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1946 DECLARATION OF CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION OF SCIENTISTS AS VIEWED BY

THE EAM’S (NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT) PRESS. EXAMINING THE

CONTROVERSY AROSE OVER THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND THE RELATION TO

RELIGION WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF THE GREEK CIVIL WAR

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Dimitris Skordos, Constantine Skordoulis

University of Athens, Faculty of Primary Education

At the 1946 Christmas issue of the journal “Aktines” (Rays) a Declaration, which
attracted significant attention, was published. It was the Declaration of the Christian
Association of Scientists (ChEE). The aim of its authors was to convince Greek people
that social life must be constructed upon Christian teachings. According to them,
Christianity was identified with “the Truth, the only one that saves” mankind
('Declaration', 1946, 7).
In the pages of the Declaration science was presented as being compatible with
Christianity. Furthermore, scientific achievements were indicated as proof of religious
beliefs and simultaneously a refutation of the materialistic worldview. The latter was
considered the main cause for the decline of humanity as it resulted to the refusal of
Christianity as the foundation of mankind's existence ('Declaration', 1946, 17-18).
Particularly in Greece, anti-Christian fury took the form of mutiny risking the nation's
existence ('Declaration', 1946, 21-23). In order to achieve their goals, the authors of the
Declaration fiercely attacked Darwin’s Theory of Evolution as well as the Freudian
Theory of Psychoanalysis, even though the latter was not related directly to materialism.
A Statement, which summarized the aforementioned beliefs, was attached to the
Declaration. That Statement was signed by nearly 200 well-known Greek scientists,
scholars and artists of that period. Afterwards, the Declaration was published as a book.
The Christian Association of Scientists and Zoi (Life) Fraternity of Theologians printed
100 thousand copies of it. State mechanisms, such as the Army and the Educational

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Institutes, undertook the distribution of the Declaration. According to the magazine
'Spoudastis' (Student) of EPON1 student branch (S.Ch., 1947, 14), even the Radio Station
of Athens advertised the Declaration.
By that time, the Declaration gained significant publicity due to the fact that it
served a specific political role. In 1944, after the Liberation of Greece occurred, there
was an escalated conflict between the KKE (Communist Party of Greece) alongside its
allies in EAM (National Liberation Front) and the bourgeois camp, which was supported
by Great Britain and the USA. That conflict led to the outbreak of the Greek Civil War
from 1946 to 1949.
During the German Occupation of Greece a major power shift in Greek politics
occurred as the vast majority of people of Greece supported EAM, disputing the old –
bourgeois – parties. This was also observed inside the Greek scientific community. Even
the orthodox clergy was affected. After the Liberation of the country, the upper classes
had to deal with that shift. In order to overpower EAM, the official state used terrorism
and violence. As a result, thousands of EAM's supporters, especially members of the
Communist Party, were persecuted, exiled and executed. Moreover, in 1946, the
scientists and scholars, who supported EAM, were dismissed from their positions in
Greek Universities. Among them, the famous physicist Achilleas Papapetrou and
engineer Nikos Kitsikis, Professors of the National Technological University of Athens,
and the geologist Georgios Georgalas, Professor of University of Athens and President of
EPON at that time.
Alongside the armed conflict, an 'intellectual war' against materialism and Marxist
ideas was declared by EAM's opponents. The Declaration of ChEE was a part of this war,
attempting to discredit materialism in the name of both science and Christian religion.
Besides, that was not the first time ChEE attacked materialism. During the Occupation of
Greece by the Nazi troops the journal 'Aktines' issued a series of anti – materialistic
articles (Vlachakis 2005).
At the same time, an article serving a similar objective, was published in the 1 st of
January 1947 issue of the cultural journal 'Nea Estia' (New Fireside). Its title was “Free
intellectuals”, signed by the editor of the journal Petros Charis. He was a writer and
literary critic, who had also signed the Statement of ChEE. In that article Charis
championed the independence of intellectual activity from politics and organized
ideologies (Charis, 1947). That point of view was in direct opposition to the Marxist one,

1EPON (United Panhellenic Youth Organization) was the Youth Organization of EAM (National Liberation
Front). It was founded during the German Occupation of Greece in 1943. It was outlawed in 1947 but it
continued to exist until the early 1950's.

Dimitris Skordos, Constantine Skordoulis - 150 -

that every form of intellectual activity, such as art and science, is founded upon the
material base of society and expresses social interests.
The KKE and EAM immediately responded to that 'act of war'. From December of
1946 to March of 1947 at least 11 articles about the Declaration were published in their
newspapers and journals. In those articles there was an attempt to deconstruct both the
'scientific' views and the moral status of the authors of the Declaration and of those who
signed the attached Statement.
Actually, this was not the first time the two opposing sides confronted each other.
Nearly one and a half years before the Declaration of ChEE, in the June of 1945 issue of
the theoretical journal of KKE 'Komounistiki Epitheorisi' (Communist Review) an article
entitled 'Old ideas in new form' was published. The author of that article was V.
Aggelidis, the regular contributor of the journal about scientific topics around that
period. The article was entirely devoted to the activity of ChEE and its journal 'Aktines'.
According to Aggelidis' opinion, popularization of science and “the familiarization of
the wider public with scientific progress” (1945, 7) was essential for the future of Greek
people. 'Official science' was accused of failing in its duty to popularize science. In result,
low quality newspapers and magazines filled that void, leaving space for 'Aktines' to
'flourish'. Quoting Aggelidis (1945, 37):
“The official scowling science looking down on people, seldom condescended to offer
some crumbs of 'popularization of science for the people' (…) In this intellectual
atmosphere, lacking even a single bit of wider scientific cultivation of the public, the
journal 'Aktines' representing a 'Christian Association of Scientists' appeared (…) the main,
someone could say the only, purpose of the journal was fighting against materialism”
The author pointed out that the publishers of 'Aktines' themselves admitted that
their main opponent was materialism, which “was trying to annihilate the (Greek) race”
(Aggelidis, 1945, 38). He indicated that, in order to fight against materialism, the
contributors of 'Aktines' used arguments deriving from the Nazi ideology, such as the
“views of Hitlerite thugs of 'anti - materialistic' Physics and Biology, namely Jordan and
Bawink2” (Aggelidis, 1945, 38). He also showed that another source of arguments
against materialism was the mystic beliefs of the English astronomers sir James Jeans
and sir Arthur Eddington (Aggelidis, 1945, 39).
In his struggle against 'Aktines', Aggelidis put forward recent scientific
achievements. He accused the publishers of that journal of concealing major scientific

2 Inside that article two scientists were mentioned. The first one was undoubtedly German physicist Pascual
Jordan (1902 -1980), a member of the Nazi Party since 1933 and a fierce opponent of the realistic
interpretation of quantum mechanics as well as materialism. The second one, namely Bawink (or Bawing)
cannot be identified.

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discoveries, when they conflict with their beliefs. For example they wrote nothing about
the achievement of “biologist – chemist Stanley3, who isolated a chemical molecule of
leucoma bearing the qualities of an living microbe, yet it is able to crystallize just like a
common chemical body” (1945, 39), proving that there is no barrier between inorganic
and organic matter. But at the same time they kept on arguing that Darwinism has failed
according to the 'latest developments in science'.
In conclusion of his article, Aggelidis asserted that the purpose of 'Aktines' was the
domination of
“the idea that science failed as a leading force to discover every mystery and rule over
the unknown (…) If man is educated in this way, he will accept passively his submission to
the undiscovered and mystic laws that rule his destiny” (1945, 39-40)
Thus, the publishers of 'Aktines' aimed to persuade the Greek people to submit
without resistance to the established order in the name of science.
The publication of the Declaration led the preexisting controversy between the
ChEE and EAM to an open confrontation. Only a few days after ChEE's assault against
materialistic worldview, the first article, entitled 'Reading a statement', counterattacking
the Declaration was published in the EAM - affiliated cultural journal 'Elefthera
Grammata' (Free Literature). It was signed by Charalambos Theodoridis, Professor of
Philosophy at the University of Thessaloniki. Theodoridis was one of the scholars, who
were dismissed from their positions in 1946, because of their involvement in EAM.
Theodoridis was aiming to deprecate the moral status of those who signed the
Statement of ChEE. He accused them of hypocrisy and non – Christian attitude
(Theodoridis, 1946, 367), because of their collaboration with the Nazis during the
German Occupation as well as with the Metaxas dictatorship (1936 – 1940). Most of
them actually collaborated with the Occupation troops or with Metaxas regime, hence
the accusation against them was true.
Nikos Zachariadis, General Secretary of KKE, launched a full assault against ChEE in
one of his speeches in 1947, drawing the line of argument concerning the content of the
Declaration. A part of that speech entitled 'The ideological front' was issued in
'Kommounistiki Epitheorisi'. Zachariadis linked the Declaration with the international
exploitation of religion by the 'reactionary forces' in order to confront Marxist ideas
(1947, 53). He accused ChEE of betraying Eastern Christian Orthodox tradition and
values, for they refused reconciliation between the Greek people. According to him,
ChEE were faithful to papal preaching, bowing down before “atomic bomb “Christianity””
(Zachariadis, 1947, 53). He also pointed out the similarity of the Declaration to Nazi

3 Wendell Meredith Stanley (1904 – 1971), American chemist and biologist

Dimitris Skordos, Constantine Skordoulis - 152 -

ideology; since they denied modern scientific progress just like Rosenberg in his book
“20th century myth” did (Zachariadis, 1947, 53). As a result, the majority of the
published articles in EAM's and KKE's newspapers and journals followed a similar line
of argument to attack the authors of the Declaration and those who signed the
Statement.
In the daily newspaper of KKE 'Rizospastis' (Radical) three articles were published
in January of 1947. The first one was entitled 'The 'statement' and the statementists of
Aktines', signed by a C. Ferekydis, and was published in two parts in 7th and 8th of
January. Inside that article, there were denunciations of certain scholars who signed the
Statement, such as Zakythinos, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Athens and
Vasileios Aiginitis, Professor of Physics in the same University (Ferekydis, 1947b, 2). A
satirical article entitled 'Classified Advertisements', signed by well – known contributor
to 'Rizospastis' Apostolos Spilios, satirizing of those who signed the Statement, and an
article entitled 'Christian rhetoric', signed by the communist poet and writer Markos
Avgeris, followed on 15th and 16th of January respectively.
A small anonymous comment entitled 'Another 'Declaration'' was published in the
January of 1947 issue of EPON's main magazine 'Nea Genia' (New Generation). At the
same time, two more articles were published in the second issue of the magazine
'Spoudastis' (Student) of EPON student branch. They were entitled 'Today's official
'science'' and 'About a 'statement'' and their authors remain unknown, because they did
not use their real names. Three relevant letters under the title ''Statement' and
counterstatements' were published in 'Elefthera Grammata' in 15th of January 1947.
Two of them were sent by two of those who signed the Statement, namely the author
Alkiviadis Giannopoulos and the painter Spyros Papaloukas. By those letters, they tried
to dissociate themselves from the political exploitation of the Statement. The third letter
was sent by the author Stratis Doukas, a member of KKE and EAM, and it took a position
against the justification of the purge against EAM by the Declaration.
There were two articles published in EAM’s and KKE’s press that differed from the
other in terms of the arguments they used. Both of them attempted quite successfully to
undermine the scientific validity of the Declaration’s content. The first one, entitled
'Scientists and the questions about life without metaphysics' and signed by Ilias
Sarantos4, was published in the double issue (January – March 1947) of the scientific
journal ‘Antaios’5. Firstly, Sarantos pointed out the sociopolitical role of the Declaration.

4Probably not a real name

5‘Antaios’ was published by the EAM – affiliated Scientific Society ‘Science – Reconstruction’ (EP-AN) from
1945 to 1951.

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He claimed that the authors of the Declaration aimed to lead people to confusion and
disappointment (Sarantos, 1947, 169).
After a brief introduction, Sarantos directly attacked the scientific content of the
Declaration. He focused on the denial of Theory of Evolution by the authors of the
Declaration. ChEE refused to acknowledge scientific discoveries, such as fossils of 'Java
Man' (Homo Erectus), 'Heidelberg Man' (Homo Heidelbergensis) and Neanderthal
(Homo Neanderthalensis), that prove the evolution of human species (Sarantos, 1947,
170). They even referred to German pathologist Rudolf Virchow's claim at 19 th century
that Neanderthal was an abnormal human being, judging by the shape of his skull6.
Sarantos correctly indicated that scientists had already proven that the formation of
Neanderthal's skull was totally different from Homo sapiens' skull, hence they were
different species.
ChEE claimed that human was initially created by God in perfect form, and he
degenerated afterwards. That was a pretty convenient assertion for the upper classes,
according to Sarantos (1947, 170), due to its obvious social consequences. If that
argument was valid, then there would be a category of degenerate people, capable only
for manual labour, and another one of born leaders, like Adolf Hitler, as Sarantos
provocatively added (1947, 170).
Furthermore, ChEE used that line of reason to interpret history of society.
According to that, mankind was more pure and moral at the Middle Ages than nowadays
and the latter historical periods were always a product of degeneration of the former.
Sarantos (1947, 170) also argued that Darwinism was emerged in a historical period,
serving specific social interests of the new ruling class, but it evolved in accordance to
scientific progress in total.
Concluding that article, in order to stress the social nature of the conflict between
materialism and religion Sarantos (1947, 171) wrote:
“It is not materialism to blame that Christianity could not become the determining
factor of social life. Christian preaching lost its content since revolutionary Christian
slogans were used by the Oppressor”
Giannis Imvriotis, Professor of Philosophy at University of Thessaloniki, wrote a
similar article for the journal 'Elefthera Grammata', which was published in the 15 th of
February 1947 issue. The title of the article was pretty definite: 'Disclaimers of Science'.
Imvriotis drew a parallel between the authors of the Declaration and certain Christian
orthodox monks right before the fall of Constantinople, as they both “withdrew from
society to address similar problems” of theology (1947, 35).

6 Creationists use that argument until today, even though it is proven wrong.

Dimitris Skordos, Constantine Skordoulis - 154 -

 According to Imvriotis (1947, 35) the Declaration was “nothing but polemics against
science and rationalism, polemics that send us back to a period full of wild fanaticism”. Its
authors were trying to dissociate science from religion in favor of the latter. They denied
science the authority of research such matters as the creation of the universe or the
immortality of the soul.
In fact, they denied science's potential to research as a whole, since they did not
embrace the objectivity of natural laws, quoting English philosopher David Hume.
Imvriotis (1947, 35) noted that the authors of the Declaration, following Hume's denial
of not only the validity of determinism but that the world exists outside human senses
as well, “shake the foundation of physical sciences, thus they completely annihilate them”.
He also criticized several scientists of his time of holding the same “skeptical” beliefs
outside of their laboratories, in contrast to their actual scientific activities.
Imvriotis also repeated Sarantos' arguments against ChEE, concerning their assault
on Darwinism. An interesting part of the article is that he revealed a trick used by the
authors of the Declaration in order to prove materialism outdated and wrong. First of
all, they linked Freudian theory and some exaggerations of that to materialism. In
addition, they presented outdated views on both science and philosophy as if they were
the modern materialistic perceptions, aiming to dispute materialism in its entirety
(Imvriotis, 1947, 36).

Conclusion
In the conflict between ChEE and EAM's camp, concerning the former's Declaration in
1946, science, religion and politics were heavily interwoven in the context of the Greek
civil war. Besides, ChEE was fully supported by the official state and the united
bourgeois camp in order to take part in the “intellectual” war against Marxist ideas. EAM
and the KKE responded accordingly, aiming to devalue both the ethical and scientific
status of the authors of the Declaration and of those who signed the attached Statement.
Actually, the social activity of the majority of them during Metaxas dictatorship and
German Occupation of Greece supplied many arguments against them.
Further research is needed upon the relation of the whole Greek confrontation in
terms of ideas with the international debate of that period about the social function of
science and whether science must be organized or 'free'. After Hiroshima and Nagasaki
bombings, that debate included social responsibility of science. Two different
worldviews faced each other, in the context of Cold War between capitalism and
socialism. Aspects of that debate can be traced in Greece, such as Petros Charis' article

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defending “intellectual freedom” or articles in 'Antaios' concerning the organised
reconstruction of Greece.

References
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Aggelidis, V. (1945), “Παληές ιδέες σε καινούριες μορφές” (“Old ideas in new forms”),
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Avgeris, M. (1947), “Χριστιανική ρητορεία” (“Christian rhetoric”), Rizospastis,
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