Title: Experiment 1: Flow through a Convergent-divergent duct

Objective:

To study the application of the Bernoulli equation as applied to the flow in a convergent-
divergent duct.

Theory:

Bernoulli principle stated that an inviscid flow of a non-conducting fluid, an increase in

the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure. Bernoulli's principle can
be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states that, in a steady flow, the
sum of all forms of energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on that
streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy and internal energy
remains constant. Thus an increase in the velocity of the fluid indicates an increase in kinetic
energy but decrease in potential energy and internal energy. If the fluid is flowing out of a
reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because in a reservoir the
sum of pressure and gravitational potential is the same everywhere.

The experiment is based on the theory of Bernoulli when the highest speed occurs where
the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure is highest. This is due to
the reason the velocity of fluid increases because the fluid has moved from a region of higher
pressure to lower pressure. While, if its speed decreases, it has moved from a region of lower
pressure to higher pressure.

Bernoulli Equation is given by the following relationship:

𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑃1 + + 𝑝1 𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑃2 + + 𝑝2 𝑔𝑧2
2 2
Divide specific weight = 𝑝 𝑔, obtaining the formula:

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝑝1 𝑔 2𝑔 𝑝2 𝑔 2𝑔

Where:

𝑝1 / 𝑝2 = are the density of water

g = gravitational acceleration

𝑉1 = velocity at cross section 1

𝑉2 = velocity at cross section 2

𝑧1 / 𝑧2 = elevation
H = pressure head

In this experiment, the water is considered as incompressible which mean the pressure at any
section of fluid is equal to 0.

𝑝1=𝑝2 = 0

Since the water level in the horizontal convergent-divergent duct is always at the same horizontal
level, the elevation, 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 = z

Formula of flow rate, Q

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝜋 2 𝜋 2
𝑄= 𝑑1 𝑉1 = 𝑑 𝑉
4 4 2 2

During the flow of fluid in pipes, there is friction occur in the contact between fluid and
pipes surface due to viscosity of fluid. Hence the head loss due to friction based on Bernoulli
principle is as follow:

𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑃 𝑉2
1
+ 2𝑔 + 𝑧1 =𝑝 2𝑔 + 2𝑔
2
+ 𝑧2 = H
𝑝1 𝑔 2

In ideal case, it is assumed that no frictional loss occur, hence H remain constant. However, in
reality, no matter how smooth the fluid can flow in the tubes, there is always friction occur an
head loss. So, the Actual Pressure head is less than Ideal Pressure Head. The Ideal Pressure Head
is obtained from:

𝑃1 𝑉12
+ 𝑧1 = 𝐻0 −
𝑝1 𝑔 2𝑔
Set up
Procedure:

1. Collecting tank is made sure to have direct flow to main water source to ensure a stable
water supply and flow rate of water during experiment.
2. Water outlet tube is made sure to be directed to the sump of water tank.
3. The main switch is switched on and the water is allowed to flow freely for few seconds to
reach stable state.
4. The water flow rate is adjusted by turning the control valve and bypass valve to 3 GPM.
5. The water level in manifold are adjusted using air pump mounted on top of system if the
water level is too low or high up.
6. The pump is used to control the base line level of manometer reading by increasing or
decreasing the pressure in the manifold. The base line need not to fall exactly at the zero
line as the pressure differences are the main result.
7. The air pressure in the manifold is controlled by pressing the needle of the valve at the
top right side of manifold to release the air pressure.
8. The water flow rate and manifold water level readings are recorded.
9. The experiment is repeated by manipulate water flow rate to 4 GPM,5GPM,6 GPM,
7GPM using control valve.
10. The data are tabulated in a table before inserted into the spreadsheet provided for analysis
purposes.

Result:

3 GPM

Expt Ideal
Diameter Area p/(r*g) p/(r*g) Velocity V2/(2*g) Z Actual total Head Head Loss Ideal total head
mm mm2 mm mm m/s mm mm mm mm mm
26.0 530.9 116.0 116.0 0.36 6.5 30.0 152.5 0.0 152.5
24.0 452.4 113.0 113.6 0.42 8.9 30.0 151.9 0.6 152.5
17.6 243.3 95.0 91.6 0.78 30.8 30.0 155.8 -3.4 152.5
16.0 201.1 75.0 77.3 0.94 45.2 30.0 150.2 2.3 152.5
18.6 271.3 90.0 97.7 0.70 24.8 30.0 144.8 7.7 152.5
21.6 367.0 98.0 108.9 0.52 13.5 30.0 141.5 10.9 152.5
24.7 477.3 100.0 114.5 0.40 8.0 30.0 138.0 14.5 152.5
26.0 530.9 103.0 116.0 0.36 6.5 30.0 139.5 13.0 152.5
 180.0
160.0
140.0
120.0 Actual pressure
head
Head (mm)

100.0 Ideal pressure

80.0 head
Velocity head
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
5 18 31 43 78 105 132 145
Distance (mm)

4 GPM

Expt Ideal
Diameter Area p/(r*g) p/(r*g) Velocity V2/(2*g) Z Actual total Head Head Loss Ideal total head
mm mm2 mm mm m/s mm mm mm mm mm
26.0 530.9 130.0 130.0 0.48 11.5 30.0 171.5 0.0 171.5
24.0 452.4 127.0 125.7 0.56 15.9 30.0 172.9 -1.3 171.5
17.6 243.3 105.0 86.7 1.04 54.8 30.0 189.8 -18.3 171.5
16.0 201.1 80.0 61.2 1.26 80.3 30.0 190.3 -18.8 171.5
18.6 271.3 104.0 97.4 0.93 44.1 30.0 178.1 -6.6 171.5
21.6 367.0 114.0 117.4 0.69 24.1 30.0 168.1 3.4 171.5
24.7 477.3 117.0 127.3 0.53 14.2 30.0 161.2 10.3 171.5
26.0 530.9 120.0 130.0 0.48 11.5 30.0 161.5 10.0 171.5
 200.0
180.0
160.0
140.0 Actual pressure
120.0 head
Head (mm)

Ideal pressure
100.0
head
80.0 Velocity head
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
5 18 31 43 78 105 132 145
Distance (mm)

5 GPM

Expt Ideal
Diameter Area p/(r*g) p/(r*g) Velocity V2/(2*g) Z Actual total Head Head Loss Ideal total head
mm mm2 mm mm m/s mm mm mm mm mm
26.0 530.9 210.0 210.0 0.59 18.0 30.0 258.0 0.0 258.0
24.0 452.4 200.0 203.2 0.70 24.8 30.0 254.8 3.2 258.0
17.6 243.3 150.0 142.3 1.30 85.7 30.0 265.7 -7.7 258.0
16.0 201.1 95.0 102.6 1.57 125.4 30.0 250.4 7.6 258.0
18.6 271.3 150.0 159.1 1.16 68.9 30.0 248.9 9.1 258.0
21.6 367.0 175.0 190.4 0.86 37.6 30.0 242.6 15.4 258.0
24.7 477.3 188.0 205.7 0.66 22.3 30.0 240.3 17.7 258.0
26.0 530.9 192.0 210.0 0.59 18.0 30.0 240.0 18.0 258.0
 300.0

250.0

200.0 Actual pressure

head
Head (mm)

Ideal pressure
150.0
head
Velocity head
100.0

50.0

0.0
5 18 31 43 78 105 132 145
Distance (mm)

6 GPM

Expt Ideal
Diameter Area p/(r*g) p/(r*g) Velocity V2/(2*g) Z Actual total Head Head Loss Ideal total head
mm mm2 mm mm m/s mm mm mm mm mm
26.0 530.9 233.0 233.0 0.71 25.9 30.0 288.9 0.0 288.9
24.0 452.4 223.0 223.2 0.84 35.7 30.0 288.7 0.2 288.9
17.6 243.3 165.0 135.5 1.56 123.4 30.0 318.4 -29.5 288.9
16.0 201.1 95.0 78.3 1.88 180.6 30.0 305.6 -16.7 288.9
18.6 271.3 162.0 159.7 1.40 99.2 30.0 291.2 -2.3 288.9
21.6 367.0 190.0 204.7 1.03 54.2 30.0 274.2 14.7 288.9
24.7 477.3 205.0 226.9 0.79 32.1 30.0 267.1 21.9 288.9
26.0 530.9 211.0 233.0 0.71 25.9 30.0 266.9 22.0 288.9
 350.0

300.0

250.0 Actual pressure

head
Head (mm)

200.0 Ideal pressure

head
150.0
Velocity head
100.0

50.0

0.0
5 18 31 43 78 105 132 145
Distance (mm)

6.5 GPM

Expt Ideal
Diameter Area p/(r*g) p/(r*g) Velocity V2/(2*g) Z Actual total Head Head Loss Ideal total head
mm mm2 mm mm m/s mm mm mm mm mm
26.0 530.9 255.0 255.0 0.77 30.4 30.0 315.4 0.0 315.4
24.0 452.4 242.0 243.5 0.91 41.9 30.0 313.9 1.5 315.4
17.6 243.3 173.0 140.6 1.69 144.8 30.0 347.8 -32.4 315.4
16.0 201.1 95.0 73.4 2.04 212.0 30.0 337.0 -21.6 315.4
18.6 271.3 175.0 168.9 1.51 116.5 30.0 321.5 -6.1 315.4
21.6 367.0 205.0 221.8 1.12 63.6 30.0 298.6 16.8 315.4
24.7 477.3 225.0 247.8 0.86 37.6 30.0 292.6 22.8 315.4
26.0 530.9 230.0 255.0 0.77 30.4 30.0 290.4 25.0 315.4
 400.0
350.0
300.0
Actual pressure
250.0 head
Head (mm)

Ideal pressure
200.0
head
150.0 Velocity head

100.0
50.0
0.0
5 18 31 43 78 105 132 145
Distance (mm)

Calculation:

3 GPM flow rate , 24 mm is used as an example for sample calculation

Diameter of convergent-divergent duct= 24 mm

Area of convergent-divergent duct = π 𝑑 2 /4

= (π x 24^2)/4

= 452.3 𝑚𝑚2

3 GPM= 3 x 0.00378541 m^3/ gallon x 1 minute /60 second

= 0.0001893 m3/s

Flow rate, Q= AV

0.0001893 𝑚3/𝑠 = (490.0 𝑚𝑚2 / 1000000 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑚2) x Velocity

0.0001893 m3/s
V = 452.3 𝑚𝑚2 / 1000000 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑚2

= 0.42 m^2/s
 𝑉2 0.42^2
Velocity head, 2𝑔= 2(9.81)

= 0.008924 m

= 8.924 mm

Ideal total head = 152.5 mm

𝑃 𝑉2
Ideal pressure head, 𝑝 1𝑔 = Ideal total head - –z
1 2𝑔

= 113.6 - 8.924 – 30

= 74.7 mm

𝑃
Experimental result obtained for pressure head, 𝑝 1𝑔 = 113.0 mm
1

Elevation head, z = 30 mm

𝑃 𝑉2
Actual total head = 𝑝 1𝑔 + 2𝑔
1
+ 𝑧1= H
1

H = 113.0 +8.924 + 30

= 151.9mm

Head loss = ideal total loss - Actual total head

= 152.5 – 151.9

= 0.6 mm

The calculation of the other GPM are similar.

Discussion:

This purpose of this experiment is to compare the ideal pressure head and exact pressure
head using the application of Bernoulli equation. As discussed in theory section, the exact
pressure head is always lower than ideal pressure head as shown in the sample calculation
section where in case 3 GPM, 24 mm diameter tube , the exact pressure head measured equal to
113mm. Using Bernoulli equation, ideal pressure head is calculated as 113.6 mm by subtracting
velocity head and elevation head by ideal total head. This has proven exact pressure head is
lower than ideal pressure head due to error and ideal case principle. However, this phenomenal
do not remain for some section of tube such as in 3 GPM, 17 mm diameter where the ideal
pressure head is lower than exact pressure head. Thus obtaining negative head loss result when
comparing ideal total head loss and exact total head loss. The comparison between ideal pressure
head and exact pressure are shown in spreadsheet of 3 GPM. Negative result of head loss is the
disagreement result where it should not be occur between ideal and exact values.

There are reasons behind of ideal pressure loss lower than exact than exact pressure loss.
First of all, although the set up has been set to ensure no air bubble contain in manometer, but
undoubtedly , there are still air bubbles exist in the tube during the experiment. Hence the air
bubbles influence the pressure and velocity of water in the manometer tube and cause changes on
exact pressure loss. Moreover, the water flow rate from the pump is not consistence along all the
section of manometer. Water pressure at certain level is pumped out from pump to a certain
height, which mean certain pressure loss occur. This pressure loss cause the pressure at all
section of manometer to have inconsistent flow rate, thus affect the exact pressure loss at each
section of the tube.

If the convergent-divergent duct is inclined upwards, the total head H will remain
unchanged. As explained in theory that the total head is the sum of potential energy, dynamic
energy and elevation energy. Hence, even when the convergent-divergent tube was placed
incline, the pressure head, dynamic head and elevation head will change its value depending on
position in order of reaching the same sum equal to total head. The dynamic head will change is
depend on the cross sectional area of the tube, if the flow rate unchanged. As the convergent-
divergent duct is inclined upwards, the height of the tube will vary. When the position of the tube
lower, the pressure head of the tube will be higher, and the position of the tube higher, the
pressure head of the tube will be lower.

Conclusion:

The application of Bernoulli principle on this experiment has been proven. Pressure head
of water are influenced by the diameter or area of the tube as the water passed through. Based on
Bernoulli principle, the smaller the diameter or area of tube, the higher the velocity of flow, the
lesser the pressure exert on that section of water. Hence, the lower the pressure head. From this
experiment, it is also noted exact pressure head do not always be lower but higher than ideal
pressure loss due to errors occur.
Reference:

http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/CIVE1400/Section3/bernoulli-apps.htm

http://me.queensu.ca/People/Sellens/LossesinPipes.html