General aspects

The Cherokees are a matrilineal society.  The home, family, children, inheritance, family ties, and clan
membership are under the absolute control of the women.  The husband is just a convenience to supply
meat and father the children.  Other than this, he has no say in the matter, and that is the final answer.  All
children belong to the mother, and clan lineage is passed through the mother, the mother of the bride, the
bride, and the bride’s brother are all of the same clan.  All children of this union will be members of the
bride’s clan.  They are ‘adopting’ the groom into the clan.  If he is ‘rejected’, the children will still be members
of the bride’s clan. In the Cherokee Marriage Ceremony, the groom  brings an offering of meat to the bride’s
family, showing that he is a good hunter and promising to help support them.  The bride brings offerings of
food, showing that she can be a good home maker.  Then they join together under the ceremonial blanket,
showing mutual support in the building of a family.

A woman got her name, and her Clan from her female elders.  She keeps this name for life, even if she is
baptized with an Anglo name or married.  A boy is given a soft cuddly name by his mother, when he becomes
a man, his father and uncles will give him a new name.  When he is matured and ready to become a warrior,
he goes on a vision quest.  The medicine man then gives the man a new name, related to his vision quest,
that he will use for life.  The Scotsmen, English, Germans that married into the Cherokees, began the Anglo
naming tradition for their children.  The Cherokee ignored this tradition completely, as they were not
concerned about cousins intermarrying, as they had their own traditions that a man could not marry a
woman from his mother’s clan.  The young men all had to wait until the Festival of The Corn to find a bride. 
This is an annual event that brings participants from all over the Nation for several weeks.  This gives the
people an opportunity to visit married relatives, exchange stories, trade goods, participate in sports and
dances, and to find prospective mates.

 After the couple was married, the man moved into his wife’s village and became her hunter.  His wife would
weave him a Marriage Belt  of river-read fibers, dyed red and black, woven in a pattern of her own choosing. 
This belt served much the same as a wedding ring in modern society.  It not only marked him as ‘taken”, but
the design was the identification mark of his wife.  If he committed unforgivable ‘errors’ he would find his
clothing and belongings piled in the yard when he returned home.  This form of ‘divorce’ was final.  Cherokee
men were able to keep several wives.  The other wives were usually chosen by the first wife, as her husbands
ability to hunt exceeded the needs of his family.  The other wives were usually widowed sisters or other
female clan members.  Some powerful chiefs and very wealthy Cherokees violated this rule, to their own
peril.

Weapons

From about 10,000 to 500 years ago, the Native Americans did not have the Bow and Arrow.  Instead, they
used a Short Spear, about 3 to 4 feet long, made from river reed (similar to Bamboo or Cat Tail) trimmed with
two feathers, and tipped with a small stone or bone point (Projectile Points).  The spear was usually thrown
with the aid of a Atlatl or throwing-stick, to increase the speed and range.  This was the primary weapon for
hunting and war, as the Bow was not invented (introduced) until about the arrival of the Spaniards in the
1500’s.  The Spanish troops learned that the short spear, thrown with an Atlatl, was the only weapon (except
a cross bow) that could pierce their body armor.  The average warrior could fire 5 spears to  1 Spanish
musket shot. 

Many archaeologists agree that the Atlatl, or spear thrower, has been discovered in European deposits that
date back to 30,000 BP. Since this same weapon system has been discovered in America, they glibly state
that the weapon was introduced into America much later (about 8,000 - 10,000 years BP). The problem is that
there was no way for people to continue to cross the land bridge to bring this new weapon to the people of
America, as the Land Bridge was underwater at that time. It is entirely possible that Sandia Man may have
developed the Atlatl to give them more range and power for their spears in order to successfully hunt the
mammoth. As the glaciers receded North, the hunters followed, all the way back to Asia, taking their better
tools, weapons, and hunting techniques with them.

Other similarities in weapons and tools include the shape of the spear points, and the mounting
technique (pitch). This mounting technique for spear or arrow points was still in use in Europe until 5,000
years ago, but had long been replaced in America for the tip design that allowed tying the tip to the shaft
with thin strips of raw skin. This is understandable, as there was not many natural deposits of pitch (tar pits)
available to the inhabitants of America. Another problem for archaeologists is the type of stone ax used by
many coastal Native Americans. The size, shape, material, and manufacturing techniques are virtually
identical to the types found in Europe and described as Celtic.

The Atlatl fell out of use in Asia and Europe when the Bow was developed several thousand years ago,
probably in Greece or Egypt. The bow was not in use in America until about the time of the arrival of
Columbus. When the invaders from Europe engaged the native in warfare, they were greeted by short
spears, thrown with great accuracy and power from long distances. The white invaders thought for a while
that the natives were using a powerful long-bow, but the Atlatl had greater range, more power and accuracy
than the muskets of the whites. The average native warrior could throw five ‘arrows’ for each musket shot.

Projectile point designs varied widely as dictated by the material and their use.  Small points with no flutes
were used for small game, medium points with flutes were used for hunting large game and for war, large
points were used on large spears for large game (bears) and for war.  There does not appear to be one
particular type of point design that was used exclusively by the Cherokee.  Virtually every type of stone point
used in the US has been found somewhere in Cherokee Territory.  They were quite the ‘techno’ types of their
time and would adopt a new design from another tribe, or create a design of their own for a special purpose. 
The art of projectile point making (flint napping) almost became a lost art when the Europeans began trading
small bits of iron.  The Cherokee were probably one of the first to make Iron Arrows.

The Atlatl shafts were usually made of Ash, Popular, or Hickory due to their spring-like qualities.  The shafts
were usually equipped with a stone counter-weight which increased the power delivered to the throw. 
Traditionally, Cherokees make their Bows from Hickory as it was readily available and has excellent spring
qualities.  The bow-strings were made from braided bear hairs.  After a bow was made and tested, the grip
was covered with leather, and a small feather was tied to the bow to act as a wind-sock.  More decorative
bows were generally gifts to the chief and used for ceremonial purposes.

Cherokee Canoes were made from large hollowed-out tree trunks.  They had a flat square front with a gentle
taper for beaching and a flat bottom.  They were wide enough for two men to sit side by side, and long
enough to hold raiding party of about 20 men.  Depending on the depth of the river, they used poles or
paddles for propulsion.  Most rivers in the Cherokee Nation were quite shallow, so poles were used when
carrying freight, and paddles were used for speed when moving war parties. 

Cherokee carved bone, stone and wood into objects of art.  They had a lively trade with the Seminoles  and
other coastal tribes for sea shells, particularly Conch shells and Clam shells.  They carved beautiful breast-
plates (gorgets) from the wall of the Conch and Clam shells.  Earrings made of Sand Dollars and Scallop
shells were common.  Necklaces were made of carved bone and wooden beads.  Some artists specialized in
stone carvings of clan animal figurines used on Ceremonial Pipes and round stone balls used in a game
called Marbles. 

 
Cherokee women made beautiful Baskets from river reeds.  Some were rigid for food gathering and storage,
some were flexible for use as warrior’s packs.  Some of the baskets were made water-tight and used directly
on the fire for cooking, or by dropping hot stones into the basket to make tea or soup.  Bowls were made
from river clay and baked in an open fire.  They were made from contrasting layers and deeply incised to
show the contrasting colors. Others were stamped with designs carved on ‘stamping boards’ made of wood
and bone.   Corn was roasted in the husk, pounded or ground to a powder for bread and other dishes.  Other
Recipes are listed below.  Whiskey and other ‘strong drink’ were unknown until the Scotsmen arrived in the
early 1700’s. 

The Green Corn Festival or Ceremony is a Native American harvest celebration. Creek, Cherokee,
Seminole, Yuchi, and Iroquois as well as other Native American tribes celebrate this ceremony on some
manner.

The ceremony is typically held during the full moon when the first corn crop is ready to harvest. The exact
date cannot be determined ahead of time; it's all up to the corn. It is a time of thanks and forgiveness. A
thanksgiving for the crops and old grudges are forgiven. The ceremony lasts for several days. The holy man
as a symbol of health, life, and spiritual power tends a sacred fire. The first few days, known as the Busk,
people fast, cleanse themselves, and their homes. Men and women then drink an herbal concoction, the
"Black Drink" that help cleanse and purify their bodies. Then the first corn harvest is tasted followed by
dancing, singing, playing, and feasting. Many foods are included in the feast with an emphasis on corn: roast
corn, corn tortillas, corn soup, corn bread….

 A ball game is quite popular in which teams of boys and girls try to hit a target on a large pole, the original
source of our lacrosse. The game varies, of course, from tribe to tribe.

Ball Games

A-ne-jo-di (Stickball)
The game resembles the modern European game of lacrosse, using ball sticks which are handmade from
hickory.  A small ball, made of deer hair and hide, is tossed into the air by the medicine man.  The male
players use  a pair of the sticks, and female players use the bare hands.  In earlier times, only the men with
the greatest athletic ability played the game.  The game was oftentimes played to settle disputes, and the
conjurer for each team often became as important to the team as the players themselves.

 Seven points are scored when the ball strikes a wooden fish on the top of a pole approximately 25 feet in
height, and two points are awarded when the ball strikes the pole.

Sawǎnu'gǐ or Cherokee Ball Player, picture by James Mooney, from his book
"History, Myths and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees"

In earlier days, there would be a dance before the ballgame. The ballplayers were the participants of the
dance, along with seven women dancers.  Each woman represented one of the clans.  Throughout the dance,
the women would step on black beads which represented the players of the opposing team.  The conjurer
had placed these black beads on a large flat rock.  Today, stickball is an important part of the days activities
at ceremonial Stomp Grounds, being necessary to play before the Stomp Dance can ever begin. It is also a
recreational sport at other times between community teams.  There are also intertribal teams made up of
players from Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Yuchi, Natchez, and other area communities.

  
  

Di-ga-da-yo-s-di (Marbles)

Cherokee Marbles is a game of skill, still played in the form of tournaments.  Also a skill is the art of
making the marbles themselves.  The marble game dates back to approximately 800 a.d., and is a
complex game of skill and strategy played by adults on a five-hole outdoor course.

 Until the early part of the 20th century, players used marbles chipped from stone, smoothed into round
marbles about the size of billiard balls.  Today, there are  still some traditional marble makers, but most
tournaments utilize billiard balls for play.

 The game is played on a field approximately 100 feet long, where there are five holes about two inches in
diameter, 10 to 12 yards apart, forming an L-shape.  Any number of  players may play, but each team must
have an equal number.

 Each player uses on marble and must keep track of its location as well as the opposing players marbles. 
The players toss the marbles at the holes with the object of advancing by landing in each hole in sequence
and returning to the starting point.  Players must toss their marbles and knock the opposing players’ out of
the way in a prescribed manner.  The first team to complete the course is the winner.

Music

The traditional musical instruments of the Cherokee consist of :

The water drum which is a earthen pot or kettle with a skin stretched over the top of it. An inch or so of water
or other liquid is placed inside before playing.

The River Cane flute, which in 1835 was reported to have been approximately one foot long, and had 6 holes.

Trumpets were sometimes made from buffalo horns, and sometimes from long neck gourds or the thigh
bone of the crane. Conch shells were used in very early times.

Turtle shells are used for ceremonial rattles; a single rattle to be held in the hand for use by men, and turtle
shell shackles worn on the legs of women. Sometimes the ceremoinial hand rattles are made of gourd, as
well. (from the Cherokee Nation webpage )

A text by Charlie Orme:

Native American music is very unusual, far from conforming to the common stereotype in the minds of
others. It exhibits an enormous amount of variety not commonly realized by most people. It plays a mainly
functional role in their culture.

All Native American music is generally categorized in two ways: instrumentation and lyrical content. The
melody of Cherokee Indian music is generally played with a flute. This flute is carved out of wood, and has a
light, melodic sound that seems to float in the air. This gives the songs an interesting sound unique to Native
American music. Part of this sound comes from the fact that Native American music uses a fascinating scale,
known as the tonal (or Indian) scale. This scale sounds very odd because most people are used to the
standard Ionian major scale, with the whole-whole-half-whole-whole-whole-half step foundation and the do-
re-mi-fa-so-la-ti-do progression; but to the Cherokee people, it sounds perfectly normal, and the Ionian major
scale sounds weird. Flute melodies may be sung, but harmony (two of the same, similar, or complementary
melodic lines being sung or played simultaneously) and polyphony (two different melodic lines played or
sung simultaneously) are almost unheard of.

Other Native American instruments include the Pow Wow drum, the rattle, flutes and flageolets, whistles,
simple trumpets and/or reed instruments. Those most widespread are percussion instruments, including
drums. Native American (including Cherokee) drums are made from animal skin stretched across a large
gourd, and have a deep, rich sound not found in today's ordinary drum sets. The drums are very important;
they provide the rhythmic foundation for Cherokee and all Native American music.

Among other percussion instruments, the idiophones are represented by rattles, musical rasps, sticks
beaten together, beaten planks, rods, and slit drums. (An idiophone is an instrument whose sound is simply
the vibration of its elastic constituent material, unmodified by any special tension; for example, a bell, gong,
or rattle would be an idiophone, whereas a drum would not.) Membranophones (drums with skin heads) are
also used commonly. Another important part of the Native Americans' music is the singing. Whether
rhythmic chanting or high-pitched yodeling, this part of the music truly completes the song.

Lyrics

The lyrics of the Native Americans' music are in the local tribe's language, in this case Cherokee. The
Cherokee language is very complex, and was first transcribed by Chief Sequoyah. The lyrics generally
involve family songs and tribal ritual songs, although song texts may (and often do) consist entirely of
meaningless syllables. They may also consist of or include archaic words or phrases and/or special phonetic
changes. The music, for the most part, plays a functional role in Cherokee culture; it is used as a part of
other activities and rituals. This can be seen in the fact that music is graded on its magical or spiritual power;
if a song is well performed, it is referred to as "good" rather than beautiful. It can also be seen in the fact that
men tend to predominate in composing, singing, and writing the lyrics for the songs; since men usually
prevail in rituals and other cultural elements, it is only natural that men would be the ones singing the songs.

In conclusion, the music of the Cherokee Indians is unique, possessing a musical richness and emotional
depth not often found in other music. It is very interesting to look into other cultures' music; looking into the
music of the Cherokee gives an engaging glimpse of the culture.

Overview
Clothing varied from season to season, but mainly consisted of woven cloth or deer skin.  The women wore
dresses, the men wore pants, and everybody wore shoes.  In winter, the wore a cloak made of woven cloth or
fur.  Hair styles differed wildly from clan to clan.  Some men were clean shaven, others wore beards, some
men shaved their heads, others wore a top-knot or pony-tail.  The Long Hair Clan wore their hair in fancy
hairdos with waves, curls, and sometimes articles woven into their hair for a spectacular effect.

Cherokees were not feather-nuts and never wore huge feather head-dresses like the Woodland or Plains
people.  The only time a Cherokee would wear a feather was in time of war or during a Ball Game similar to
La Cross.  In preparation for war, the priest (medicine man) from the Paint Clan (Ani Wodi) would prepare the
feathers for the warriors to wear into battle.  This consisted of a single Eagle or Hawk feather, with a small
feather, dyed blood red, tied to the top.  The feathers would then be tied into the Cherokee warrior’s hair, on
the top of his head.  The dying technique was considered a secret and sacred rite. 

Women 
The women wore short, close-fitting, sleeveless dresses similar to a ‘summer shift’. The dresses were made
of deerskin and typically reached mid thigh. They were belted at the waist with hand-woven belts and pinned
at the breast with bone pins or carved broaches. A deer-hide scarf was worn around the neck and tucked into
the top of the dress.  A knitted or woven under-skirt, made of wild hemp, went from the waist to the knees,
and had long fringes that went to the ankles.  

The women’s moccasins were made of soft leather and were laced up to the knee. Women of status had
colored beads or feathers arranged in patterns in the under-skirt fringe. Colored seed-beads were used to
decorate their moccasins. 

Hair was combed with bear grease to give it a deep shine, and sprinkled it with red and yellow dust.  Some let
their hair hang loose, while others tied it up into a knot on top of the head. They had pierced ears and wore
earrings made of shell and bone. They wore multiple necklaces made of shell, bone, or horn that hung in
successive layers to nearly cover their chest. Metal rings, made of beaten lead and copper, adorned their
hands.

 Daily wear was made of tanned deer skin, but for special occasions, dresses made of woven mulberry-root
bark and turkey feathers. Possum hair was spun into thread and dyed yellow, black or red. The dyed thread
was used to weave belts, anklets, and garters for the men. Each woman developed her own special pattern
for her husband to wear, which served as a ‘wedding ring’.

An special chapter is the famous Tear Dress. The following information has been extracted from The
People's Paths home page. The author of the article is Wendell Cochran, Cherokee Master Craftsman and
National Living Treasure in the Area of Traditional Clothing and he kindly let me extract parts of the article,
which I have done clumsily, but I encourage you to read it complete here, it is a wonderful piece of historical
accurate information and it will teach you how a real tear dress should be. Mr Cochran also sent me the
photo illustrating his article

"The Cherokee Tear Dress is the official tribal dress for women of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma by
proclamation of the National Council. The Cherokee Nation is the only tribe to my knowledge to legislate a
specific style of clothing as the official tribal dress. The Cherokees of North Carolina have a completely
different style of dress.

The word "tear" is pronounced as in "rip and tear", not tear as in the act of crying or in Tail of Tears. No one
can remember who named it the Tear Dress. The name is onomatopoeia; it describes how the pieces of the
dress are cut during construction. The original dress was constructed of simple shapes of squares and
rectangles and each piece was torn across the grain of the fabric and not cut with scissors.

The dress is a basic shirt-waist style. The bodice top (the old fashion term is waist) is attached the skirt by
means of an inset waistband and closes up the front with buttons, much like a man’s shirt. To provide ease,
shape and form, larger pieces are gathered and sewn onto smaller pieces of the garment. Historically, this
style of shirt-waist dress was worn by working class women -- trades people, farmers, crafters, etc., who did
not have the luxury of having a personal attendant to help them get dressed each day like the privileged
class who dressed in stylish, form fitting garments that were fastened up the back with rows of hooks and
eyes. This was the type dress that was made at home, either by a member of the family, or by the
neighborhood seamstress.

The dress is practical for two reasons:

The fullness of the gathered bodice and skirt gave the wearer freedom of movement to do the labor of daily
work chores, and the one piece construction allowed women to bend and stretch with out fretting with the
problem of keeping a waist tucked in or hooked to a skirt. Making a Cherokee Tear Dress requires a medium-
to-advanced knowledge of garment construction and sewing skills. A well fitting dress requires taking
accurate measurements, a fair understanding of the sequence of steps needed to cut, sew and finish the
dress, and a lot of patience. There are a few commercially printed tear dress patterns now available on the
market, but none give complete instructions or are self-explanatory to the novice tear dressmaker.

Measurements:
Every tear dress is one-of-a-kind original creation and is usually made to fit the individual.

"The Original Cherokee Tear Dress, a White Turkey Feather Cape and a Copper Crown were created for
Virginia Stroud during her reign as Miss Indian America 1968. The cotton fabric Cherokee Tear Dress
(shown worn by a model in the photo) is the first modern-day Tear Dress and it is the prototype of all
Cherokee Tear Dresses since then. A White Turkey Feather Cape, exactly like the one shown in the
photo, was made for Miss Stroud to wear during her reign. At the end of her year-long reigh, the original
cape was then passed to reigning Miss Cherokee 1969.

This original three-piece outfit was last shown in its entirety in a fashion show presented by Wendell
Cochran (adjusting the feather cape in the photo) during the Indian Symposium at Northeastern State
University at Tahlequah, Oklahoma in April 2000. The Original Dress and Copper Crown are the property
of Virginia Stroud. The White Turkey Feather Cape, which was worn as part of the offical Miss Cherokee
wardrobe, was retired during the late 1970’s and not replaced by a new one; this one along with the first
original cape are currently in the permanent collection of the Cherokee National Heritage Society,
Tahlequah, OK.

The Copper Crown was designed and made by Willard Stone, acclaimed Cherokee Wood Sculpture from
Locust Grove, Oklahoma. Mr. Stone was commissioned in 1968 to make two identical crowns: one
inscribed with the title “ Miss Indian America 1968” (it is the one shown in the picture); the other
inscribed “ Miss Cherokee”. Both crowns were identical in size, shape and engraved with the same
turkey feather and turkey tracks motifs; the only differences were the engraved titles. Miss Stroud’s
“Miss Indian America” crown, missing for almost twenty years, was returned and is now in her
possession. The “Miss Cherokee” crown, past yearly to each suceeding Miss Cherokee for more than
 twenty years was eventually retired and a replacement commissioned. It is now in the permanent
collection at the Heritage Society.

Note the details of this dress: the short, below the knee length of the skirt; three-quarter sleeves with
very narrow binding and a plain rounded neck whithout a neck collar. The band of diamond applique
trim on the skirt and those across the shoulder yoke are very narrow compared to trim seen on tear
dressed today. Please note that there are no trim bands on the sleeves." - Wendell Cochran

The True History of the Cherokee Tear Dress.

This story may seem shocking and little sad to some who are romantically inclined to the modern myth
about the Tear Dress. The myth is that our women wore this style of dress at the time of the Trail of Tears in
1838-39. That is not true for two reasons.

First of all, Cherokee never had a traditional style of dress that was unique or ethnically different than any
other tribe in the hot and humid Southeastern United States. The clothing of both sexes, as described by the
very earliest European adventurers, was primitive and scant, covering mostly their private parts, and made
of mostly animal hides and furs. They did use a rudimentary form of finger weaving and netting to make
sashes, belts and rope. Loom weaving technology, which would allow them to make piece goods, was not
available until the opening of the frontier to missionaries, the Moravians in particular.

The clothing they made was fashioned on the type of clothing they were taught to make plain, simple and
utilitarian. Frontier fashion was nothing like those seen in picture books and paintings of the ladies in
eastern sea coast cities such as Boston, Philadelphia or New York. The second reason that the Tear Dress
could not have been worn at the time of the Trail of Tears is because the style is completely wrong for the
period. Women’s fashions of every historical period have a very definite silhouette, related primarily to the
rise and fall of the waistline and the shape and size of the skirt.

In the late 1830’s, the period of the beginning and the end of the Trail of Tears episode, women of fashion in
the cities along the eastern seaboard were wearing garments that costume historians call late Empire,
Romantic period, or Early Victorian. The Tear Dress is definitely a style that came into fashion at a later date.

There is one painting extant of a Texas Cherokee couple which shows the woman wearing a most definite
"Empire" style gown – high waist, bell shaped skirt and short puff sleeves. Whether this painting was
executed on site with real Cherokees as models, thus recording a moment in time, or was finished by the
artist at a later time, and using another model in city-fied clothing. It was not uncommon for artists to use
substitute models when painting Indian subjects.

The first official tear dress was made for and worn by Virginia Stroud during her reign in the titled position
as "Miss Indian America" 1969.  The garment we call the Cherokee Tear Dress came about to fulfill the needs
of a particular situation and had more to do with embarrassment than it had to do with tribal pride or
tradition. The situation arose in 1968 when a young Cherokee woman, by the name of Virginia Stroud, was
chosen as "Miss Indian America". She had competed and was crowned in a Kiowa buckskin dress she had
borrowed from a college friend.

W.W. Keeler, who was the appointed Cherokee Chief at the time, was approached by a group of Cherokee
women about Virginia Stroud’s official wardrobe. They felt it was unacceptable for a Cherokee women who
was suppose to be representing the Cherokee people in the public eye was appearing at public events
dressed as a Kiowa. Chief Keeler agreed and appointed a committee of Cherokee women to find something
more appropriate for Miss Stroud that would reflect the Cherokee’s eastern woodland traditions, history and
style.

They could not find an established precedence in Oklahoma for a traditional tribal dress. The answer they
decided could only be found someplace in North Carolina, Georgia or Tennessee. The ladies mounted a
serious search for a record of a dress design that would be uniquely Cherokee and acceptable by Chief
Keeler. They did not want to simply copy or adapt any other tribe’s style. And they did not want the dress to
look anything like the Plain’s Indian dress. They also wanted the dress to be historically correct and if a
dress could be found, it had to be documented.

Ms. Stroud flew back to Tulsa and was met by a personal representative of Chief Keeler. It was at that point
that Chief Keeler and his handpicked committee of Cherokee women began their search to find a suitable
Cherokee outfit for her to wear. Two of the women on the committee were Marie Waddle, a BIA employee,
and Wynona Day, the daughter of an influential Cherokee family from the days before statehood. Wynona
Day is the person responsible for discovering the dress that became the prototype and model for the modern
day Tear Dress. I have recently been told that the dress actually belonged to Wynona Day’s Grandmother or
great-grandmother and that it had in truth been stored in a trunk. She had come across it by chance after she
inherited her mother's belongings. She remembered having seen the dress and had retrieved it for the
committee to examine.

As soon as the committee of women decided that Wynona’s Grandmother’s hand made dress would be
perfectly acceptable for the new Miss Indian America to wear as a representative of the Cherokee people,
Chief Keeler concurred. The next step was to get a new Tear Dress made for Virginia to wear.

Virginia Stroud’s sister, Elizabeth Walters, who she calls B, made the new dress. She copied the dress line
for line, including duplicating the reverse applique on the decorative bands over the shoulders and around
the skirt. The dress has a square neckline and no buttons or buttonholes. It closes with hooks and eyes;
however the original had no visible means of fastening the dress with modern closures. We believe that
according to fashion research, it was common practice for women to use broach pins to fasten blouses and
those garments known as waists. Today we would probably just use safety pins."

Children 

Young children usually went naked in the warmer months. Older children wore woven cloth or skin skirts,
and they had fur robes and moccasins for winter use. As the children approached puberty, adult clothing
was provided.

 Men 
Summer clothing consisted of a breechclout made of soft tanned deer skin, pulled up between the legs,
secured at the waist with thongs, which allowed the ends to hang nearly to the knees in front and back. A
shorter version was also available that used less material that was similar to a man’s briefs, which was tied
at the sides with thongs.  

They wore simple skin belts until they were married, and had a deer skin ‘purse’ suspended from their belt in
front. A knife made of flint, obsidian, or copper, with a wooden or bone handle was worn on the right side of
the belt. Men’s moccasins were short with flaps on either side to help protect the ankles from brush. For
hunting or warfare, men wore leather ‘chaps’ or leggings that went from the ankle to mid-thigh, and were
fastened to the belt with thongs. 

Winter clothing consisted of deer skin shirts, fur robes, and moccasins made of beaver or muskrat skin, with
the fur on the inside to keep the feet warm. The men had hats made of beaver fur, or woven turbans made of
hide or cloth. They had ‘pony-tails’ on top of their heads, threaded or pulled into hollow tubes of bone or
antler, with the tip of the pony-tail protruding. The ‘tip’ was well greased and sprinkled with red or yellow
dust. Their hats were open at the top, to allow their pony-tail to protrude.  Around the base of the pony-tail, a
ring of hair was shaved or plucked out to a width of about 2 inches. The sides of the hair was neatly trimmed,
exposing the ears and ear-rings. 

Men of the Long Hair Clan wore their hair as the name implies. They did not have pony-tails, but used
cloth or leather head-bands with a false pony-tail attached to the front, made of animal hair. In ancient
times, the Cherokee men sported beards, braided in the center, and on each side of the mouth.  Later, they
adopted the style of shaving or plucking out the unwanted facial hair. 

Men’s decoration consisted of woven belts, anklets and wrist bands made by their wives. Thong necklaces
consisted of bone, claw, teeth, shells, copper plates, hammered lead, and large carved shell plates called
‘gorgets’. Men also had pierced ears, with large shell or metal plates inserted into the holes, stretching the
ear-lobes to great size. Men were often tattooed, by pricking the skin and rubbing the wound with ashes from
a fire, to give the tattoo a dark color.  

War and ball-game attire was much the same, but with the addition of feathers. Each warrior or ball player
tied one feather to the top of their pony-tail, and another smaller red feather was attached to the top of the
larger feather. The art of feather dying was reserved for the shaman of the Paint Clan. 

Special Attire 

For Stomp Dances, men and women would attach shell rattles to their ankles. The dance leaders would use
small turtle shells filled with rocks, to make a rattling sound with each dance step.  Fancy dress moccasins
were decorated with colored beads, porcupine quills, and bits of dyed thread. Special head and hair
ornaments were made from possum hair, died black, yellow or red. 

Marriage Ceremony,  please see the description under the section ‘Marriage Ceremony’. 

For Booger Dances, which some say originated after first white contact, the men would dress in white-man’s
clothing with absurd ‘caricature’ faces, with long noses reminiscent of phallic symbols.  Please see section
on the “Booger Dance”.
They called him Sequoyah. And, this great Cherokee Indian gave his people a gift that
will endure forever. He gave them a writing system, which removed the shackles of
illiteracy from the Cherokee People - so that the greatness of the Cherokee Nation will
live forever.

Sequoyah, also spelled Sequoya, was born between 1760 and 1776, in the Cherokee village of Tuskeegee on the
Tennessee River. His name Si-kwo-yi is Cherokee for "pig's foot," which leads many to believe that he was born
with a ‘club foot’, or seriously injured later in life. Sequoyah was a mixed-blood Cherokee. His mother, Wu-reth or
Wut-teh, was a member of the Paint Clan, daughter of a Cherokee Chief. His father, Nathaniel Gist, was a Virginia fur
trader. Sequoyah was sometime known by his English name George Gist or Guess.  He married a full blood
Cherokee woman called Sallie, or U-ti-yu.  By 1809 he was practicing the trade of silversmith in northern Georgia,
and according to the silversmith traditions, he learned to sign his work.

Sequoyah and many other Cherokees enlisted on the side of the United States under General Andrew Jackson to
fight the British troops and the Creek Indians in the war of 1812, under Major Ridge. This was where Sequoyah first
had the idea for a Cherokee writing system. While serving in the US army during the Creek War (1812-1814) the idea
blossomed. He noticed that the American soldiers were writing letters home, writing and reading orders, and
recording the events of the war as they happened. Sequoyah realized that a written language could be very
beneficial to the Cherokee.

Sequoya was amazed at how the white man communicated through written language.  He decided to dedicate most
of his life to make a system of writing for his people.  After the war, he worked for many years developing the
characters. Each of the 85 characters Sequoyah created, stands for a syllable in the Cherokee language. During the
years of the development, he spent a great deal of this time on Spring Place Plantation, owned by his good friend
Rich Joe Vann. He completed the writing system in 1821, after 12 years of hard work.  Sequoya wanted his writing to
be used for his people to record their ancient tribal culture. 

After an initial test of his writing system before a Cherokee Council, about 1820, Sequoya was accused of
‘witchcraft’ and his ‘Talking Leaves’ were burned.  Major Ridge was called on, as leader of the Lighthorse Patrol, to
punish Sequoyah for practicing witchcraft, in trying to create the syllabary. The leaders of the tribe felt that this
written language was the work of the devil, and to force him to stop, they ordered Major Ridge to remove the tops of
Sequoya’s fingers. There is some question as to if this punishment was ever carried out.

In 1821, the Cherokee Nation reviewed and adopted the syllabary. The syllabary is remarkable complete and no
additions have ever been made. Rich Joe Vann bought a printing press and gave it to Sequoya. He also imported
press-men, engravers, type-casters and labor from Europe, to assemble the press and teach the Cherokees how to
use it.

Disenchanted with the movement towards nationalism, Sequoyah left the Old Cherokee Nation in Georgia in 1821
and moved to Indian Territory in Arkansas, arriving in 1822. By 1825 much of the Bible and numerous hymns had
been translated into Cherokee, it was only a matter of months before thousands of Cherokees were literate, able to
read and write their own language. In a few short years one man had achieved a means of communication that had
taken other civilizations thousands of years to accomplish. Use of the language spread quickly through the
Cherokee Nation. Anyone who could speak the Cherokee language could learn to read or write in two weeks.
Thousands of Cherokee began to use Sequoyah's invention on a daily basis and the syllabary gave the nation the
ability to create the first American Indian newspaper.

In recognition of this contributions, the Cherokee Nation awarded Sequoyah a sliver medal struck in his honor and a
lifetime literary pension. He later left Indian Territory for Mexico (now East Texas), where the Texas Cherokees had
accepted land grants from Mexico, under Cherokee Chief John Ross. Sequoyah died in the Republic of Texas in
1843, near present day Tyler, Texas. The giant sequoia trees and Sequoia National Park in California are named after
him.

Today, a museum stands at his birth place. Go to http://www.sequoyahmuseum.org

 About North Georgia, alphabet

All things Cherokee, Sequoyah

The Hawks nest, Sequoya

The Evolution of the American struggle against discrimination, site

composed by eight grade students of Saint John Vianney School, in San
Jose, California

In 1892 the Cherokee nation printed an edition of its Constitution and laws in Cherokee
and English
( mouse over to see the English version )

(Constitution and Laws of the Cherokee Nation. [in Cherokee] Parsons, Kansas: Foley r'y Printing Co., 1892-3.) Special Collections,
University of Pennsylvania library
The Cherokee Phoenix

The first bi-lingual newspaper in the United States, The Cherokee Phoenix, was started on February 21, 1828, with
articles in both Cherokee and English. The newspaper carried articles from Washington and local politics. They also
printed religious pamphlets, educational materials and legal documents.  All this was done 175 years ago, by a
people considered ‘savages’ by the white settlers.  After the Cherokee Nation adopted the syllabary, Sequoyah was
hailed as a genius and honored by the Cherokee Nation.  He is one of the best known Cherokees in history and is still
considered a genius.

Please go to http://cwyphoenix.hypermart.net/index.html to see transcriptions and images from The Cherokee

Phoenix, they are offering an invaluable historical resource. Special thanks to them for letting me use this image.
Click on it to see a bigger version.
How to say ‘hello'in Tsalagi, from the
Michigan University

Cherokee Language lessons, from the

Cherokees of California, Inc.

English Cherokee translator

Basic phrases and words

From the History of the Cherokee Indians, by Emmit Starr, 1921 edition. The data is in the following order, Name;
estimated date of birth; Dawes Roll Number; Gene Number; first spouse, second spouse, etc; {denotes parents of
spouse}.

The Gene Numbers work like this. SEQ-1 is the first generation. SEQ-1.1 to SEQ-1.7 are his children. SEQ-1.1.1.2 is
the 2nd child of SEQ-1.1.1, who is the first child of SEQ-1.1. Find a name, remove the last digit of the Gene Number,
and you have the Gene Number of the parents.

In many cases, the name of the spouse is unknown. There are errors in the estimated dates of birth, children were
left out of the 1921 records. Dawes Roll Numbers included when I find them. If you have corrections, please send me
e-mail at info@cherokeebyblood.com better birth dates can help locate Dawes Roll Numbers.

~1764 SEQ-1   Sallie, or U-ti-yu

Sequoyah 

Children of SEQ-1  -  2nd generation

Te-es-ey Guess  1789 SEQ-1.1 Rebecca Bowles (b 1816)

George Guess ~1791 SEQ-1.2
Poly Guess ~1793 SEQ-1.3 Flying, and Thomas Brewer
Richard Guess ~1795 SEQ-1.4 
~1797 SEQ- 1.5   George Starr
E-ya-gu Guess ~1799 SEQ-1.6
O-oo-loo-tsa Guess ~1801
SEQ-1.7 Sixkiller
Gu-un-e-ki Guess

Children of SEQ-1.1  - 3rd generation

George Guess (William) ~1815 SEQ-1.1.1 Girty (Mary)

Richard Guess ~1816 SEQ-1.1.2
Joseph Guess ~1817 SEQ-1.1.3
Sallie Guess ~1818 SEQ-1.1.4 William Foster (Tunooie)
Joseph Guess ~1819 SEQ-1.1.5
Cathrine Guess ~1820 SEQ-1.1.6  Joseph Downing

Children of SEQ-1.3

Annie Flying ~1815 SEQ-1.3.1 Joseph Griffin

Children of SEQ-1.5

Joseph Starr ~1815 SEQ-1.5.1  

Children of SEQ-1.7

Araminta Sixkiller ~1840 SEQ-1.7.1

RedBird Sixkiller ~1845 SEQ-1.7.2 Pamelia Whaley
Samuel Sixkiller ~1850 SEQ-1.7.3 Fannie Foreman
Lucas Sixkiller, ( Dawes 1855 SEQ-1.7.4 Emma Blythe (b 1856) (Dawes Roll 7398)
Roll 7397) {Emma’s parents were: Absalom Blythe - Mary
Millsap}

Children of SEQ-1.1.1  –  4th generation

Mary (Poly) Guess, (Dawes 1854 SEQ- George Mitchell (b 1852 IW), and Andrew
Roll 3255) 1.1.1.1 Russell (b 1846) (Dawes Roll 33254)

George Guess, (Dawes Roll 1856 Betsy Vann (b 1845) (Dawes Roll 16641)
16640) SEQ-
1.1.1.2

Children of SEQ-1.1.4
Susie Foster, (Dawes Roll 1862 SEQ- Levi Toney, (b 1859) (Dawes Roll 17008)
17009) 1.1.4.1

Children of SEQ-1.1.6

Nannie Downing, (Dawes 1878 SEQ- Richard Boles (b 1871) (Not Registered)
Roll 30105) 1.1.6.1 Coggle

Lucile Downing  ~1880

Edward Downing ~1882 SEQ-
Sequoyah Downing ~1884 1.1.6.2
Maud Downing ~1886 SEQ-
1.1.6.3
SEQ-
1.1.6.4
SEQ-
1.1.6.5

Children of SEQ-1.3.1

Tidugiyosti Griffin ~1840 SEQ-  

1.3.1.1 

Children of SEQ-1.7.3

Samuel Sixkiller Jr, (Dawes 1877 SEQ-  

Roll 16877) 1.7.3.1
Mattie Sixkiller (who is SEQ-
1.7.4.1)

Children of SEQ-1.7.4

Mattie Sixkiller 1874 SEQ-  

Samuel Sixkiller Jr ( who is 1.7.4.1 
SEQ-1.7.3.1)

Children of SEQ-1.1.1.1  -  5th generation

George Mitchell Jr, (Dawes 1899 SEQ- Susan Hildebrand, and  Martha Horn
Roll 27694) 1900 1.1.1.1.1
George Russell, (Father and SEQ-.1.1. Minnie Holston
mother on Dawes Roll) 1.1 

Children of SEQ-1.1.4.1
 Calvin Toney, (Dawes Roll 1882 SEQ-  
17010)  1886 1.1.4.1.1
Cicero Toney, (Dawes Roll 1894 SEQ-
17011) 1890 1.1.4.1.2
Margaret Toney, (Dawes 1894 SEQ-
Roll 17013 ) 1.1.4.1.3
Cathrine Toney, (Dawes SEQ1-.1.4
Roll 17012) .1.4
Sallie Toney, (Dawes Roll SEQ-
17014) 1.1.4.1.5

Children of SEQ-1.1.6.1

Leo Bowles, (Dawes Roll 1898 SEQ-  

27420) 1899 1.1.6.1.1
Richard Bowles, (Dawes SEQ-
Roll 27421) 1.1.6.1.2

Children of SEQ-1.1.6.2

Cecil Coggle  ~1865 SEQ-  

Houston Coggle ~1866 1.1.6.2.1
SEQ-
1.1.6.2.2

The National Heptagon

In the national capital and situated on a high mound was a huge heptagon or seven-sided building, at which
all national festivals were celebrated, where major war parties assembled before going off to war and the
nation was ruled. Contrasted with this were the smaller individual town council houses, which served an
average town population of 350 people. The town council house was a circular building, although the
members of each of the seven clans sat in it in individual places, rounded, so that the interior arrangement
was, in a sense, seven-sided. The average town council house was fifty feet in diameter and sat on a mound.
 Red and White Organizations
The ancient Cherokees lived in an alternating state of war and peace which called for a dual organization of
tribal government: a white, or peace, organization, and a red, or war, organization. If either of the two
organizations was in any way subordinate to the other, it was the red one, since the Great High Priest could
make or unmake the war chiefs. The white officials were either to some extent hereditary (through female
line) or subject to appointment by the Great High Priest. Like the national capital, each town was governed
by its two head chiefs: the white chief in peacetime and the red chief in war. The one exception was when the
nation was being attacked and the white chief took control. An assemblage of Beloved Women, also called
"Pretty Women" or "War Women," was present at every war council. These served as counselors to the male
leaders, and also regulated the treatment dealt to prisoners of war.

The White Organization

The white organization consisted of a set of officials aged fifty or more, a large portion of whom were priests,
and who performed both secular and religious functions. The higher authority was the Great High Priest,
whose Cherokee name was "Uku". The Great High Priest had a principal assistant, a great speaker, and
seven counselors representing the seven clans, whom he consulted on all matters of importance. It was this
group of officials that helped him determine the times of the national feasts and made arrangements for
them. In addition to administering civil law, white officials alone owned the prayers for invoking blessings
from protective spirits. White officials could remove the uncleanness from polluted persons and restore
them to normal life.
 

The principal officers in the white organization were:

 
1. The chief of the tribe, or Great High Priest: Uku, Ookah
2. U lo tv, the chief's principal assistant, also called "right-hand man" or "the one who fanned him."
3. Ti nv Ii no he ski, the seven counselors who represented the seven clans.
4. A tsi nv sti, the chief's messenger.
5. Ti kv no tsi Ii ski, the chief speaker.
6. The council of elder, or beloved men.
7. The Beloved Women.
8. A ke yv gv sta, the women who warmed water to wash the chief.
9. Lesser officers required for specific ceremonies included: seven hunters, seven cooks, seven overseers,
seven fire makers, seven cleansers, musicians, attendants at the Ookah dance, and the Yo wah hymn singer.
10. Nv no hi ta hi, the priest who superintended the building of the hothouse.
 
On festival occasions, the Uku was clothed in a sleeveless white waistcoat and wore a broad woven belt. He
wrapped around his shoulders in shawl fashion a consecrated deerskin that was also whitened and wore a
new pair of whitened buckskin moccasins he had made and stitched together with deer sinew. The top
portion above the toes he painted with a few streaks of red - not vermilion, for this was a war color - but with
a certain red root whose leaves and stalk resembled the ipecacuanha, which was one of the principal
symbols for holy things. The festival costume of the Uku included a magnificent cape made of white feathers
and a breastplate made of a white conch shell. His headband was either a wreath of swan feathers or a long
piece of swan skin. Probably the principal assistant and the chief speaker had differently adorned but
similarly shaped hats with swan feathers and bells, but topped with feathers a little shorter than those worn
by the Great High Priest. All priests had spectacular ritual pipes, which were about three feet long and had
whitened wooden stems and stone bowls carved with symbolic figures.
 The Uku Consecration Ceremony

On the death of the presiding Uku, his principal assistant set a date for the consecration of his successor,
who would already have been chosen and trained. A messenger was dispatched to notify the chief priests
throughout the nation. He was given a special string of braided wild hemp with as many knots tied in it as
there were nights prior to the appointed date. Each day the messenger traveled, he was to cut one knot from
his string and thus would keep a precise account of the time. At the appointed time, the nation's priests
assembled with their messengers at the national heptagon and sent them to the candidate to request that he
accept the office. When the messengers returned and the priests were assured that the candidate would
comply with the request and had begun a six-day fast, the priests used those six days to make a special
platform of tall and strong reeds, an official Uku investiture costume, and a yellow painted scepter. Then, on
the seventh day, the priests, along with a vast multitude, went to the candidate's house. Previously selected
persons undressed and carefully bathed the candidate, for he must be absolutely clean when his official
clothing was put on him. Then he was dressed in Uku garments and his face was anointed with sacred white
paint. The platform was brought to the candidate's house, and he leaped onto it and stood upright, taking the
yellow scepter in his right hand; four chosen men then lifted the platform on their shoulders and carried the
candidate to the national heptagon, with half of the assembled priests walking in front and the other half
behind, all singing. The procession halted three times on the way. The procession of priests bearing the
candidate walked silently around the heptagon four times and then lowered the platform to within three feet
of the ground, whereupon the candidate climbed onto the back of an appointed person and was carried into
the heptagon. The candidate stood up, and except for his breechclout, his clothes were removed by another
priest. Next, the principal assistant presented the candidate with an eagle-tail fan, old sacred tobacco and a
sacred pipe, which was the signal for the candidate to commence smoking with the other priests as a token
of friendship and loyalty. Each priest smoked his own pipe, for the candidate's pipe, since he was being
transformed into the Uku, was sacred. At this point the chief speaker came forward and made a lengthy
address in which he directed everyone to pay homage to the new Uku, and the people arose and in single file
came to do this, bowing before the Uku and saying, "Tsa gv wi tso la," to which he replied, "Ho!" When
everyone had returned to their seats, they sat in silence for the rest of the night and contemplated the
significance of the event, the people no doubt praying for divine blessings, success and happiness. Just
before daybreak, the Uku broke the silence with an address to the people in which he promised to exercise
his authority in all respects according to the commands of God. When he finished, the people promised to
obey him. Then the candidate was dressed again in his official garments.
 
In addition to his special costume, the Uku had a standard or flag, which consisted of a long white pole with
a carved eagle on top and bearing a pennant made of white cloth or deerskin, four or five yards long, painted
with red spots like stars. In case of a sudden attack, the standard was raised in front of the national
heptagon, and the national council would, after assembling for divination with tobacco smoke to learn the
nature and extent of the emergency.

The Red Organization

The Red organization consisted of a set of officials who corresponded in rank and duties to the white
officials, except that their function was exclusively military. The red officials were at frequent intervals
elected by popular vote or acquired their rank as the result of bravery in battle. They were honored with
victory and scalp dances and sat in places of honor in the town council houses.
The principal officers of the red organization were:
1. Ska ya gu stu eg wo, the Great Red War Chief or High Priest of War, was called "the Raven" when he
scouted while the army was on the march.
2. The Chief's second, or right-hand, man.
3. Seven war counselors, to order acts of war.
4. Beloved Women to judge the fate of captives
5. Ska li ko ski, the chief war speaker.
6.Ka tat a ka ne hi, the warrior who carried the Great War Chief's battle standard
7. Ku ni ko ti, the Chief War Priest for healing and treating wounds, who had three or more assistants.
8. Messengers
9.A tsi lv ti ye gi, the priest who carried to war the ark containing the holy fire. His right-hand man was called
Ko lv nv. Only the priest and this man were allowed to touch the ark.
10. Three war scouts: the Wolf, the Owl, and the Fox
11. A special war priest, who did the divination and carried out other religious functions for the Great War
Chief.
12. Lesser officers included drummers, cooks, fire tenders and wood gatherers. A priest who had killed an
enemy during a battle was named Nv no hi ta hi, and he superintended the building of sweat houses for
purification rites.

When anyone of the town chiefs was forewarned of approaching enemies who were yet some distance away,
he immediately dispatched a messenger bearing this news to the Uku, along with a twist of sacred tobacco
that was painted red. On receiving the tobacco and message, the Uku immediately called for the Great War
Chief and his officers. If after consulting together, this group felt there was no great worry, they did not
smoke the tobacco but sent it back by the same messenger who had brought it. If the concluded that danger
was imminent, the tobacco was smoked, messengers spread the news throughout the nation, and the Uku
had his standard hoisted to notify the citizens of the national capital. The seven counselors were summoned
to convene at the national heptagon. As soon as this meeting was held, and always in conjunction with the
Great War Chief and his advisers, war plans were made. The red war standard was also hoisted in front of the
heptagon, and the red officers painted themselves and their weapons with fresh red paint.

The body of soldiers who would gather to defend the nation would be divided into either four or seven
companies and the council selected a healer for each company. Then seven counselors, one from each clan,
were selected to direct each company. Either a priest of great power was chosen to officiate in divining and
offering sacrifices for the entire army or the counselors for each company selected their own priest. Each
group of seven counselors had its own speaker, called Ko wo ni gv lv, who during such emergencies
exhorted the warriors to boldness and action by describing the legendary feats of distinguished leaders who
had fallen in past battles.

War Practices

War prayer formulas were recited by the priests of the different companies for four consecutive nights. On
the fourth night, the priests gave each man a small root that through ritual had been given the power to
confer invulnerability. On the eve of the battle, the warriors, after immersing in a stream, chewed some of the
root and spat the juice on their bodies to make enemy arrows or bullets slide off like drops of water.

In declaring a war of revenge, the Great War Chief took control. He and his principal assistant consulted
together and whatever they decided, the entire nation agreed to. The Chief took his gourd rattle and went into
the yard surrounding his house, where he walked back and forth, shook the rattle, shouted the war whoop
again and again, and sang four times the word "U gi wan e e" . After this, he returned to his house, sat down
and handed the gourd to his assistant, who went outside and repeated the ritual. People living nearby heard
this performance and relayed the word until it had spread throughout the town. Within minutes, large
numbers of warriors gathered at the Great War Chief's house, where he notified that Cherokees would return
the blows that had been struck.
The warriors got ready for leaving. Each warrior carried his own provisions and was heavily loaded with
them when he started out. He also furnished his own weapons and armor. The armor consisted of a shield
and a club used only for defense, and the weapons consisted of war clubs, axes, knives, lances, and bows
and arrows. A bracelet was worn on the left wrist, made of buffalo hide, and was designed to protect the arm
against the released bowstring. The "helmet", a three-inch-wide thick buffalo-hide headband, whose upper
edge held a tightly packed circle of upright feathers painted red. The shield was twenty-four inches in
diameter and made from the thick forehead skin of the wood buffalo. It was boiled and then dried in the sun
until hard. It was said that in instances of starvation, some warriors would roast and eat their shields,
afterwards being referred to as "shield eaters." The Cherokee men made perhaps the finest war bows and the
smoothest barbed arrows of all Indians. Oak, ash, and hickory wood were used for the bows. For greater
flexibility, the bows were coated with bear oil, then warmed by a fire to cause the oil to sink in. War bows
averaged five feet in length and had a flat, rectangular cross section. The handle section was one-and-three-
quarters inches wide, and the limb width tapered to three-quarters of an inch at the necks. The draw was
more than fifty pounds. Strings were fashioned from twisted bear gut and were very strong. Stone-headed
arrows averaged thirty inches in length, were made of cane, and were fletched with two split turkey feathers.
Once the warriors of each town and village were assembled, armed, and ready, their war chief and their war
officers led them in rapid procession for the sometimes long march to the place of meeting at the national
capital, which was the house of the Great War Chief. War priests were chosen to serve on the occasion, and
notice given, the messengers went to the national heptagon and obtained seven dressed deerskins that were
kept for that purpose in the treasure house. The skins were taken to the Chief War Priest, who wrapped his
divining crystal in them and gave the bundle to his assistant. The priest then took up his ark, which is
described as a lidded earthen pot that contained live coals taken from the sacred fire, and with his assistant
trailing behind him, marched through the town to bestow his blessing upon the planned war expedition.
The ark held a prominent place in Cherokee life. The ark has been described either as an earthenware vessel
or a square basket. Three of the basket sided are bowed out in the middle, but the fourth side that rests again
the carrier's back is flat. The ark has a cover that is rightly woven in basketry style with hickory splints, The
ark is quite small - perhaps twenty inches in length, fifteen inches broad and fifteen inches high. The
designated priest and a beloved waiter carried the ark by turns, It contained several consecrated vessels of
antiquated forms made by Beloved Women. The priest and waiter were purified more thoroughly than the
rest of the company, so that the first might be fit to act in the religious office of a priest of war and the other
to carry the sacred ark. This description of the ark as a basket is most intriguing and suggests that since it
contained consecrated vessels one of those would have been the earthenware pot that contained the live
coals taken from the sacred fire in the national heptagon.

Once the entire army was assembled in the capital, a fast day was celebrated. This consisted of a day and a
night that were given over to prayer and fasting. The taboos included a provision that no warrior or priest
should eat or sleep, and no one should take anything directly from the hand of another person. Objects to be
passed must be dropped on the ground by the passer and picked up by the receiver.
The three principal leaders of a revenge army were the Great War Chief, now called the Raven because he
wore around his neck a raven skin; the flag carrier, who in most respects was considered equal in authority
with the Raven, and who carried the Great War Chief's standard that consisted of a four- or five-yard-long,
red-painted deerskin flag that was attached to a tall, ed pole and Ska ti lo ski, the chief speaker. Next in line
after the three leaders were the seven counselors of the chief warrior. Then came one after the other the
individual companies, each led by its town war chief who was called A ska ye gv sta, and who was followed
by his principal assistant, by his own seven counselors and speaker, and by his priests, doctors, and cooks.
Town drummers and other musicians marched in the center of each company.
On the morning of the second day, bathing was optional, and that evening, the war standard was set up in
the middle of the town sacred square. That night, by the light of huge bonfires, the war party did a dance
called A te yo hi, which means "going around in a circle." Just before daylight, the Great War Chief halted the
dance and ordered the entire war party to the river, where the men immersed themselves seven times. At
sunrise, everyone gathered around the Great War Priest, who swept and made bare a place on the ground,
then kindled afire on it with some of the coals of the ark, whose fuel on this occasion was seven special
kinds of wood. Into this fire he first sacrificed rats and 'worms. Standing on the west side of the fire and
facing the east, with his principal assistant at his right and his seven counselors behind him, he held a piece
of deer tongue in his hand and prayed to learn what the fate of the war party would be. Then he threw the
piece onto the fire. If the fire burned bright and clear and quickly consumed the meat, it indicated that the
Cherokees would win the battle, but if the fire did not consume it, it meant the opposite. If the latter
happened, other rituals were done, and further predictions were solicited to see if the prediction could be
changed. Each night, when the Great War Chief put on his raven skin, and went forward as a spy, three
renowned warriors put on their skins and went off in other directions. The owl man went as a spy to the right,
the wolf man to the left and the fox man went back the way they had come. A little after sunrise, the priest set
up a small table, folded and put seven deerskins on it, and placed his divining crystal on top of the skins. He
then moved back a few steps and prayed to each of the seven heavens. If they were to win, blood would flow
down the right side of his crystal, and if they were to lose. down the left side.
At the end of the rituals, the priest put then the hot ashes of the fire back in the ark and picked it up. That
was the signal for the Great War Chief to call the men to order, and to do this he waved his red war club in
the air, then made a speech. The priest made a prayer to the Three Beings above and the war party moved
off, and before long the Great War Chief and his principal assistant shouted the war whoop and broke into a
rousing war song. The chief speaker chose the path the marchers would follow, selected campsites, and
sounded the daily call to awaken and get moving. Certain rules were to be obeyed and certain rituals be
followed along the way. Although acts such as these are put in the category of superstition today, they were
firmly believed in then, and among other things kept men's minds focused and inspired continued
confidence. If in marching the war party unexpectedly encountered enemies, the chief speaker told the
warriors what to do, and everyone waited for his directions. When the war party reached enemy country,
everyone halted while the chief speaker gave a speech of encouragement.

On their return home from a battle, the warriors stayed at their own town council houses for twenty-four days
where before returning to their wives and families, they underwent extensive purification rituals to rid
themselves of uncleanness that was contacted during the fighting. Warriors who distinguished themselves
in battle were on their return honored by the gift of a new name that was publicly bestowed by a general
council of town leaders. Killer was the highest name, then Raven, Owl, Wolf and Fox. Such men achieved
higher status and with it certain war offices and increased responsibilities. Another rule was that in battle,
the Great War Chief never retreated, although when other warriors saw that the tide was turning against
them, they could take him by force and make him retreat. To honor the Great War Chief's bravery, when he
retired he was given an eagle feather with a red strip painted across it for each war party he had led and each
enemy he had killed.

Warriors

The prime age for a warrior was twenty-five to fifty years, and all men under the age of twenty-five were
called "boys." When war officers reached fifty years of age they retired, and other men were appointed to fill
their places. When the Great War Chief retired or was killed, the nation's warriors nominated his successor.
This nomination was presented to the Uku and to the war chiefs, and if they and their counselors approved,
the candidate underwent a regal consecration ceremony. The ceremony was directed by the retiring Great
War Chief or if this chief had been killed, by a past Great War Chief.
Individuals were appointed to prepare the candidate's seat, which was something like a stool with a four-
foot-high back and painted red; when the stool was ready, they were to place it just to the west of the sacred
fire in the national heptagon. Other men were appointed to wash the candidate ld to dress him in his official
robes, which were entirely red. Four retired war officers of high rank were chosen to spend with the
candidate the day and night prior to the day of the consecration ceremony. During this time the retired war
officers neither ate or slept, and they also fasted on the day of the ceremony. At sunrise, wearing red
costumes, they inducted the candidate to his heptagon seat. One of them carried a ceremonial war club
made entirely of red stone and walked in front of him, one bearing a red-painted eagle feather walked on his
left, one carrying a bag of red paint and a bag of black paint walked on his right, and one behind him carried
a magnificent red cape made of eagle feathers. On arriving at the heptagon, which was already filled with the
leaders of the Cherokee Nation, the group circled it once and then entered to lead the candidate to his seat,
which faced east and was situated directly in front of the seats of the Uku and the retiring Great War Chief.
While the candidate stood in front of his seat and faced the sacred fire, the four escorts performed a low
dance around him, singing one verse of a certain song with each circle, until they have passed around him
four times and four verses had been sung. The men who had walked behind the candidate undressed him
saved his red-dyed breechclout. The men put the war club in the candidate's right hand and the man with the
eagle feather put it on the candidate's head. Then they proceeded to paint his body with red and black
stripes. Now the man who carried the red cape put it on the candidate's shoulders and the man who had
undressed the candidate put on him garters and moccasins.
At this point, the retiring war chief stood up and addressed the audience, charging them to obey without
question the new chief and never to go to war without his knowledge and direction. In concluding, he would
address the audience (the new chief): "You have now put me in blood from my head to my feet, but in war I
shall not bloody my hands by destroying the infants and aged who cannot defend themselves, Yet, if in my
path any tribe or individual shall raise the war whoop, and if I see weapons in their hands, I will fight and
conquer or die. You have made me your Great War Chief and I will strive to take care of my young warriors,
never exposing them unnecessarily in war.
The ceremony continued until noon next day, at which time food was brought to the heptagon and served to
the new chief and the other chiefs and priests. The red eagle feather, along with the bands of otter skin he
wore on his arms, legs and head was the chief's identifying badge of rank. The final act of preparation for the
new chief was when the retired Great War Chief brought forth his revered stuffed raven skin and put it on the
neck of his successor.

Fighting techniques

A general fighting technique of the Cherokees was to set a trap for their enemies, in which they formed a V-
shaped wedge that caused the foes to at first think they had only a few Cherokee warriors to contend with,
when in fact they would soon find themselves completely surrounded.
The only other battle techniques mentioned by early white observers were that the Cherokees mimicked the
voices of birds to communicate with one another, that a favorite method of waylaying an enemy was
ambushing and that whenever an encounter was imminent, the quiver was shifted from the shoulders to the
left side where the arrows could, by the warrior's reaching across the abdomen with the right hand to be
more quickly and easily drawn.

Prisoners and peace

 Regarding retaliation and the treatment of prisoners, after spending some time on war parties with the
Cherokees, Adair believed there never was a people who pursued the mosaic law of retaliation with such
fixed eagerness as they did.

If equal blood had not been shed in battle, then while the warriors were purifying themselves for war, they
always asked the Beloved Women to delegate captives either to be killed outright or put to torture.
When the Cherokee Nation made peace, they held very solemn ceremonies. A messenger carried a swan's
wing in his right hand that was painted all over with streaks of white clay. The next day the visitors entered
the town without weapons and in a friendly parade, and advanced to the sacred square where their leader
was met by the chief priest of the white organization. After some rituals, the two leaders and their officers
entered the heptagon where they took seats, with the two leaders sharing the priest's ottoman, smoked the
pipe and ate together, they then drank a bitter liquid called "cusseena" and used ancient invocations for
peace. The ritual concluded with a dance, carried out by half dozen of the most active and expert young
warriors, who painted their bodies with white clay and covered their heads with swansdown.

When young men wished to be hunters, they had to talk to the priest, who was in charge of training them. On
the appearance of the first new Moon in March, the priest gave the pupils an emetic purifying drink and had
them wash their bodies with it. The drink was a tea made of cedar boughs, horsemint, cane and old tobacco. 
Once purged, they were going to the river where they immersed seven times, then put on clean clothing.
Once they killed the first buck, they took the tip of the tongue to the priest to offer as a sacrifice.

The same ritual was repeated at the appearance of the first new moon in September. For four years
thereafter, the candidates were consigned to the care of the hunting priest, and during this period were not
allowed to have sexual relations with women. The priest taught them the sacred formulas for hunting (see
below) and everything about the animals. He also taught them how to made the special calls that imitated
nature to draw the animals closer. He helped them to make the masks for hunting, that never failed to
bewitch the game and which allowed hunters to easily get within killing distance. The hunters were told how
to give proper thanks for success and how to conserve enough game to assure a supply for future years.

At the end of the 4 years, the priest prepared on the bank of the river an "osi" or  tent for sweating. As
soon as the pupils were in a profuse sweat, they were ordered to plunge in the river and immerse
themselves seven times. After this purification ritual they were free to have sexual relations with women.

The hunting priest sometimes accompanied the specialist on expeditions, and the first buck killed belonged
to him and he offered also the tip of the tongue as sacrifice, burning it in a new fire that he had brought along
with him. When he couldn't accompany the hunters, he authorized the chief hunter to offer sacrifices instead.

The rites concerning hunting seem involved and time consuming, but the dependence of the ancient peoples
on game made them understandable. Hunters specialist were called on to supply the deer meat and skins
needed d for the rituals that accompanied the great festivals, and as such held a holy office that demanded a
close association with the "above powers". The meat foods were as much a gift from the above powers as
the cultivated and wild plant food, and to forget this was to ensure failure.

Men that were not specialists could also ask the priest to prepare them. They were taken to the "osi". Each
man had for a seat a deerskin. They did not sleep the first night, and at intervals the priest sang the hunter's
song. A short while before daybreak the men left behind all the clothes but for the breechclouts and went to
another tent for sweating. After that they had to go to the river and immerse themselves seven times. Once
dressed, they drank the purification medicine and bathe with it. It made them to throw up and thus cleanse
the interiors of their bodies. On that day, they fasted until afternoon.

On the next day, they drank the mixture again, but the fasting period was shorter. The ritual was repeated for
seven days, and on the seventh day, the first meal was eaten early in the morning. On the night of the
seventh day everyone stayed awake while at intervals the priest sang the hunter song. Just before daybreak
they went in the sweating tent and at daybreak immersed again. Then, carrying a new fire in a ceramic
vessel, the priest had supplied, the men went on a hunt. On killing the first deer they took the meat and
offered it to the fire for sacrifice. If a puff of wind came out of the meat while it burned, or if the meat popped
throwing pieces toward the east, the sign was good, and the hunt would be successful, but if it popped
towards the west, it wasn't a good sign.
During a prolonged series of winter hunting expeditions, when the need for food was very severe, the
specialists were not permitted to have intercourse with their wives. It was the ultimate form of self-denial,
and one the above powers could not fail to respond to favorably. Some years, the rule would remain in force
for 6 months.

A special Hunter's Feast took place in September, when the buck flies first made their appearance. The
rituals of drink, immersion and fasting were repeated, and on the fourth day, the priest would check his
crystal to see if the hunting was going to be successful. That night the hunters were honored guests for a
huge banquet where the village shown their appreciation for their efforts throughout the year.

Hunting was a laborious exercise. Men often walked 30 miles over rough ground, fasting themselves and
purifying often. The animals shot with the bow and arrow were buffalo, deer, opossum, squirrel, turkey,
partridge and pheasant. To kill rabbits and small birds, the blowgun was used. The blowgun was a seven
or eight-foot-long hollow piece of cane through which, by means of blowing, a six-to eight-inch dart was
projected. The darts were carried in quivers made of a section of large cane, and hollow gourds was used to
store the cotton like thistledown plant fibers that the darts were stuck through to seal them in the blowgun
and give them greater velocity.

Fishing

Fish were caught with bow and arrow, water traps, spearing, bait and hook and dipping out with baskets.
Some fishing was doing from canoes fashioned from large pine or poplar logs, as much as forty feet long
and two or more feet wide. The bottoms, sides and ends of the canoes were flat, although the ends were
slanted to give less resistance to currents. Some of the canoes could carry fifteen to twenty men, yet were so
light and maneuverable that the could be forced upstream against a strong current.

On occasion, the Cherokee used walnut bark to poison small areas of streams or ponds; the poison
temporarily stunned the fish for easy gathering. Pounded walnut bark is thrown into small streams to stupefy
the fish, so that they may be easily dipped out in baskets as they float on the surface of the water. Should a
pregnant woman wade into the stream at the time, its effect is nullified, unless she has first taken the
precaution to tie a strip of the bark about her toe.

Hunting and fishing prayers

Fishing prayer:

"Listen ! Now your settlements have drawn near to hearken. Where you have gathered in the foam you are
moving about as one, You Blue Cat and the others, I have come to offer you freely the white food. Let the
paths from every direction recognize each other. Our spittle shall be in agreement, Let them be together as
we go about. The fish have become a prey, and there shall be no loneliness. Your spittle has become
agreeable. Yo!."

Hunting prayer

"Give me the wind. Give me the breeze. Yu! O Great Terrestrial Hunter, I come to the edge of your spittle
where you repose. Let your stomach cover itself; let it be covered with leaves. Let it cover itself at a single
bend, and may you never be satisfied. And you, O Ancient Red, may you hover above my breast while I
sleep. Now let good dreams develop; let my experiences be propitious. Ha ! Now let my little trails be
directed, as they lie down in various directions. Let the leaves be covered with the clotted blood, and may it
never cease to be so. You two (the Water and the Fire) shall bury it in your stomachs. Yu!"

Hunting birds prayer

"Listen! O Ancient White, where you dwell in peace I have come to rest. Now let your spirit arise. Let it (the
game brought down) be buried in your stomach, and may your appetite never be satisfied. The red hickories
have tied themselves together. The clotted blood is your recompense. O Ancient White, *** Accept the clotted
blood. O Ancient White, put me in the successful hunting trail. Hang the mangled things upon me. Let me
come along the successful trail with them doubled up (under my belt). It (the road) is clothed with the
mangled things. O Ancient White, O Kanati, support me continually, that I may never become blue. Listen !"