∆T& wet bulb
temperatures)
Performance Factor proportional to:
• L/G ratio (L = CW flow, G = air

flow both in kg/hr)
• RR (or L)
• 1/(Fan Power)1/3
Performance Factor > design means

performance deteriorated
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Summary of Factors Affecting Operation
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Heat Exchanger
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Why is This Important?
• A critical component of the cooling system

– Directly affect production and product quality
– Fouled exchangers decrease throughput and capacity
– Leaking exchangers can force unscheduled shutdown
• Also affect water treatment options

– product selection and control limits
Water Distribution System

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Heat Exchanger
• Type of heat exchangers

• Hydraulic, mechanical and
metallurgical
• Mechanical stress to cooling water
treatment
• Performance monitoring
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Type of Heat Exchangers
There are several general types of heat exchangers:
• Shell-and-tube
• Plate-and-frame
• Spiral flow
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Heat Transfer Principle
Process In
Warm Chilled BTU's

Cold Chilled
Water In Water Out
Process Out
Open recirculating systems work on the basis

of two principles...
Ä Evaporation in Cooling Tower
Ä Heat transfer in heat exchangers
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Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger (Water in Tube)
• Most common heat

exchanger type found
in cooling water
system
• Typically has
adequate velocity
– Throttle and spatial
relationship could
create problem
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A shell side heat exchanger offers challenges
• Low velocity
• High skin temperatures
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Mechanical “Stresses”
Three main mechanical stress factors that impact the

efficiency of heat transfer in heat exchanger are:
1) Cooling Water Velocity
2) Skin Temperature
3) Heat Flux
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Cooling Water Velocity Stress Range
Mild Stress Minimal effect of reliability > 1 m/s
Moderate Stress Needs to be considered 0.6-1 m/s
High Stress Will typically be a problem 0.3-0.6 m/s
Severe Stress Typically a problem < 0.3 m/s
• Scale and fouling deposition is more prone to occur at low

velocity
• Lower flow rate, lower turbulence that can lead to static

thicker film of water at metal surfaces à reduces heat
transfer
• Lower velocity = higher skin temperature
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Heat Flux Stress Range
Mild Stress Minimal effect of reliability < 7.5 kW/m2

Moderate Stress Needs to be considered 7.5-25 kW/m2
High Stress Will typically be a problem 25-40 kW/m2
Severe Stress Typically a problem > 40 kW/m2
• High heat flux will lead to high skin temperature
• Typically
v 3.15 – 15.8 kW/ M2 : mild steel
v 15.8 – 31.5 kW/ M2 : alloy
v 31.5 – 63.1 kW/M2 : copper or stainless steel
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Skin Temperature Stress Range
Mild Stress Minimal effect of reliability < 500C

Moderate Stress Needs to be considered 50 - 600C
High Stress Will typically be a problem 60 - 700C
Severe Stress Typically a problem > 700C
• Reasons:
– Corrosion rates ~double for each 10°C increase in metal
temperature
– Scaling tendencies become much more pronounced at high
temperature
– Film boiling may occur as skin temperature
– Some treatment chemicals break down at high temperature
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36
Other Important Mechanical Factors
1) Spatial Relationship
2) Metallurgy
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Spatial Relationship and CW Distribution
115C
108C 146C
101J
Coolers
128C 2nd
116C
3rd
1st
124C
101JC 2002JC
127C
Primary Cooling Water Header Tertiary Cooling Water Header

Secondary Cooling Water Header Cooling Water Return Header
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Spatial Relationship
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Metallurgy
– Copper alloys
• High thermal conductivity
• Sensitive to ammonia and oxidant
• Need film forming inhibitor
– Titanium
• Self passivating metal Ammonia
• Extremely brittle with very thin walls Grooving
• Leaks common (especially during initial
commissioning and startup)
• ANY mechanical impingement can cause leaks
– Stainless Steel
• Self passivating metal Under Deposit
• Subject to chloride stress corrosion Corrosion / MIC
• Must ensure cooling water chloride level
remains within limits
• Under-deposit corrosion, MIC issues
Pitting / MIC
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Chloride and Stainless Steel
PLANT DATA
Duty 3,286,000 Btu/hr

Area 424 ft2
Btu/hr.ft2
U 91.2 .C
Heat Flux 7750 Btu/hr.ft2
Velocity 6.111 ft/s
T CW in 91 F
T CW Out 100 F
Process In 637 F
Process Out 300 F
CALCULATIO
N
T Skin 106.34 F
41.3 C
Max T Skin 146 F
62 C
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Importance of Heat Exchanger Monitoring
Ø Prevent the loss of process cooling

Ø Predict Onset of Problems
Ø Potential Surprises - scaled exchanger
Ø Loss of production
Ø Useful to troubleshoot problems

Ø Methodology using appropriate data
Ø Documentation
Heat Exchanger SMTraining

42
Heat Exchanger Monitoring
• Approach Temperature
– Generally could represent HE performance
– Approach = T Process Exit – T Cooling Water Inlet
(counter current)
• Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD)

– Represent surface condenser performance
– TTD = T Condensing – T Cooling Water Outlet
– Typically 3-60C
• Others: C Factor, U Value, Fouling Factor; etc
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Cooling Water Operation
• Basic mass balance calculation

• Cycle management
• Operational stress factor
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SYSTEM SUMMARY
System Summary
Customer : PT.ECOGREEN OLEOCHEMICAL
Evaporation Efficiency 85 % Location : MEDAN PLANT
Evaporation Rate 8.01 m3/hr System : ICW
Return Temperature 38 C
Heat Source
Heat Load 5280000 Kcal/hr

Cycles 1.7
Corrosion Scale Delta T 8 C
Holding Time Index 27.24 hr
Tower pH 8
Make up Tower Ca 27.2 ppm Ca as CaCO3 Blow Down 11.45 m3/hr
19.53 m3/hr Tower Alkalinity 121.96 ppm HCO3- as CaCO3 Drift & Leak 0.07 m3/hr
Microbio Rate
System Volume 450 m3 Recirculating Rate 660 m3/hr
Basin Temperature 30 C
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Cooling Tower Mass Balance
Drift Evaporation
Windage Windage
Makeup Cycled Water Blowdown
Leaks Loss
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Evaporation
- Process by which hot water returns from the unit heat

exchangers, releases it’s heat to the atmosphere, is cooled, and
returns back to the process.
- Each 10°F [6°C] drop in temperature results in an average

0.85% of recirculated cooling water evaporated.
ER = (RR)*(•T/6)*(0.85%)
Where:
– ER : Evaporation Rate [gpm]
– RR : Recirculation Rate [gpm]
– •T : Temp drop across tower [Deg C]
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Temperature Range or Delta T (∆T)
Temperature Difference Between Water Entering the

Cooling Tower and Water in
the Tower Basin
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Concentration of Dissolved Solids
• Only pure water can evaporate

• No dissolved solids leave the liquid water
• If there are no other water losses from the system,
the evaporation process causes an increase in the
concentration of dissolved solids in the
recirculating cooling water. Constant
Evaporation
6
5
4
3
2
1
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Blow Down and Cycle
• Blow down – portion of the water ejected or drained from a
system to control solids in cooling water
• Cycle – number of times that dissolved minerals in cooling

water are allowed to concentrate. Cycle is controlled by
blowdown
• Cycle = Dissolved Solids Concentration in Cooling Water

Dissolved Solids Concentration in M-Up
• In general, the cycle of concentration allowed depends on both

the level of solids in the make-up and the level of solids that
can be tolerated in cooling water
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Blowdown to Reduce Cycles
1000 ml 500 ml Cycles = 125/100

150 umhos 150 umhos = 1.25 Cycles
500 ml 500 ml 1000 ml

150 umhos 100 umhos 125 umhos
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Makeup Water
• Amount of water required to replace water lost by

evaporation and blowdown
MU = (ER x CR)/(CR – 1) Evaporation
Makeup
Makeup = Evaporation +
Blowdown
Blowdown
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Holding Time Index (HTI)
• HTI is indicate the time required to

reduce the chemical added to the
system to 50% of its original
concentration 10
9
Concentration (ppm)
8
• HTI = 0.693 x Holding Volume 7
Blowdown Rate 6 T½ = 60 hours
5
4
• It is important to select the right
3
chemical program
2
1
0
0 24 48 72 96 120
Time (hours)
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Basic Cooling Tower Calculations
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Operational “Stresses”
Variation of operational and control parameters also

cause stress in cooling water system. The key
examples of operational stresses as follows
1) Variation of cycle
2) Variation of pH
3) Variation of HTI
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Variation of Cycle
Mild Stress Minimal effect of reliability <20%

Moderate Stress Needs to be considered 20-50%
High Stress Will typically be a problem 50-80%
Severe Stress Typically a problem > 80%
% Out of Spec
Low High Total
17.7% 5.3% 23.0%
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Variation of pH
Mild Stress Minimal effect of reliability + 0.1

Moderate Stress Needs to be considered + 0.2
High Stress Will typically be a problem + 0.4
Severe Stress Typically a problem + 0.6
Control Lower Upper Statistical Calculations

Parameter Spec Spec LCL Mean UCL STD
pH 7.50 8.00 7.16 7.72 8.28 0.19
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Cycle and pH – Operating Window
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Variation of HTI
Mild Stress Minimal effect of reliability < 40 hrs

Moderate Stress Needs to be considered 40 - 100 hrs
High Stress Will typically be a problem 100 - 200 hrs
Severe Stress Typically a problem > 200 hrs
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Cycle Management
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Main Problems in Cooling Water Operation
Related to Water Treatment
There are basically four inter-related problems in the operation of a
cooling water system as depicted by the Cooling Water Treatment
Triangle below. Each problem affects and is affected by the other
problems.
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Corrosion
• A natural process converting

processed metals to their
native states
• Factors affecting:
- Water chemistry
- Physical environment
(temperature, velocity,
hydrodynamic)
- Dissolved gases
- Halogen or other oxidizers
- Deposit
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Consequences of Corrosion
• Reduced Heat Transfer (Lost Efficiency)
• Increased Cleaning (Added Costs and

Hassle)
• Equipment Repair and Replacement

(Lost Revenue)
• Process or Water-Side Contamination

(Poor Product Quality)
• Unscheduled Shutdown (Lost Revenue)
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Corrosion Mechanism
Corrosion:
An electrochemical process in which a metal in it’s elemental
form returns to it’s native (i.e., oxidized) state.
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“Corrosion Never Sleep”
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
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Types of Corrosion
1. General (uniform)
2. Localized Corrosion
3. Stress Corrosion Cracking
4. Corrosion Related to
Mechanical Factors
5. Corrosion Related to
Materials
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General Corrosion
• The most common form of corrosion experienced in

industry
• Metal loss in which a given area is alternately a

cathode and an anode. Metal loss occurs uniformly
over the entire surface.
• The least dangerous and most easily prevented form

of corrosion.
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Localized Corrosion
• Tuberculation
• Pitting Corrosion
• Oxygen Corrosion
• Under Deposit Corrosion
• Acid Corrosion
• Alkaline Corrosion
• Crevice Corrosion
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Localized Corrosion
Tuberculation
• Tubercles are mounds of corrosion
product and deposit that cap
localized regions of metal loss
• Tubercles form on steel and cast

iron when surfaces are exposed to
oxygenated waters, as do as do
high concentrations of sulfate,
chloride, other aggressive anions
and biological interactions (SRB;
etc)
• Location:
– Service water system piping, w
water boxes, storage tanks; et
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Tuberculation
Iron Deposition Structures
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Localized Corrosion
Pitting
• Extremely localized corrosive attack
• Usually occur under deposit
• But also can happen in clean metal surfaces in high
concentration of aggressive ions (chloride, sulfate; etc)
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Localized Corrosion
Under Deposit Corrosion
• Localized Corrosion occurs under the deposit
• Deposits can cause corrosion both directly and

indirectly.
– Directly: deposits contain corrosive substances
– Indirectly: shielding of surfaces below deposits produces
indirect attack (concentration cell)
• Concentration cell mechanisms

– Different Aeration Cell
– Different Ion Concentration Cell
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Localized Corrosion
Concentration Cell Mechanism
Different Ion Concentration Cell
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Localized Corrosion
Crevice Corrosion
• Crevice corrosion is a
localized form of corrosion
usually associated with a
stagnant solution on the
microenvironmental level
• Stagnant microenvironments
tend to occur in crevices
(shielded areas) such as
those formed under gaskets,
insulation materials, coating,
surface deposits; etc
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Localized Corrosion
Crevice Corrosion
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Stress Corrosion Cracking
• Cracking resulting from a

synergistic interaction of a
tensile stress and a specific
corrodent to which metal
sensitive
• Concentrating mechanism
of corrodent (mainly
chloride for stainless steel)
that occur in under deposit
enhance the corrosion
process
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Stress Corrosion Cracking
Temperature & Chloride Concentration
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Factors Influencing Corrosion
Mechanical, Operation and Chemistry
• Mechanical Stress
– Metallurgy
– Temperature
– Velocity
– Hydrodynamic and Spatial Relation
• Operational Stress
– Variation of pH, cycle and HTI
• Chemical Stress
– Water quality
• pH
• Conductivity
• Aggressive ions (Cl, SO4)
• Hardness and alkalinity
• Dissolved gases
• Oxidants
– Inhibitor capability
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Mechanical:
Temperature and Velocity Impact to Corrosion
Temperature Velocity
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Mechanical Stress and Impact to Scale
• Skin Temperature
Mild Minimal Effect on Reliability < 48 deg C
Moderate Needs to be Considered 48-60 deg C
High W ill Typically be a problem 60-70 deg C
Severe Typically a problem >70 deg C
• CW Velocity
Mild Minimal Effect on Reliability 0.9-1.8 mps
Moderate Needs to be Considered 0.6-0.9 mps/1.8-3.65 mps
High Will Typically be a problem 0.3-0.6/>3.65 mps
Severe Typically a problem <0.3 mps
• Heat Flux
Mild Minimal Effect on Reliability < 6780 KCal/hr-m2
Moderate Needs to be Considered >6780 < 20338 KCal/hr-m2
High Will Typically be a problem >20338 < 33896 KCal/hr-m2
Severe Typically a problem >33896 KCal/hr-m2
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Operational Stress and Impact to Corrosion
Operational Stress Level Impact of Variation

Stress High Side Low Side
Variation of Cycle of • Mild < 20% Increases potential of Low Ca and Alkalinity
Concentration • Moderate 20-50% corrosion potential on could lead to high
• High 50-60% stainless steel as corrosion
chloride increase
• Severe > 80%
Variation of pH • Mild + 0.1 unit - Increase potential for
• Moderate + 0.2 units corrosion
• High + 0.4 units
• Severe + 0.6 units
Variation of Holding • Mild < 40 hrs • Increases potential -
Time Index (HTI) • Moderate 40 – 100 hrs for inhibitor
• High 100 – 20 hrs degradation
• Severe > 200 hrs • Increases potential
for deposition and
under deposit
corrosion
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Chemical:
Conductivity and pH Impact to Corrosion
Conductivity pH
Its not linear

because it also
depend on ionic
species
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Chemical: Make-Up Water Quality
• Make-up water quality

– Source: river, sea water, brackish, swamp water, deep
well, recycle
• Variability is important !
Parameter Unit Jan-March April-June July-Sept Oct-Dec
pH - 7.80 8.00 8.30 7.60

Ca-Hardness ppm CaCO3 242.00 264.00 286.00 220.00
Mg-Hardness ppm CaCO3 99.00 108.00 117.00 90.00
M-Alkalinity ppm CaCO3 93.50 102.00 110.50 85.00
Sulfate ppm SO4 66.00 72.00 78.00 60.00
Chloride ppm Cl 88.00 96.00 104.00 80.00

Silica ppm SiO2 22.00 24.00 26.00 20.00
Aluminum ppm Al 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.10

Manganese ppm Mn 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.05
Total Iron ppm Fe 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.10
Conductivity µS/cm 572.00 624.00 676.00 520.00
Turbidity NTU 3.20 3.40 2.50 3.60
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Corrosion Prevention Methods
• Use corrosion resistant

materials
– Copper, stainless steel,
titanium, FRP; etc
• Apply Inert Barrier or

Coating
– Organics, metallics; etc
• Use Sacrificial anode/

cathodic Protection
• Adjustments to Water
Chemistry
– pH, conductivity, and
alkalinity
• Corrosion Inhibitors
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Corrosion Inhibitor Classification
• Anodic Inhibitor
– Chromate
– Nitrite
– Orthophosphate
– Bicarbonate
– Silicate
– Molybdate
• Cathodic Inhibitor
– Carbonate
– Polyphosphate
– Zinc
• Film forming inhibitors/ Organic Inhibitors
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Mild Steel Corrosion Protection
Water - Conductive Media
Worse with High Conductivity

O2
CaCO3
O2 Ca-PO4
Fe-PO4, Fe-OrgPO4, Fe-MoO4,
etc
FeOOH Zn(OH)2
Ca-HEDP
No electron flow
Electron
Insulator
Anodic Inhibitor Cathodic Inhibitor
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Corrosion Inhibitors – Cathodic & Anodic
Cathodic inhibition
Prevents the transfer of electrons à
prevent the reduction of oxygen.
Anodic inhibition
prevents the dissolution of the base metal,
iron.
• Combinations of both anodic and cathodic inhibitors generally provide the best
protection.
• These combinations are called “synergistic” because the combination provides

lower corrosion rates than either inhibitor could alone,
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Film Forming/Organic Inhibitor
• Organic materials that form and

maintain barrier between the
water & metal phases to
prevent corrosion
• Should be injected continuously

to prevent small break of the
film
• Azoles compounds (TT,BZT,

MBT) for copper metallurgy
• Soluble Oil for closed cooling

water with low conductivity
requirement
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Copper Corrosion Protection
O2
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Corrosion Inhibitor Feed and Control
• Conventional method
– Continuous feed
– Routine testing of inhibitor
residual
• Automation
– Chemical feed is adjusted
automatically based on actual
(real time) inhibitor level in the
system
– Nalco 3D TRASAR Technology
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General Methods for
Corrosion Inhibition
• Use Corrosion Resistant Materials
• Apply Inert Barrier or Coating
• Use Cathodic Protection
• Adjustments to Water Chemistry
• Application of Corrosion Inhibitors
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mpy
0.0
0.5
1.0
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3.0
3/20/03
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3/30/03
4/4/03
4/9/03
4/14/03
4/19/03
4/24/03
4/29/03
5/4/03
XLP-170/N-23263
5/9/03
5/14/03
ManualManual
5/19/03
Control
5/24/03
Control
5/29/03
6/3/03
6/8/03
6/13/03
6/18/03
6/23/03
6/28/03
7/3/03
7/8/03
Date

7/13/03
Corrosion Rates
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7/18/03
7/23/03
7/28/03
8/2/03
8/7/03
Slaved
Control
8/12/03
8/17/03
8/22/03
8/27/03
9/1/03
9/6/03
N-23263 Trasar Control/ XLP-170 Slaved
3D TRASAR Corrosion Control
9/11/03
9/16/03
9/21/03
9/26/03
10/1/03
10/6/03
3DT Automation Control
10/11/03
N-73292 Tagged Control/ N-73284 Trasar Control
10/16/03
10/21/03
10/26/03
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Corrosion Control Program Monitoring
• Corrosion rate
– Coupon
– On line corrosion meter
• Corrosion products
– Total Iron
– Copper
• Eddy current test
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Corrosion Rate Monitoring and Classification
Note: monitor by using corrosion coupon
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Scale
• A dense, adherent layer of

minerals tightly bound to
itself and to metal surface
• Factors influences
- pH
- Minerals concentration (Ca,
Mg, SiO2, Alkalinity;etc)
- Temperature
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Scale vs. Deposits/Fouling
• Scales from mineral • Deposits/Fouling from

suspended matter:
precipitation:
“water borne”
“water formed”
• Precipitated minerals can
• Calcium carbonate - CaCO3
form sludge (CaCO3)
• Calcium sulfate - CaSO4
• Tri-Calcium phosphate - • Metal oxides
• Bulk precipitants
Ca3(PO4)2
• Present in make up
• Silica / silicates
• Corrosion products
• Mud, silt, clay
• Make up
• Airborne dust
• Biological fouling
• Algae mats, plant matter
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Problems Caused By Scale & Deposits
• Reduced heat transfer

• Loss of cooling capacity
• Restriction of water flow
• Higher back pressure
• Higher heat rate
• De-rating / reduced peak
capability
• Under-deposit corrosion
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Types of Scale Found in Cooling Water
• Calcium Carbonate
• Calcium Phosphate
• Silica and Silicate
• Calcium Sulfate
• etc
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CaCO3 Scale Formation
• Ca concentration a function of
make up and cycles
• CO3 concentration a function of

pH, Alkalinity
• Less soluble in high pH and

high temperature
• Acid for pH control
• Blow down for cycle control
• Scale inhibitors
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Calcium Phosphate Scale Formation
• Calcium Phosphate
– Phosphate source from make
up or corrosion treatment
• Gray water sources may have
high, variable PO4
– Solubility decreases as pH
increases (> 8.0)
– Solubility inversely proportional
to temperature
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Silica / Silicate Scale Formation
Silica
Silica will form in the coldest
• Silica concentration is a function
areas.
of make up and cycles
• Blow down for cycle control Also seen in condenser tubes
• More soluble in high pH and high that circulate cold water, off line.
temperature
• Spesical scale inhibitors /
dispersants for SiO2 > 150 ppm
Silicate
• Mainly MgSiO3
• Less soluble in high pH (> 8.3)
and high temperature
• Acid for pH control – prevent
silicate formation
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Factors Influencing Scale
– Temperature
– Velocity
– pH, cycle and HTI and its
variation
• Chemical Stress
– Water Chemistry
• pH
• Hardness
• M-Alkalinity
• Silica
• Phosphate
• Sulfate
• Saturation Index
– Inhibitors capability
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Mechanical: Impact of Temperature
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Mechanical Stress: HE Design and Impact to Scaling
CW in Tube Side Plate & Frame CW in Shell Side
Hot Process Inlet
Baffles
Hot Water Outlet
Cold Water Inlet
Cold Process Outlet
• Typically low velocity • Typically low velocity

• Moderate velocity are
• Low to high skin • Typically high skin
common
temperature temperature
• Throttled valve,
vertical HE; etc can
lead to low velocity
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Mechanical Stress and Impact to Scale
• Skin Temperature
Mild Minimal Effect on Reliability < 48 deg C
Moderate Needs to be Considered 48-60 deg C
High W ill Typically be a problem 60-70 deg C
Severe Typically a problem >70 deg C
• CW Velocity
• Heat Flux
Mild Minimal Effect on Reliability < 6780 KCal/hr-m2
Moderate Needs to be Considered >6780 < 20338 KCal/hr-m2
High Will Typically be a problem >20338 < 33896 KCal/hr-m2
Severe Typically a problem >33896 KCal/hr-m2
SM
Operational Stress and Impact to Scale
Operational Stress Level Impact of Variation

Stress High Side Low Side
Variation of Cycle of • Mild < 20% Increases potential -

Concentration • Moderate 20-50% of scale and
• High 50-60% deposition
• Severe > 80%
Variation of pH • Mild + 0.1 unit Increases potential -
• Moderate + 0.2 units of scale and
• High + 0.4 units deposition
• Severe + 0.6 units
Variation of Holding • Mild < 40 hrs • Increases potential -
Time Index (HTI) • Moderate 40 – 100 hrs for inhibitor
• High 100 – 20 hrs degradation
• Severe > 200 hrs • Increases potential
for scale formation
& deposition
SM
Chemical: Impact of pH
SM
Chemical: Make-Up Water Quality
• Make-up water quality

– Source: river, sea water, brackish, swamp water, deep
well, recycle
• Variability is important !
Parameter Unit Jan-March April-June July-Sept Oct-Dec
pH - 7.80 8.00 8.30 7.60

Ca-Hardness ppm CaCO3 242.00 264.00 286.00 220.00
Mg-Hardness ppm CaCO3 99.00 108.00 117.00 90.00
M-Alkalinity ppm CaCO3 93.50 102.00 110.50 85.00
Sulfate ppm SO4 66.00 72.00 78.00 60.00
Chloride ppm Cl 88.00 96.00 104.00 80.00

Silica ppm SiO2 22.00 24.00 26.00 20.00
Aluminum ppm Al 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.10

Manganese ppm Mn 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.05
Total Iron ppm Fe 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.10
Conductivity µS/cm 572.00 624.00 676.00 520.00
Turbidity NTU 3.20 3.40 2.50 3.60
SM
How to Predict Scaling Tendency ?
SM
Saturation Index as a Tool
SYSTEM
pH TEMPERATURE
WATER DESIGN
CHEMISTRY
SATURATION INDEX
PROGRAM DESIGN
VARY VARY
CYCLE VARY VARY CHEMISTRY
pH TEMPERATURE
SM
Saturation Index Reference Chart
From saturation index data we could select

the right scale inhibitors type and dosage
Mineral Low Medium High

Scale Stress Stress Stress
Calcite 6 80 140
Aragonite 7 80 140
Anhydrite 1.2 3 4
Gypsum 1.2 4 6
Tricalcium Phosphate 50 1000 1500
Hydoxyapetite Insufficent Data Insufficent Data Insufficent Data
Flourite Insufficent Data Insufficent Data Insufficent Data
Silica 1.1 1.2 1.5
Brucite 1.1 1.2 1.5
Magnesium Silicate 6 7 8
Iron Use of SI not indicative of iron fouling problems
SM
SM
Fouling
• Fouling is formed from material

suspended in water, while scaling
deposits involve precipitated
minerals
• Types:
– Suspended Solids
• Clays (dirt and silt)
• Clarifier sludges
– Corrosion Products
• Metal oxides, hydroxides (Fe,
Mn)
• Location:
– Low velocity areas
• Heat exchangers
• Tower basins, hot decks, film
fill
SM
Factors Influencing Fouling:
– Velocity
– Cycle and HTI and its variation
• Chemical Stress
– Water Quality
• Turbidity and Suspended Solids
– Iron, Manganese, Aluminum
– Oil, organics, microbiological
– Contamination (process and air borne)
– Inhibitor capability
SM
Mechanical: Impact of Spatial Relationship to Fouling
SM
Mechanical: Impact of Hydrodynamic to Fouling
SM
Mechanical: HE Design and Impact to Fouling
CW in Tube Side Plate & Frame CW in Shell Side
Hot Process Inlet
Baffles
Hot Water Outlet
Cold Water Inlet
Cold Process Outlet
• Typically low velocity • Typically low velocity

• Typically moderate
velocity (>0.6 m/s)
• Throttled valve,
vertical HE; etc can
lead to low velocity
SM
Mechanical Stress Impact to Fouling: Velocity

SM
Cooling Tower Filler Design and Impact to Fouling
• Low velocities
• High cycles – locally higher than bulk
water
• Excellent environment for bacterial
slime growth
• Formation of mixed deposit
–Bacterial slime traps suspended solids
–Scale formation
SM
High Efficiency High Efficiency

Splash Bar Cross Flow Fill Cross Corrugated Fill
Low fouling tendency High fouling tendency Very high fouling tendency
Tower Fill
SM
122
SM
MOC Impact to Fouling: Pretreatment System
• System design and flow

path
– No pretreatment
– Clarifier
– Clarifier + MMF
• Performance
– Carry over issue ?
– Overfed of coagulant ?
SM
Scale and Fouling Control
• Pretreatment
• Side stream filtration
• Operational management
• Mechanical modification
• Chemical inhibitors
SM
Scale and Fouling Control - Pretreatment
SM
Scale and Fouling Control: Side Stream Filtration
• Lowering fouling tendency

by reduce suspended solids
concentration
• Saving in microbio control
• Saving in inhibitor cost
SM
Scale and Fouling Control:
Mechanical Modification
• Increasing velocity
– Providing more flow
– Avoiding throttle
• Lowering heat flux
• Air rumbling
• Reverse flow
• Change spatial relationship
• Ball cleaning
SM
Scale and Fouling Control
Operational - Water Chemistry Management
Low Cycle = high High Cycle =

operating costs operational
• Cycle control problems
– Low cycle à low

scale/fouling ~ high
High
cost
– High cycle à high
scale/ fouling ~ low
operating cost
• pH control for scale

– Low pH à low scale
à CaCO3, Ca3PO4; etc
Minimum TCO
Low
Low Cycle High
SM
Scale and Fouling Control:
Chemical Inhibitors
• Scale inhibitors
• Fouling inhibitors
– Dispersant
– Surfactant
SM
Mechanism of Chemical Scale & Fouling Inhibitors
• Scale Inhibitor Mechanisms

– Treshold Inhibition & Crystal Modification
– Sequestration
– Scale conditioner (dispersant)
• Fouling Inhibitor Mechanisms

– Dispersant
– Surfactants
Calcium Phosphate Crystal
SM
Mechanism of Chemical Scale & Fouling Inhibitors
SM
Performance Comparison Scale Inhibitors
Capability AMP PSO HEDP PBTC PAPEMP

Corrosion Inhibition 2 5 3 1 1
CaCO3 SI 105 80 100 180 200+
CaSO4 734 483 130 257 574+
Cl2 Stab 2 5 3 5 3
Thermal Stability 3 5 2 5 4
Note:
5 Best, 1 Worst
SM
Main Function of Dispersant
• Prevent deposition commonly found
minerals & inorganic particulates such as
– Calcium phosphate
– Iron,
– Silt
– Zinc
• Keep corrosion inhibitor “soluble”

– To be able function the inhibitors must be
dispersed in the water otherwise localized
deposition will occur
SM
Polymer Dispersant Enhance
Corrosion Inhibition
Fe-PO4
Ca-PO4,Zn(OH)2
FeOOH
Anodic Inhibitor Cathodic Inhibitor
SM
Performance Comparison Polymer Dispersant
Condition Conventional High Stress

Dispersant Limit Polymer Limit
Bulk Temperature, 0C 57 82
Velocity*, m/s 0.6 0.3
Holding Time Index*, hr 72 168
Calcium* (ppm) 750 1200
Iron (ppm) 2 8
Aluminum (ppm) 0.5 2
Note
* Depend of corrosion inhibitor program
SM
Scale Inhibitor Feed and Control
• Conventional method
– Continuous feed
– Routine testing of inhibitor
residual
• Automation
– Chemical feed is adjusted
automatically based on actual
(real time) “ active” inhibitor
level in the system
– Nalco 3D TRASAR Technology
with tagged polymer control
SM
3D TRASAR Scale Control
Scale Inhibitor Fed
System
Stress
Dosage
Active Polymer
Controlled by 3D TRASAR
Performance
Maintained
Time
SM
Scale/Fouling Monitoring
• Deposit Monitor(s)
• Deposit Analysis
• Tagged polymer (3DT)
• Performance Monitoring
– Heat exchanger
– Cooling tower
SM
Nalco Chemical Programs for
Scale and Corrosion
PSO-Phosphate
Stabilized Phosphate
pHreedom
All organic
Alkaline Zinc
Under-saturated Calcium Carbonate Over-saturated

(corrosive) (Calcite)Saturation (Scale)
Low pH High pH
Low Alkalinity High Alkalinity
High environmental impact Least environmental impact
SM
Microbiological
Fouling
SM
Microbio Fouling
• The most prevalent problems in

industrial cooling water systems
• A good control of microbial

growth is essential if we are to
control the other water
chemistry problems
• Factors affecting:
– Suspended solids
– Contaminants (organics,
ammonia, phosphate; etc)
– Physical factor (velocity and
hydrodynamic)
– pH
SM
Types Microbio Found in Cooling Water
• Bacteria
– Aerobic bacteria
– Anaerobic bacteria
– Iron depositing bacteria
– Nitrifiers bacteria
• Algae
• Fungi
• Protozoa
SM
Biofilm Development
Attaches Merges and grows Covers surface

(minutes) (hours) (days)
• Phases of biofilm formation:

1. Adsorption of organic film onto clean surface
2. Microorganisms attach themselves by the production of exopolymers
3. Microorganisms multiply, trap silt, corrosion products, scale, organisms
4. Shear forces cause biofilm to spread over surface
SM
Biofilm Development
SM
Biofilm, Bacterial Slime
• Typically 99% of the bacteria in a cooling water system live
within biofilm
• Comprised of aerobic and anaerobic species
• Extremely low thermal conductivity
– A 25 micron biofilm can reduce heat transfer up to 50%
• Causes under-deposit corrosion, MIC
• Can initiate mineral scale formation
SM
Bacteria – Aerobic Slime-Forming
• Require oxygen for growth

– Aerated water in cooling
water system
• Description
– Sticky, slimy, masses usually
colored by suspended solids
• Problems/impact
– Fouling. Produces conditions
for anaerobic corrosive
bacteria
• Types
– Psedomonas
– Pigmented Mucoids
– Aerobacter
SM
Bacteria – Anaerobic Corrosive
• No required oxygen for

growth. Indicating stagnant
condition or deposition
• Description
– Black appearance.Rotten
egg odor (H2S)
– Grow best under slime/
deposits
• Problem/Impact:
– Corrosion pH reduction
• Type:
– Desulfovibrio
– Clostridrium
SM
Iron Depositing Bacteria
• Use soluble iron as source of

energy and convert it to
insoluble iron
• Live under low oxygen or
interfaces between aerobic and
anaerobic
• Description
– White or rust-colored
– Stringy, slippery; oftern forms
voluminous red deposit
• Problem/impact
– Iron deposition
– Under deposit corrosion
• Types
– Sphaerotilus
– Gal;ionella
SM
Bacteria: Nitrifiers/Denitrifiers
• Driving energy through

oxidation of nitrogen
compound
• Found in ammonia
contamination system or
closed loops with nitrite
inhibitor
• Description
– Produce acids in NH3
contaminated system
• Problem/Impact
• Types:
– Nitrosifiers: NH3 à NO2-
– Nitrifiers: NO2 à NO3-
– pH reduction. Corrosion
SM
Acid Production in Biofilms
Aerobic Bacteria
•Consume oxygen and produce organic slime
Facultative Bacteria
•Use organic matter to produce acid
Anaerobic Bacteria (includes SRB)
•Produce more organic and inorganic acids
Aerobic
Facultative
R-COO-
R-COO-
H+
H+ R-COO- Anaerobic
H+
R-COO- R-COO-
H H H
H +
+ +
+ H
H +
+
Propagating Pit Metal
SM
Algae
• Found living only in sunlight or

source of light.
• Grown on submerged or
periodically wetted areas
• Description
– Loose, slimy, rubbery
– Often green or brown
• Problem/impact:
– Plugging of distribution deck
holes
– Living or dead algae can feed
bacteria
• Types
– Oscilatorria
– Chlorococcus
SM
Fungi – Mold and Yeast
• Produce hard and rubbery slime
• Common in air washers
• Grow in water-wetted, rather than submerged areas
• May reproduce by spore formation
• Mold and spores are very resistant to biocides
• Degrade wood to weaken cooling tower structure
• In closed loop systems occur as fluffy floc
SM
Microbes – Where do they come from ?
• They are already there!
• They continuously enter water systems via:

– Make-up water
– Air-borne contaminants
– Process leaks OIL PRODUCTION
INDUSTRY PAPER
INDUSTRY
CLINICAL/
– Other debris HEALTH
MICRO-
ORGANISMS
MARINE
FOOD & DRINK PAINTS

INDUSTRY
COOLING
Microbes are everywhere. WATERS
SM
Why Microbio Growth in Cooling Water ?
Microbial populations rapidly adapt to changes in their environment
• Existence of nutrients: essential elements

– carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur
• Suitable conditions
– Temperature: 10 - 50 °C
– pH: 3 -10
• Other factors - e.g. sunlight for algae
SM
Consequences of Microbio Fouling
• Loss of cooling capacity

• Increased energy consumption -
higher pump pressures
• Under deposit corrosion – reduce
equipment life time & unscheduled
shut down
• Plugging - Unscheduled
maintenance
• Degradation of treatment
chemicals
• Wood decay in the cooling tower
• Pathogen growth promotion
SM
Microbio Norms – Tower Fill
• A loss of 2.8 degrees C in

approach to wet bulb
temperature will result in
a 10-15% loss in cooling
load.
– Tower
o
water increase of
0.56 C = 2% increase in
energy use.
SM
Factors Influencing Microbio Fouling:
– Cooling tower: fill, basin, drift; etc
– Stagnant areas
– Low velocity
– Filters
– HTI: high HTI impact to biocide
effectiveness
– Intermittent operation
• Chemical Stress
– Contamination
• Process: Organics, Ammonia, Oil;etc
• Make-up: Organics and Microbio
• Air: Organics and suspended solids
– Biocide capability
SM
Mechanical Stress Impact to Microbio: Velocity

SM
FILM FILL Biofilm are Adhesive
FILM FILL
FILM FILL
FILM FILL
corrosion
products
calcium 7%
scales
15% biological
37%
silt
41%
FILM FILL
FILM FILL
FILM FILL
FILM FILL
SM
Operational Stress Impact to Microbio: Contaminants
Free Chlorine
SM
Microbio Fouling Cycle
1.
Contamination
(HC, NH3,S)
6. Heat
Exchanger 2. Biocide
Leak Out of
Control
5. High
Corrosion 3. Microbio
Rate Fouling
4. Drop in
Efficiency
SM
Microbiological Control
The goal is not to STERILIZE the system, but
to MANAGE microbial fouling to a level that

minimizes mechanical, operational, and chemical
problems at an acceptable cost.
SM
163
SM
Biocides
• Oxidizing Biocides
– Usually the primary biocide
• Non-Oxidizing Biocides
– Algae control
– Biofouling control
– Pathogen control
• Biodispersant & bio-detergents

– Improved biofouling control
SM
Biocide – Oxidizing Biocide
• Oxidizers (are usually the primary biocide)

– Chemically oxidize organic
components of the cell
– Effective against nearly all
microorganisms
– Chlorine: as gas or bleach
– Bromine: as NaBr or other bromine
donors
– Chlorine Dioxide
– Hydrogen Peroxide
– Ozone
– etc
SM
166
Oxidizing Biocides
Chemically oxidize organics component of the cell
Advantages Disadvantages
• Broad spectrum of activity. • Un-stabilized chemistry
Effective against nearly all - Corrosive
microorganisms - Aggressive toward inhibitor
• Resistance to oxidants rare - Volatile
and limited - Ineffective for biofilm removal at
• Inexpensive use concentrations
• Lower environmental impact • Could contribute AOX
• Simple to monitor and control • React with most of organics
(except ClO2)
• Ease of Dosing: Slug or
maintain a residual • Low efficacy against algae at low
concentrations
• Can be deactivated prior to
discharge
SM
Oxidizing Biocides on Biofilm Penetration
• Most of oxidizers react mostly of

the surface of the biofilm to form
an oxidized layer, like charring on
wood. This precludes further
penetration
• Stabilized oxidants (Stabrex)

contain stabilizer that enhances
penetration of biocide into the
biofilm
• Chlorine dioxide is a dissolved

gas that penetrates biofilm and
cell wall of the micro-organisms by
molecular diffusion and disrupt
metabolic functions
SM
Impact of pH to Oxidizing Biocides
SM
Impact of Oxidizing Biocides to “High Demand”
(Contamination)
Source: Cooling Water Treatment with Chlorine Dioxide, Siemens
SM
General Guide Line
Oxidizing Biocides Speed of pH Toxicity NH3 Organics Sulfide

Kill
Chlorine Fast 6.5 – 7.6 Med •• •• ••
Activated Bromine Fast 7.6 – 9.0 Non • •• ••
Stabilized Bromine Medium 7.6 – 9.0 Med x •• ••
Solid Stabilized Medium 7.6 – 9.0 High x •• ••

Chlorine/Bromine
Chlorine Dioxide Fast 6.0 – 10.0 High - • ••
SM
Microbio Fouling Cycle
1.
Contamination
(HC, NH3,S)
6. Heat
Exchanger 2. Biocide
Leak Out of
Control
5. High
Corrosion 3. Microbio
Rate Fouling
4. Drop in
Efficiency
SM
Bio-Control Practices in
Recirculating Cooling Water
Isothiazoline DBNPA
• Non-Oxidizing biocides
– Organic compounds, react
with cell components
enyzm enyzm – Disrupt cell wall, metabolism,
or reproduction
– Effective to control specific
amino
organisms
• Algae control
• Biofouling control
• Pathogen control
– Improved Bio-Control / Bio-
Quat Glut Manage practices
SM
173
Non Oxidizing Biocides
React with cell components, disrupt cell wall,
metabolism, or reproduction
Advantages Disadvantages
• Selective • High cost per kilogram
• Not corrosive • Special handling precautions
• Lower AOX • Chemical inactivation can occur
• Ease of Slug Dosing • Not broad spectrum
• Storage for contingency • Local discharge limitations may
• Essential in high-demand apply
situations • Resistant populations may
• Active in wide pH range develop at low doses
• Some have dispersancy
capability
SM
Algae Fouling Control with N-90001
Before After weekly 25 ppm algaecide slug

SM
Biodispersant/ Biodetergent
Biodispersants (biodetergents) can disperse deposited

particles, and may improve the efficacy of biocides
Before addition of biodetergent
After addition of biodetergent
Biodetergent is a Nalco term for newer generation technology

SM
Fill Fouling Control with Biodetergent
Fouled film fill prior to trial Film fill after six-weeks of

biodetergent treatment
SM
Selecticide Test
• Test to evaluate the efficacy of different biocides

• Both oxidizing and non-oxidizing biocides are included
• Good tool to identify appropriate biocide program for the system
SM
Microbio Monitoring
Laboratory Monitoring
• Plant:
– Oxidizer residuals
– ORP
– Dip slides / plates
– Bio-box or sessile coupon
– ATP liquid or swab
– 3DT Bio-Index
• Lab:
– Nalco DMA
– Deposit analysis
– Pathogen / Legionella
SM
Laboratory - DMA
(Differential Microbiological Analysis)
Nalco DMA Report
SM
Microbio Monitoring
Unit Monitoring
• Visual, Tactile:
– Algae in basin, on tower
structure
– Slimy feel on tower, basin,
or equipment surfaces
– Inspections
• Performance:
– Condenser cleanliness
factor
• Backpressure, TTD
– Hx performance
• Lube oil, Hydrogen
– Tower performance
• Approach to wet bulb
SM
Microbio Monitoring: CT Temperature Approach
CT Approach Temperature Trend
10
6
Ap p ro ach T
0
09
08
08
09
8
0
08
09
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/1
/1
/1
/1
8/
9/
8/
0/
20
20
28
28
23
21
18
28
29
23
29
30
29
26
29
/2
30
30
30
30
7/
/2
/2
/3
12
1/
1/
4/
5/
6/
7/
7/
8/
9/
4/
5/
5/
6/
8/
9/
4/
5/
6/
7/
10
12
10
/1
/1
28
30
Date
Note: typically 2.8 0C to design wet bulb is the coldest water temperature
that cooling tower manufacturer guarantee
SM
SM
Summary
Scale
Corrosion
Microbio
Fouling
Fouling Bio Fouling
SM
Thank You
SM

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MOC Approach for

Open Cooling Water System

Dr. M.S. Willis Ph.D., Thermodynamic and Transport Phenomena, 1974

• Cooling tower performance provide significant

• Poor cooling tower performance could limit the plant

• A loss of 2.8 degrees C in

• Remove heat from process operation

• Mostly by evaporation (80%)

• As ambient air is drawn past a

• Evaporation results in saturated

• Purposes of Tower Fills

• Main Types of Fill

EFFICIENCY Medium High

DURABILITY Medium Low/Medium

FOULING Low High

• Easily fouled with

• Hard to clean once

• Wet bulb temperature

• Air flow is a critical component to

• Many cooling tower performance

• L/G = Liquid to Gas Ratio

• The higher it is, the worst

• Typical range 1 – 2.5

1) CW temperature range (∆T)

2) Cooling tower heat load

Performance Factor proportional to:

• L/G ratio (L = CW flow, G = air

Performance Factor > design means

• A critical component of the cooling system

• Also affect water treatment options

Water Distribution System

• Type of heat exchangers

There are several general types of heat exchangers:

Warm Chilled BTU's

Open recirculating systems work on the basis

• Most common heat

Three main mechanical stress factors that impact the

1) Cooling Water Velocity

• Scale and fouling deposition is more prone to occur at low

• Lower flow rate, lower turbulence that can lead to static

• Lower velocity = higher skin temperature

Mild Stress Minimal effect of reliability < 7.5 kW/m2

• High heat flux will lead to high skin temperature

Mild Stress Minimal effect of reliability < 500C

Primary Cooling Water Header Tertiary Cooling Water Header

Duty 3,286,000 Btu/hr

Ø Prevent the loss of process cooling

Ø Useful to troubleshoot problems

Heat Exchanger SMTraining

• Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD)

• Others: C Factor, U Value, Fouling Factor; etc

• Basic mass balance calculation

Heat Load 5280000 Kcal/hr

System Volume 450 m3 Recirculating Rate 660 m3/hr

Makeup Cycled Water Blowdown

- Process by which hot water returns from the unit heat

- Each 10°F [6°C] drop in temperature results in an average

Temperature Difference Between Water Entering the

• Only pure water can evaporate

• Cycle – number of times that dissolved minerals in cooling

• Cycle = Dissolved Solids Concentration in Cooling Water

• In general, the cycle of concentration allowed depends on both

1000 ml 500 ml Cycles = 125/100