CHAPTER 3

DRAINAGE COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

SARASWATI RIVER CORRIDOR

3.1 Drainage evolution, composition, characteristics and present scenario

3.2 Channel characteristics - pattern and present status

3.3 Lateral view of the stream corridor – An analysis

3.4 Longitudinal view of the stream corridor- Thalweg characteristics

3.5 Across and along issues (Fluvio-morphic) of corridor restoration and development

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INTRODUCTION

The role of rivers in the life and history of the people any region is of special significance
as the prosperity and decadence of certain parts of those areas have been intimately linked
up with the various processes of respective river corridor. Human interference as well as
natural causes has operated from time to time to introduce significant changes in the
behaviour of some of these, bringing in turn their important change in the life- history of
the people affected by these. To all these who have the well being of this State at heart, the
maintenance and control of these rivers for the greater good to the people is a necessity and
the problems connected with these are a challenge to human ingenuity. The river Saraswati
is indirectly linked with river Damodar which carries huge amount of water and sediment.
When the carrying capacity of the river exceeds, it spreads the excess water through some
defunct channel (Kana, Ghia, Julkia etc). These defunct channels supply the flood water to
the river (Saraswati). River Saraswati is fed by this flood water on one hand and on
another hand tidal water also flows from the river Hooghly to Saraswati. After a long
period when Damodar lost its glorious period, then the linked channels including Saraswati
were going to a dead channel. On another side, deficit of continuous supply of tidal water
siltation process has been continued and the river is going to be a moribund in nature. The
longitudinal and lateral profile shows the present condition of the thalweg, the bank,
terraces and also the channel characteristics.

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3.1 DRAINAGE EVOLUTION, COMPOSITION, CHARACTERESTICS AND
PRESENT SCENARIO OF THE SARASWATI CORRIDOR

The now practically dead Saraswati River was a few centuries back, one of the two main
navigable life-lines of South Bengal. The two rivers (Saraswati and Bhagirathi) more or
less ran parallel to the sea from here, the lower stretch of the latter (now referred to as Adi
Ganga) was deteriorating faster. The upper reaches of the Saraswati and Jammuna, were
originally feebler than the main river Bhagirathi, as those were mere distributaries. The
European traders had already preferred to locate their trade cum naval centers at different
points on either bank of the Bhagirathi (Hugli, Chinsura, Chandannagar, Srerampur,
Kolkata) etc. They found that the continuation of the river by the South of Kalikata was
fast degenerating. At the same time they observed that the Saraswati lower stretch still
remained in good navigable condition. The lower segment of the Saraswati had the
additional facilities of a strong tidal flow along a straighter course and also an extra share
of the lower Bhagirathi water through a narrow East-West link (originally a part of the
interlacing creeks) by the south of Calcutta ( Mukherjee 1995). In the early 18th century,
the Dutch traders dredged (cut open manually at bottle- neck points) this link channel (from
kidderpur to Sankrail) resulting in change of the main flow of the Bhagirathi from its
decaying lower segment to the lower Saraswati. From that time, the entire course of the
Bhagirathi from Oogli (Hugli) to Gangasagar (including the link channel or katiganga and
the lower Saraswati) came to be known as the river Hugli. The Dutches even collected toll
for sometimes from ships using this Katiganga. In course of time, partly due to the gradual
delink of the Bhagirathi from the main Ganga-Padma river, both the upper Saraswati and
the lower Bhagirathi (Adi Ganga) considerably degenerated. The Adi Ganga in 24
Parganas as a matter of fact is now a past history, with its completely silted up channel
being occupied by settlements and elongated excavated tanks (Mukherjee. 1995).

The course of the Bhagirathi- Hooghly has undergone changes during the last few
centuries. At a very early stage, when Bhagirathi, carried the bulk of the Ganga river flow
it flowed by the ancient Gaur and was aligned closer to the Western fringe of this State.
The Bhagirathi had a western branch called the river Saraswati. This Saraswati had on its
estuarine course in the south, the port of Tamralipta. It is said that it was to this port, that
flourishing condition of this part of India, particularly of the Rarh tract. Inland navigational
facilities of the Saraswati- Bhagirathi Rivers at the time were also mentioned. Saptogram
on the Saraswati- Bhagirathi River had been an active trading centre. The westernmost

68
branch, Saraswati is now a thin moribund stream. The port was abandoned as Saraswati
became moribund and the Portuguese had shifted their operation from Saptogram to Hugli
in the year 1580 (Basu, 1992). It had been possible that original course of the Bhagirathi
was much to the west and it shifted gradually to the east as the piedmont plains of the
Chotonagpur plateau built up. There are oblique reference in the mythology and other
literature that it flowed along the Rupnarayan, the Damodar and the Saraswati at different
times. Feldspathic gravels and other sediments having originated in a close by granitic
terrain (Chotonagpur) are commonly met with drilling work in the parts of Saraswati basin
(Basu, 1992).

Due to the proximity of deltaic terrain, the most characteristics geomorphological feature
of the Saraswati basin is the pan-shaped interfluves. Distributaries and tidal creeks build
levees on their banks leaving the interior a low lying area. The bed level of rivers rises
almost regularly due to aggradations in a sluggish environment increasing the dangers of
bank -over flooding. With the river flowing at a level considerably above the surrounding
country, equilibrium is lost and a massive increase in volume or undercutting would tend to
divide the river channel or acquire an altogether new channel. By repeating this process,
the delta and its adjoining parts raised elevation to form a more mature landmass. (Navin
and Turner, 1927). The result of formation of such pan shaped areas is that the rainwater
accumulates to form marshes and swamps commonly termed ‗back swamp‘ rather than add
to the run off in the distributaries (Basu,1992). But this levee- backswamp is not prominent
in the Saraswati basin. Scrutiny of photo-imageries shows that mainly the Damodar fans
have largely covered the back swamp of the basin and the total Saraswati basin has been
elevated.

A number of distributaries have emerged (e.g. Mundeswari, Kana etc.) from the point of
starting of the lower Damodar River (after Bardhaman town) where it has taken a sharp
south word bend. J.Rennell in his survey map (1779) has shown the Saraswati as a stream.
But he did not show river Mundeswari, yet indicated two Damodar from the same point,
one flowing due south to join the Hugli and another flowing south and east in an arcuate
path to join the Saraswati at Nasibpur. Rennell also pointed out another (unnamed)
tributary of Saraswati in Domjur P.S. These two tributaries, as they were, have now
become defunct and not noted in the current topographical sheets. “Through the stages of
complete jacketing of lower Damodar and after the completion of the D.V.C. (Damodar
Valley project) along with diversion of most of the river’s water through the right and left

69
bank canal system, the easterly distributaries gradually lost their life -flow from the
Damodar and became completely delinked from the mother river” (Mukherjee,Jan,1995).
But this part of Rarh plains has per-humid monsoon climate and the delinked distributaries
served as drainage channel for the heavy run- off. In course of time, with this eastward
flow, they became linked with the Saraswati and turned into its tributaries. In this respect,
the cases of the Behula -Kunti-Kana Damodar along with the Kantul, Ghia, and Julki may
be mentioned. So geographically the Saraswati basin presents a number of cases of a
peculiar type of ‗river capture‘. Primarily affected by the action of man the lower segment
of the Saraswati River has been captured by the Bhagirathi- Hugli through the katiganga.
Damodar‘s easterly distributaries have in turn been captured by the river Saraswati. The
Saraswati, full and complete distributaries of the Bhagirathi- Hugli, is now having a strange
status- simultaneously a distributaries and a tributary to the Hugli (Mukherjee, 1995).

The most notable geomorphic characteristics of the Saraswati basin are the pan-shaped
interfluves. Distributaries and tidal creeks build levees on their banks leaving the interior a
low lying area. The bed level of rivers rises almost regularly due to aggradations in a
sluggish environment increasing the dangers of bank over flooding. With the river flowing
at a level considerably above the surrounding country, equilibrium is lost and a massive
increase in volume or undercutting would tend to divide the river channel or acquire an
altogether new channel. By repeating this process, the delta and its adjoining part raised
elevation to form a more mature landmass. The result of formation of such pan shaped
areas is that the rain water accumulates to form marshes and swamps commonly termed
‗back swamp‘ rather than add to the run off in the distributaries. But these levee-backs
swamps are not prominent in the Saraswati basin. A number of distributaries emerged from
the point of starting of the lower Damodar River where it has taken a sharp south ward
bend. The stages of complete jacketing of lower Damodar and after the completion of the
D.V.C. (Damodar Valley Project) along with diversion of most of the river‘s water through
the right and left bank canal systems, the easterly distributaries gradually lost their life-
flow from the Damodar and became completely delinked from the mother river‖
(Mukherjee,1995). In course of time, with this eastward flow, they became linked with the
Saraswati turned into its tributaries. In this respect the cases of the Behula, Kunti, and Kana
Damodar along with the Kantul, Ghia, and Julki may be mentioned. So, in this particular
field Saraswati displayed as multiple channel form (anabranching) which are
geomorphologically most significant. (Map No. 3.1)

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Map No. 3.1

71
PRESENT SCENARIO

River Saraswati is situated entirely within the Gangetic Plains on the right side of River
Hugli (the Ganga) travelling across the District of Hugli and Howrah in the state of West
Bengal. Both the ends of the river Saraswati around 48 miles apart are openly connected
with are tidal influence of river Hugli while the upper end connection is at Tribeni in the
District Hooghly and the lower end connection is located at Sankrail in the District
Howrah. In distant past the river used to flow full along the entire aforesaid course having
unique navigable provision and was the most important communication facility for the
regional trade and commerce. With passage of time the river lost its flows capacity and
rendered totally defunct for most of its course and acts as a mere local drainage pool at few
stretches. Considering, the topographic and geo-climatic features and keeping in view the
process of urbanization through ribbon- development along both banks of river it is
practically impossible to bring river back to its past glory. The over spilled water of the
river Damodar would take entry into the river Bhagirathi in a good quantity before 1800
AD and enters at Tribeni into this river and flow towards Sankrail out fall point. (Ref.
Rivers of Bengal: Survey map of Bengal by Major James Rennell). But due to change of
river the course, it caused high flushing discharge from Damodar, which would come into
river Bhagirathi at least once in a year-started to reduce gradually. When the discharge in
river Bhagirathi fells, the river like Saraswati which would be fed by river Bhagirathi
gradually silted up. In reality, it is found that the excavated Junction cut channel could not
be done to improve the situation of the dying river. While the design discharges capacity of
the Junction cut channel is 500 cusecs, the actual available discharge varies between 0-150
cusec or so depending on the tail release from Kana Nadi which in turn is diverted
alternately through cross Regulator to flush both North South Saraswati river. Yet that
much of minimum assured flushing too failed to improve the river situation probably due to
interception of local cultivators by constructing cross bundhs at random across the river for
the purpose of local irrigation. The situation has further been worsened by continuous
encroachment of land on both banks of the river and also by construction of unauthorized
bridges and fishing traps on the river. Eventually total portion of the river is subject to
frequent drainage congestions during monsoon season.

During the visit, it was observed that the river is encroached at many places along its length
resulting in inadequate width of the channel. At several places solid waste is being so much
dumped by the local people that it tends to choke the channel. In effect, the required section

72
for proper drainage of the channel is apparently not available to dispose the flood- time
water. Additionally, the point where the South-Eastern Railway line crosses the river, the
river bed appears to be rather high compared to its outfall. Similar situation are expected
for other railway and road bridge crossing, though the extent of bed level difference may
vary from bridge to bridge. During the site visit to Jalan Complex through which the
Burjolla khal flows, it was observed that no-well defined. Channel cross section exists in
many portion of the Khal. Also, at many places, the available width of the channel is rather
narrow and not much flow could be observed, Since there is no information provided in
the report on the R.L. and shape of the channel at Burjolla , it was difficult to estimate the
carrying capacity of the channel.

PlateNo.- 09: Dry, Swampy river bed with drips of water at Molla Simla and at Rasulpur

3.2. CHANNEL CHARACTERESTICS- PATTERN AND PRESENT STATUS

In planning a project along a river or stream awareness of the fundamentals of fluvial

geomorphology and channel process allows the investigator to see the relationship between
form and process in the landscape. The detailed study of the fluvial geomorphic process in
a channel system is often referred to as a geomorphic assessment. The geomorphic

73
assessment provides the process based framework to define past and present watershed
dynamics, develop integrated solution and assess the consequences of restoration activities.
A geomorphic assessment generally includes data collection from field investigation and
channel stability assessment. It forms the foundation for analysis and design and is
therefore an eventual first step in the design process, whether planning the treatment of a
single reach or attempting to develop a comprehensive plan for an entire watershed.

Restoration design range from simple to complex, depending on whether ―no action,‖ only
management techniques direct manipulation, or continuations of these approaches are used.
This is a fluvial morphologically significant site for the Saraswati basin as the river itself
initiates at this particular point located at Tribeni. The tidal effects are well pronounced in
this part of the upper most Saraswati basin from where two distinct flows i.e. the
Bhagirathi, the master stream and the Saraswati, the distributaries of the Bhagirathi have
appeared visible on the surface. The changes of water level in the river Saraswati are very
high order because of its close proximity to the Bhagirathi. The high tide and low tide flow
of the water is of particular fluvial geomorphological interest mainly in the study of
behaviour of the tidal channel of the Saraswati which is not as Yazoo type but peculiar type
of stream existing in the Bhagirathi Drainage System. As a number of tributaries like the
Kunti, Julki, Behula etc. have confluence with the Saraswati at different reaches of the
middle part, thus considerable amount of water along with silts and sediments, the fluvial
morphological characteristics of river Saraswati have become greatly influenced by the
tributary rivers as above. The aspects of sedimentation and siltation, the bank erosion, the
dissections in upper, middle lower terraces, the incision meandering valleys as well as
valley slopes and places along with considerable modification of the surfacial forms of the
valleys and the formation of micro landforms in addition to depositional landform are
found to be dependent on water flow or the nature of water and sediment discharge in the
Saraswati valley. The variation in water and sediment discharge have contributed
conspicuously in the work of incision in terraces and river banks as well as in the extension
of the depositional landforms particularly the bars, shoals in the river valleys. Saraswati
valley is marked by the development of many typical fluvial landforms relating to the
dynamics of fluvial environments under very humid conditions. The south-west monsoon
(June to September) season is typified by the occurrence of very high amount of rainfall
(more than 1500mm of rainfall) which cause the higher degree of runoff infiltration rate as
well as the resultant water discharge along with specially suspended sediment load there in

74
river Saraswati. The seasonal character of the rainfall, especially, during the rainy season
has influenced in the variations of water flow in terms of both water discharge and the
sediment discharge in the valley. There are two distinct steps regarding the formation of
two tier terraces which are found in some parts possibly relating to the higher degree of
flood coverage during sheet wash and rill erosion (end of July to September). Such terraces
are associated with the occurrence of unstable nature of the river Saraswati especially its
fluctuating flow both in pre monsoon, post monsoon season. Apart from the variation of
water –flow in combination with tidal flow nearby Bhagirathi, the influence of the climatic
changes particularly during the post Pleistocene era has also found to be responsible in
such development of complex type of landforms like terraces and flood- plain along the
meandering Saraswati valley. The two tiers and three tiers in places of the terraces are the
results of the changes of base levels on the variation of water flow during post- monsoon
and monsoon season in the Saraswati. Such cut and fill terraces are of special fluvial
morphological significance. So far as the study on the form process relationship concern,
the variation in the amount of water flow is mainly dependent on the fluctuation in the
water level relating to the distribution of rainfall as well as tidal flow (effects of ebb and
tides in the Bhagirathi). The lower ranges of the separating heights of terraces i.e. ranging
between 1 to 2 m is strongly suggestive of the changing condition of water discharge along
the river valley throughout the different seasons in a year. The combined effects of rainfall
and tide are also found to be equally responsible in occurrence of moderate to higher
degree of sedimentation of silts and sand (mixed with clays in some localities). The
considerable amount of sediment primarily supplied from the tidal flow is also observed in
the floodplains as well as the lower terraces and in a strict way in parts of the middle
terraces especially in Shibpur Jyoti colony. Mention should be made human interference in
terms of the preparation of local depression for the purpose of collection of the sediments
or silts to modify greatly the surface of terraces along the river Saraswati Valley. The other
uses of the Saraswati river banks are concerned with the construction of brickfield and
related harvesting of silts by the silt catcher in the nearby of brickfield scattered in many
parts of the Saraswati basin. At present, the ill effects of the brickfields relating to the
occurrence of air and water pollution, the damages of the cultivable lands etc. have resisted
the local people from using the river silts for brick making as well as the local silts and
sediments as the raw building material in the area. The river bank of Saraswati is also
found to be greatly eroded particularly in the sites of incised meanders where the cliffs or
concave types of slope are formed to provide conspicuous breaks in the monotony of long

75
stretches of moderately dissected river bank of the river Saraswati. However the higher
frequency of human intervention relating to the construction of the ―Ghats‖ i.e. strand
along with the settlements in the adjacent Kitchen- garden has also added the some
peculiarities in the river bank and terraces of Saraswati. In some portion of the Saraswati
valleys, the large scale utilization of the fertile lands and river in a varied ways have greatly
altered the original surface of the river - valleys and it becomes difficulties to identify the
alignment of Saraswati valley particularly near the market centers (locally known as Hats
or periodic market).

The huge demand of land for meeting the varied demand by the fast growing settlement in
the studied area especially in the district of Hugli, Haora, Bardhaman has encouraged the
people to encroach the agricultural fields not only for the purpose of the settlements but
also for the other economic use, i.e. building up of brickfields, small scale industrial centers
etc. throughout the entire level lands of the Saraswati basin. The valley areas are also
typified by the evolution of gently undulating plains which are believed to have resulted
from the differential weathering and erosional rates accompanied by the related
depositional activities both by the rain fed river itself and the tidal flow linking with the
Bhagirathi. The behavior of the tidal Saraswati channel is pronounced particularly in the
upper (Saptogram Tribeni and adjacent areas downstream) and the lower parts (Sankrail
and adjacent areas upstream) within the Saraswati basin. As the river seems to be Yazoo
type of channel linking with the Bhagirathi- Hooghly the intensity of the tidal flow has not
found as equally pronounced along the entire stretch of the Saraswati river valley. While
the upper and lower parts have been observed as considerable influenced by the occurrence
of tides, the middle section is conspicuously devoid of any prominent tidal effects. Such
restrictions in the distribution of tidal effects have caused the important variation in the
water flow or water discharge not only in different parts of the day (diurnal) or different
parts of the year (monthly or seasonal). The values of water discharge in four selected
station like Tribeni, Jyoticolony, Mauri and Sankrail are also indicative of the variation in
the water discharge primarily associated with effects of tidal flow in the Saraswati valley.
Beside the fluvial landforms (Terraces, eroded bank) the other features are the local
depressions, water pools, or ponds in various shapes and sizes extending roughly parallel to
the present Saraswati valley and laying at some elevated portions of the river bank as well
as in the midst of dense settlements the cultivable fields. The given illustrate the alignment
of some of those water bodies , tanks, ponds which are believed to have some connection

76
by the Saraswati river through sub- surface flow. In some section the almost linear pattern
of settlement have justified the older courses of the Saraswati channel or its tributary
channels now have been shifted away in response to the changing geomorphological
conditions of this part of lower Ganga plain.

3.3. LATERAL VIEW OF THE STREAM CORRIDOR- AN ANALYSIS

Cross sectional geometry refers to width, depth, area of wetted parameter, hydraulic radius
and channel convergence at a specific cross section. If channel cross sectional parameters
are severed at permanent monumental range location the cross sectional geometry at
different time can be compared directly. The cross section plot for each range at the various
times can be over laid and compared. It is seldom the case, however that the cross section
is located in the exact same place year after year. Because, of these problem, it is often
advisable to compare reach average value of the cross-sectional geometry parameter. This
requires the study area to be divided into distinct reaches based on geomorphic
characterization. Next, the cross sectional parameters are calculated at each cross section
and then average for the entire reach. Then the reach average values can be compared for
each survey, cross sectional variability between bends (pools) and erasing (riffles) can
obscure ,temporal trend ,so it is often preferable to use only cross section from crossing
reaches when analyzing long term trend of channel change. Most stream corridor has three
major components-Streams Channel, Flood plain, Terraces. Nearly all channels are
formed, maintained and altered by the water and sediment they carry. Usually they are
gently rounded in shape and roughly parabolic but form can vary greatly pass through
without spilling over the banks. Two attributes of the channel are of particular interest to
practitioners channel equilibrium and stream flow. A distinguishing feature of the channel
is stream flow. As part of the water-cycle, the ultimate source of all flow is precipitation.
The path ways precipitation takes after it falls to earth however, affect many aspect of
stream flow including its quantity, quality and timing. Precipitation that reaches the
channel over a short time frame through overland or underground routes is stream flow.
Precipitation that percolates to the ground water and moves slowly through substrate before
reaching the channel. It sustains stream flow during period a little or no precipitation is
Base flow. Stream flow at any one time might consist of water from one or both sources if
neither source provides water to the channel.Interactions between ground water and the
channel vary throughout the water shed. In general, the connection is strongest in streams
with gravel riverbeds in well-developed alluvial floodplains.

77
The hydrology of urban streams changes as sites are cleared and natural vegetation is
replaced by impervious cover such as roof tops, roadways, parking lots, and side walk and
drives ways. One of the consequences is that more of a stream‘s annual flow is delivered as
storm water runoff rather than base flow. Depending on the degree of watershed
impervious cover, the annual volume of storm water runoff can increase by up to 16 times
that for natural areas (Schueler 1995). In addition, since, impervious cover prevents
rainfall form infiltration into the soil less flow is available to recharge ground water.
Therefore, during extended periods without rainfall base flow levels are often reduce in
urban streams (Simmons and Reynolds, 1982). Stream runoff moves more rapidly over
smooth, hard pavement than over natural vegetation. As a result, the rising limbs of stream
hydrographs become steeper and higher in urbanizing areas. Recession limbs also decline
more steeply in urban streams. Practitioners categorize streams based on the balance and
timing of the stream flow and base flow components. Saraswati is intermittent streams flow
only during certain period of the year. Seasonal flow in an intermittent streams usually
pasts longer than 30 days/year. The floor of most streams valley is relatively flat. This is
because over time the stream moves back and forth across the valley floor in a process
called lateral migration. Through time the channel reworks the entire valley floor. As the
channels migrates, it maintain the same average size and shape if conditions upstream
remain constant and the channel stays in equilibrium. The transitional upland fringe serves
as a transitional zone between the flood plain and surrounding landscape. Thus, its outside
boundary is also the stream corridor itself. While stream related hydrologic and
geomorphic processes might have formed a portion of the transitional upland fringe in
geologic times, they are not responsible for maintaining or altering its present form.
Consequently, land use activities have the greatest potential to impact this component of
the stream corridor. There is no typical cross section for this component. An examination
of the flood plain side of the transitional upland bring often reveals one or more benches.
This landform is called terraces. They are formed in response to new pattern of stream
flow, changes in sediment size or load or changes in water side base level - the elevation at
the watershed outlet. Due to changes in stream flow or sediment delivery, equilibrium is
lost and the channel degrades and widens. The original flood plains are abandoned and
become a terrace. Boundaries between the numbered surfaces are usually marked by a
scarp, or relatively steep surface. The scarp between a terrace and a flood plain is
especially important because it helps confine floods to the valley to floor. Flooding occurs
much less frequently.

78
It is necessary to define the flow condition, including both the discharges entering the
specific reaches of the channel as well as the water levels at the downstream end. The
water level condition is especially important in the present case as the outfall of the river
Saraswati is in the tidal reaches of the river Hooghly. Since, the variation of water level
during the normal tides itself is quite large (High tide level: 4.265m and low tide level: -
0.420m), there is a substantial amount of tidal lockage. There is an approximate tidal water
level variation at the mouth of the river Saraswati. Based upon the different discharges
flowing into the river Saraswati, (Map No-3.2)

Map No.3.2

The additional discharge due to tidal lockage is estimated from the time of tidal lockage for
any reach of the river, which may cause the upstream flow to accumulate. The flow
condition when there is a discharge from the Metia Khal into the river Saraswati. This
drainage channel with an expected high discharge of about 22.6m3/s is seen to outfall into
the river Saraswati at 72km. It shows the situation when there is flow from all segment of
the river Saraswati as well as that entering from the Metia Khal. It was informed that the
diversion connector proposed to be joining to the Burjolla Khal is yet to be constructed at
this stage. It is assumed that, the Burjolla Khal has been connected to the river Saraswati at
74km and a part of the river flow is getting diverted through this reach.

79
As for the downstream boundary conditions, a constant water levels at the outfall end mass
specified in the program. The tidal lockage for the different reaches of the river Saraswati
the entire duration of tidal cycle has been considered. This means that the accumulated
water due to tidal lockage has been calculated using the time from the minimum position of
the water level due to tidal variation up to the maximum rise and back again to the
minimum level. However, this minimum water level cannot be provided as the downstream
water level for the computer model since that would not sustain for a long time. Hence, a
reasonable downstream water level of 1.5m was provided in the model, which is somewhat
lower than the mean water level.(Map No- 3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6)

Map No : 3.3

80
CROSS VALLEY PROFILE – NATURE AND CHARACTERESTICS

Map NO-3.4

81
CROSS VALLEY PROFILE – NATURE AND CHARACTERESTICS

Map No: 3.5

82
CROSS VALLEY PROFILE – NATURE AND CHARACTERESTICS

Map NO. -3.6

Source : Compiled by the author

83
3.4 LONGITUDIANAL VIEWS ALONG THE STREAM CORRIDOR-THALWEG
CHARACTERESTICS

The processes that develop the characteristics structure seen in the lateral view of a stream
corridor also influence structure in the longitudinal view. Channel width and depth
increases downstream due to increasing drainage area and discharge. Related structural
change also occur in the channel, floodplain, and transitional upland fringe ,and in
processes such as erosion and deposition .Even among different types of streams , a
common sequence of structural changes is observable from head waters to mouth.

The overall longitudinal profile of most streams can be roughly divided into 3 zones
(Schumm 1977). Some of the changes in the zones are characterized, Zone-01- head water,
Zone-02- transfer Zone, Zone-03- the primary depositional Zone. These general pattern and
changes are also often applicable to watershed with relatively small topographic relief from
the head water to mouth. It is important to note that erosion, transfer and deposition occurs
us all zones, but the zone concept focuses on the most dominant process. Natural Channels
are rarely straight. Most streams share a similar attribute of alternating, regularly spaced.
Deep and shallow areas called pools and riffles. These are associated with the thalweg,
which meanders within the channel. Pools typically form in thalweg near the outside bank
of beds. Riffle areas usually form between two bends at the point where the thalweg
crosses over from one side of the channel to the other. One of the best methods for directly
assessing channel changes is to compare channel survey (thalweg and cross section).
Thalweg survey are taken along the channel at the lowest point in the cross section
comparison of several that wide survey taken at different points in time allows the engineer
or geomorphologies to chart the change in the bed elevation thorough time. Thalweg
profile is a useful tool, it must be recognized that they reflect only the behaviour of the
channel bed and do not provide information about the channel as a whole. For this reason it
is usually advisable to study changes in the cross sectional geometry. Long section of river
Saraswati are very peculiar in nature. At Tribeni and Sankrail the bed level are very low
and Nasibpur, the mid of Saraswati river are high. In the Hooghly estuarine course,
considerable sand and silt movement takes place. Sand and silt moves up the river with the
rapid on – rush of the flood tides. Saraswati River, not discharge fine silt down the
Hooghly River due to its low bed level. This silt is accumulated at Nasibpur. So due to
continuous siltation the bed level of Nasibpur are high. This is the major problem, so the
long section is not continuous slope like the other river. The vagaries of the silt movement
due to interaction of tides and upland discharges and their accumulation at unwanted place
in the Saraswati river bed have had been a problem to the navigators from 16th century.
Many marshy lands, stagnant pools, are found in this river corridor. (Map 3.7)

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LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF RIVER SARASWATI

Scale:
Vertical 1cm =2.0 m
Horizontal 1cm = 2km

Map 3.7

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3.5 ACROSS AND ALONG ISSUES OF CORRIDOR RESTORATION AND
DEVELOPMENT

In Saraswati river basin vegetation is an important and highly variable element in the
stream corridor. In some minimally disturbed stream corridors, a series of plant
communities might extend uninterrupted across the entire corridor. The distribution of
these communities would base on different hydrologic and soil conditions. In smaller
streams the riparian vegetation might even form a canopy and enclose the channel. Plant
communities play a significant role in determining stream corridor condition, vulnerability
and potential for restoration. Thus, the type, extent and distribution, soil moisture
preferences, elevation, species composition, age, vigor and rooting depth are all important
characteristics that practitioners must consider when planning and designing stream
corridor restoration. The Saraswati exhibit the typical fluvial landform both the erosional
and depositional process. The cross profile of the valley is suggestive of the effective of
occurrence of alternating erosional and depositional processes associated with the
fluctuating flow of the river. The pattern of rainfall which is intimately connected with the
monsoon season especially south west monsoon season when the maximum amount of
rainfall is available, has exaggerated tremendous influence in the fashioning of the
Saraswati valley under humid environment. The 3 tier terraces, narrow flat plains along
with the suits of depositional features like bars, shoals, heaps of sands and pebbles, though
of very smaller proposition, are the distinct fluvial landform of the part of Saraswati valley.
The terraces are of ‗cut‘ and ‗fill‘ type relating to the effects of river- flow associated with
the higher amount of rainfall during southwest monsoon season which in turn has
controlled the large amount run off overland flow water discharge some time associated
with occurrence of floods (August and September). The entire fluvial system which has
largely regulated the channel behaviour also includes the tidal effects particularly in the
matter of large scale sedimentation in the channel bed as well, as in the flood plain. The
upper parts of the river valley, the upper terraces as well as the portion of the middle
terraces are found to have been heavily utilised by the local people. The uses of river valley
relate to the agriculture, settlement and transport as well as communication purposes.
While the upper part of terraces adjacent to the river bank is largely developed to
agriculture, pasturing and the maintainance of bamboo groves on commercial basis, the
middle parts and selected section of the lower ones are found to have been utilized for the
purpose of pasturing and kitchen gardening. This tidal river has afforded the facilities of

86
communication by boat almost throughout the year and has played a significant role in the
progress of economic activity of the people. Everywhere the signs of changing land use
pattern are well marked specially for the cases of establishment of brickfield at the
expenses of cultivated lands in different parts of the valley at Barochhaka, Pataldanga etc.

At Debanandapur,

This part of the Saraswati valley exhibit very peculiar fluvial features arising out of the
interaction of the general river flow (aided by rainfall and ground water movement in
combination and the tidal flow in particular).Primarily due to its remote place the effects of
tidal flow are not of much prominence in the work of sculpturing of the valleys specially in
the channels walls likely on upper parts of the valley as for example Jyoti colony, near
Tribeni. The major landscape elements are the multitier terraces. i.e. upper, middle, lower
ones, the incised channels ones of lower terraces, the cliffs and the related slip – off slopes
in the incised meandering valleys, the series of point- bars and the elongated shoals,
remaining high tides, the micro gorges or grooves in the lower terraces and other parts of
valleys as well the local depression and heavily incised bank areas due to human
interventions especially in the terraces as well as the adjacent river banks. The cultivated
lands are found to have extended from the upper banks up to the middle terraces even as
well as lower terraces parts, thus covering the entire stretch of terraces within the Saraswati
valley . Apart from the influence of human interference in terms of cultivation in the
terraces, the related intervention in other ways like construction of wooden bridges using
bamboo and other pillars or poles made of sal (sharea Robusta) etc. across the Saraswati
valley. The series of wooden pillars acting as piers established in the Saraswati Channel
bed hamper the normal flow of water, thus causing notable impediments in the water and
sediments discharge through River Saraswati at Debanandapur area. Actually, this wooden
bridge with six pillars emerging from the Saraswati river bed has demarcated clearly the
transition between the stretch of the valley with higher intensity of tidal flow without any
impediment and so maintaining the river flow free from any aquatic plants floating
hyacinth upstream and the stagnant stretches of the Saraswati valley with full of water
hyacinth and aquatic plants covering almost the entire water surface devoid of turbulent
flow expect through constricted passage specially during South West monsoon season. It
becomes difficult to trace out the water flow due to the series of impediments caused both
by natural factors (e.g. change of gradient i.e. decreased gradient , reduction of runoff and
discharge) and the man-made factors (e.g. putting impediments through construction of

87
bridges, preparation of embankment and water irrigation schemes etc.) in the adjacent
portion of the channel bed. From the fluvial geomorphic point of view the Saraswati valley
at Debanandapur is of special importance as it manifest the resultant effects of natural and
artificial causes which are found to be growing at very alarming rate on account of heavy
population- pressure on the land, thus breaking the man- land ratio of this part of the most
densely populated sectors of Southern Gangetic plain.

At lower part of Saraswati, Mouri- Badhaghati, on the left bank of the Saraswati

There the river valley is marked by the development of a narrow channel along with 3 tier
terraces of smaller magnitude. The river channel is also typified by the presence of stagnant
water. Water pools are confined in parts of the valley itself in different sections. The 3 tier
terraces are special geomorphic significance which suggests the occurrence of changes in
the evolutionary episodes of the Saraswati valley. Such changes relate to the attention of
base levels due to the variation in the amount of discharge (possibly on account of climatic
changes) and also due to tectonic movements. The terraces are constituted by alluvium, and
pebbles in parts. The wide parts of the channel (about 40 m in which) containing the
terraces have very little amount of water. The water which is stagnant and polluted to a
large extent is strictly confined to the western bank. The nature of the valley is suggestive
of the dominance of fluvial action with a greater amount of discharge in earlier days.
Settlements can be seen on the other side of the bank and a permanent structure locally
known as the ―Ghats‖ is found. The remnants of the terraces and flood plains on the one
hand, and settlements and the Ghats on the other are all indicative of the ―Shrinkage‘ of the
river valley since its initiation and further development (approximately 400 years).

At Ramcghandrapur- Mashila, on the right bank of the Saraswati,

Here, the river is characterized by the formation of multi-tier erosional as well as

depositional terraces of which the upper and middle terraces are more prominent than the
lower ones. All the terraces are made of alluvium, with slight variation in their grades of
fineness. The alignment of the terraces, especially the upper one, is suggestive of recurrent
changes in local base level particularly in a meandering stretch. Here the variations of
fluvial erosional processes are well manifested in the development of varying erosional
features (the dissection of the valley side slope). The effects of river regime especially
during the monsoon are also well marked in the development of the lower terraces as well
as flood plains in the right bank (slip off slopes) and the after steep banks. Erosional

88
features like short gullies and rills in the left bank are seen. The effect of fluctuation in
water level is believed to be responsible for the formation of the lower terraces. The
dissected valley sided and steep bank of the left side shows the effects of meandering to
form a cliff in the eastern bank. Evidences of meandering and variations in water discharge
are observed in different parts of the Saraswati valley at the site under consideration.
Because of a higher rate of erosion along the left bank, some measures have been taken by
the local authorities, to control erosion. The measuring involves placing of logs to protect
the left bank side and nearby roads against the hazards of river bank erosion, which are
more intense during the monsoon. In a comparative study , traces of terrace form line on
the left bank are found to be eroded or washed away probably by fluvial action associated
with floods at the time of south west monsoons. Such variations in the development of
micro channel forms, during, the different weathering and erosional states (though on a
very small scale) are of particular fluvial geomorphic interest in the study of the effects of
fluvial dynamics in the evolution of the present Saraswati valley.

At Makardaha, on the right bank of the old course of the Saraswati.

The absolutely dry bed of the Saraswati is a marked feature in this region. It indicates that
the original course had changed or shifted, and now the entire stretch of the river valley
lacks water except in some parts now occupied by tanks. The meandering course of the
Saraswati having width of approximately 100m reveals the alignment of the old valley. The
average depth of this dry channel is about 7m, and the depth of the series of ponds found
here about 9m to10m. At present, most parts of the dry bed are being utilized for pasture,
cultivation, settlements, playgrounds and the ponds for fishing. The ponds are used for
perennial irrigation at the adjoining fields. Traces of human encroachment are evident
everywhere as indicated either by cultivation, or settlements or brickfields etc. The locals
informed us that a considerable portion of this dry bed gets inundated during the rainy
season, and the depth varies between 3-4m, though in a discontinuous and irregular manner
so far as the stretch of the Saraswati river is concerned. The original courses of the
Saraswati especially in the lower reaches has been plugged by human intervention from
Khatirbazar upto Domjur, through Makardaha, Ankurhati mainly for the purpose of
regulating its flow during the pre – monsoon and post monsoon season through a newly
built canal locally known as the ―Saraswati Khal‖. The Saraswati canal constructed by the
Department of Irrigation, Government of West Bengal, during the British Raj (as recorded
in the topographical sheet of 1922) from Khatirbazar to Domjur through Begri,

89
Bhanderdaha and Jhapardaha is of great socio- economic importance. Because the canal is
mainly used for irrigation, cultivation and transport. On the other hand human intervention,
i.e. plugging stretches of the valley to facilitate varied land use programmes like expansion
of cultivated areas, settlements, pasture lands, tanks, transport system, construction of
canal, etc. are found not only in the old Saraswati valley but it seems to be a common
feature in other parts of the deltaic plains in the adjacent areas. Population pressure and
increasing demand of land appear to be responsible for such modification in the river valley
and land use pattern for most of the cases in deltaic plain. The villages have grown up on
the old silted beds of the Saraswati locally known as ‗Dahas‘, i.e. Makardaha,
Bhandardaha, Jhapardaha etc.

At Domjur, (Domjur-Baluhati bus stands)

By standing on a small bridge over the dry Saraswati bed one can see this part of the course
covered entirely by water hyacinth except for a few spots containing water. The average
width of the valley is about 15-16m in general, which is occupied by the water hyacinths.
However, the actual width of the river extends to 100m and is now occupied by roads
constructed by the local authority. The deepest parts of the channels containing little water
up to a depth of about 1m also confirm the meandering pattern of the channel. This stretch
of the river exhibits effects of fluctuation of water table especially during the Monsoon.
Otherwise the river valley with its 2-3 tier terraces (alluvial) shows no other functions. The
locals reported that there were a number of channels of the Saraswati which have drained
the entire riverine flat within this part of the Ganga plain. Similar to other parts observed
previously, this particular spot also contains series of ponds (10-12 m in depth, 5-6 m depth
from the surface of the water). The actual river course is confined to a narrow stretch in the
eastern section where the channel bed is thickly covered with water hyacinths; except
certain spots where fishing is carried out. The main feature of the area is large scale
cultivation like market gardening and paddy. Vast stretches of the abandoned river bed as
well as the old terraces are found to be intensively used by the local people. While the
terraces middle and lower as well as parts of the river bed are used for cultivation, the
upper and mid terraces have been greatly used for cultural forests, orchards settlements and
roads. The lower stretches of the area are left as wasteland. Three terraces and floodplain
the narrow channel covered with water hyacinths are noticeable fluvial features of the
Saraswati valley.

90
Sankrail, at the confluence of the Saraswati and Hugli –

The important micro channel forms at this site are terraces and floodplains as well as the
micro gorges or holes created both by rill action and human interference. Four distinct
terraces are faced of which the two uppermost ones are relatively wider and the lower two
terraces are of relatively shallower dimensions. All the terraces are formed by alluvium i.e.
the newer alluvium containing silts as well as pebbles and gravels in certain parts. The
slopes of the valley are very gentle, about 1o-2o in the upper parts and 10o-20o in the lower
parts. The lowermost terraces exhibit a slope of 45o which is misfit with the present
floodplain. It is due to regular tidal action. Ripple – mark and dissected sections by water
action are indicative of the effects of fluctuation in water level. These fluctuations relate to
the occurrence of tides as well as variation in the amount of discharge along the Saraswati
valley. The Saraswati River is now an instance of a tidal river and the effects of tides are
mainly seen in the cases of navigations, fishing, and irrigation especially in the Rabi
season. This wide stretches of the Saraswati valley negotiated by the upper terraces are
about 200m wide. The lower parts of the terraces section covers a smaller stretch, about 50
m below. This portion of the Saraswati valley with particular reference to the lowermost
valley section exhibits features of large- scales fluvial deposition containing rills which
criss- cross the riverine flats or terraces in section parts. In earlier days the Saraswati valley
had occupied a much broader valley section, this covering wider stretches almost
equivalent to the present Hugli so far as the middle of the valley is concerned. On the basis
of comments and observation made by predecessors and the experience gained by the
present field observation it may be assumed that the actual courses was much more wide
and amount of discharge greater than that found at present. The reason for this could be
due to the paucity of water supply (for climate or other reason) in conjunction with the
greater rate of siltation and deposition. Moreover, tectonic action (neotectonic activities) in
connection with the movement on enechelon faults in the subsurface (Sengupta, Mr. I.
Everns) may also be responsible for shrinkage of the Saraswati River, the reduction of the
valley inducing the decrease in water discharge. As a whole , the entire area at the
confluence zone reflects the effects of deposition or siltation in connection with gradual
shortage of water discharge on the one hand, and tectonic actions responsible for shifting of
the channels further eastward on the other. This paved the condition for occurrence of great
change in the river regime as well as the fluvial depositional environment of the lower
Saraswati Basin.

91
CONCLUSION

It is to assign that the river Bhagirathi- Hooghly played a vital role in the economy and
society of the studied region and so, the proper and rational conservation and protection of
this river is of great necessity. The progressive reduction in spill flow has adversely
affected the capacity and navigational facilities in the upper, middle and lower reaches of
the river, There is also a preponderance of tidal action in the Hooghly during an
increasingly greater portion of the year and deterioration of the tidal river, without adequate
river training works and upland discharge is only a question time. It is expected that
different scheme would resuscitate and restore the Saraswati to its normal life.

92
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