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May and June Beetles.

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severe than from the grubs themselves. Masked chafer
grubs infest all common cool-season turfgrasses and some
warm-season grasses including bermudagrass and zoysia-
grass. They occur in soils ranging widely in pH, texture,
and percentage of organic matter; and they may also be
found under cattle manure and in mulched plant beds.
Life History. Northern and southern masked chafers
are univoltine throughout most of their range. At the lati-
tude of Kentucky, they spend ≈2 wk as eggs, 10 mo as
larvae, 4–5 d as prepupae, 11–16 d as pupae, and 1–3 wk
as adults. Third instars overwinter 3–12 in. (8–30 cm) be-
low the surface. They return to the root zone in March
and feed until pupating in mid- to late May. Adults are
active during June and July; flights may be triggered by
heavy rains. Southern masked chafers emerge from the
soil around dusk, and their mating activity continues until
≈2300 hours. Females remain on the ground or perch on
grass blades; males take flight and skim over the turf in
search of mates. Females emit a powerful sex pheromone.
After mating, females quickly burrow into the soil. North-
ern masked chafers have similar behavior but are active
mainly after midnight. Eggs of both species are deposited
in the upper 2 in. (5 cm) of moist, well-drained soils. Most
of the eggs hatch by early August. Grubs develop through
three instars reaching nearly full size by late August or
September. They feed until mid- to late October when
cooling temperatures force them deeper for overwintering.
Southern masked chafer and C. parallela exhibit bimodal
flight periods in northern and south-central Florida, re-
Masked chafer distribution.
Pest Information
spectively, suggesting two generations per year. Flight of
C. pasadenae begins in early May; but in desert regions of
the Southwest, there is a second flight in late summer sug-
gesting that there may be two generations. Masked chafer
eggs and larvae are preyed upon by ants, staphylinid and
carabid beetles, as well as Tiphia pygidialis Allen, a native
tiphiid wasp that may parasitize 30% or more grubs at
some sites. Pathogens include naturally occurring ento-
mopathogenic nematodes, fungi, a specific strain of milky
disease-causing bacteria (Paenibacillus sp.), and other mi-
crobes. Natural enemies of adults have not been studied.
Management. Damage thresholds for northern and
southern masked chafer grubs vary with turf species and
vigor. Warm-season grasses, tall fescue, and creeping
bentgrass are more tolerant than Kentucky bluegrass or
perennial ryegrass. Endophytes of perennial ryegrass or
tall fescue do not provide significant resistance to grubs.
Vigorous turf may support >20 grubs/ft2 (>200/m2) with-
out visible damage; stressed turf can often withstand only
8–10 grubs/ft2 (80–100/m2). Irrigation or rainfall during
July favors egg survival. Adult females are attracted to ir-
rigated sites for oviposition, especially when surrounding
areas are dry. Irrigation or ample rain in late summer when
third instars are feeding helps turf to tolerate light-to-mod-
erate root loss from grubs. Soil insecticides having several
months residual activity can be applied preventively in
spring or early summer, before egg hatch, to control first
instars. Larger grubs may be targeted with fast-acting cura-
tive insecticides in late summer. Products containing the
entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora,
can be effective if applied to moist soil when grubs are pres-
ent and followed by irrigation. Commercial milky spore
products are not effective against masked chafer grubs.
Selected References. 17, 35, 118, 164, 192, 193, 197,
200, 208, 229
Carl T. Redmond, Kai Umeda and Daniel A. Potter
May and June Beetles
Scientific Classification. The names May beetle or
June beetle are commonly applied to adult scarab bee-
tles in the genus Phyllophaga (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae:
Melolonthinae: Melolonthini). The larvae of all Phylloph-
aga species are referred to simply as white grubs. None of
the Phyllophaga species has an approved common name.
Species of Phyllophaga with spring reproductive flights are
generally referred to as May beetles; those with summer
reproductive flights are lumped together as June beetles.
Origin and Distribution. The genus Phyllophaga is a
very large one. More than 200 species occur in the con-
55
Pest Information
Newly hatched June beetle (courtesy NYSAES, H. Tashiro).
June beetle first instar larvae (P. latifrons), (courtesy NYSAES, H.
Tashiro).
tiguous United States and most provinces of Canada, and
>850 species are distributed from Canada to the southern
tip of South America and throughout the Caribbean.
Description. Phyllophaga adults of different species are
similar in appearance. A close examination, however, indi-
cates that they come in various shades of brown, support
differing amounts of body hair, range from ≈0.3 to 1 in.
(7–25 mm) long, and vary in shape from parallel-sided to
oval. In most species, the three-layered club at the end of
the antenna is longer in the male; and in many species, the
shapes of the terminal segments of the lower surface of
the abdomen differ between the sexes. Although external
physical characters can sometimes be used to identify spe-
cies, the shape of the internal male genitalia is the most
reliable and most often used character in species identifi-
cation. The larvae of Phyllophaga can be separated from
many other white grubs encountered in turf by the shape
of the anal slit and the pattern of hairs on the ventral side
of the tip of the abdomen. This pattern of hairs is called
the raster. In the Phyllophaga, the anal slit is V or Yshaped
56
(see Appendix 1 for rastral patterns), instead of forming
a simple straight line running transversely across the rear
end of the abdomen. Phyllophaga larvae also differ from
most other turf-inhabiting white grubs because they have
a conspicuous double row of spines called palidia that are
located just forward of the anal slit and near the midline
of the lower surface of the abdomen. This double row re-
sembles a railroad track.
The most likely turfgrass-infesting species to be con-
fused with Phyllophaga larvae are the larvae of the Euro-
pean chafer because they both have Y-shaped anal slits and
both have rows of palidia that resemble railroad tracks. In
the European chafer, however, these palidia decidedly di-
verge at their apex near the Y-shaped anal slit, whereas in
turf-infesting Phyllophaga larvae, they do not (see Appendix
1 for rastral pattern). Identifying a particular species of a
Phyllophaga white grub is difficult because it depends on a
microscopic examination of the palidia and mouthparts.
Additionally, many species are poorly described in the lit-
erature.
Pest Status. Because of the superficial similarity of
different species, most people fail to realize that on any
particular night the beetles that they see swarming around
outdoor lights may represent several species with distinc-
tive life cycles, habitat preferences, and host ranges. Not
all species of Phyllophaga should be considered pests. Usu-
ally, one, or only a few species of Phyllophaga ever damage
turf in any given locale. Among the species of white grubs
that are important turf pests in various parts of the United
States are P. anxia (LeConte), P. crinita Burmeister, P. ephi-
lida (Say), P. fraterna Harris, and P. hirticula (Knoch). Even
species that are commonly collected in blacklight traps are
often from other habitats and present little-or-no threat to
turf.
In many parts of the country, it is not well known
which Phyllophaga species are capable of becoming impor-
tant turf pests because larvae are difficult to identify us-
ing morphological characters. The recent development of
DNA-sequencing techniques offers researchers the ability
to identify larvae more easily by comparing DNA extract-
ed from larvae with that of identified adults. Researchers
in Oklahoma compared mitochondrial DNA sequences
from the cytochrome c oxidase 1 gene from Phyllophaga
larvae they collected from bermudagrass sod farms with
that from adult beetles collected from light traps. Whereas
20 species of Phyllophaga beetles were collected in light
traps, only 9 species were found infesting managed ber-
mudagrass turf. Turf-infesting species included P. bipar-
tita (Horn), P. calceata (LeConte), P. congrua (LeConte),
P. crassissima (Blanchard), P. crinita Burmeister, P. ephilida

(Say), P. hirtiventris (Horn), P. submucida LeConte, and P.
torta (LeConte).
Injury. Both the adult beetle and the larva are capable
of causing damage. Adult Phyllophaga eat the leaves of cer-
tain grasses, herbs, shrubs, and trees. Feeding habits vary
depending on the species of beetle. Adults of some species
feed little, if at all; others, at times, inflict serious dam-
age on certain field crops, landscape trees, and shrubs. In
turfgrass, adult Phyllophaga do not cause serious damage;
however, larvae can cause severe damage and loss of stand
in turf and other cultivated plants. The white grubs live in
the soil where they consume roots and other subterranean
parts of plants, especially grasses. Much of the feeding oc-
curs close to the soil surface where the impact of severing
a root is more severe than it would be if the same amount
of tissue were consumed at a greater depth. In extreme
cases, root loss becomes so severe that the plant essentially
has no hold on the ground and can be lifted easily from
the ground or rolled up like a carpet. Under some circum-
stances, white grubs pull seedling plants back into the soil,
consuming even the leaves.
Grubs of northern species of Phyllophaga avoid freez-
ing by overwintering below the frost line. In the spring,
they ascend again to the upper part of the soil and resume
their feeding. Early signs of white grub injury to turf in-
clude reduced plant vigor, chlorotic appearance and lack
of responsiveness to fertilizer applications. Typically,
heavily infested areas of a turf take on an uneven appear-
ance caused by leaves failing to attain cutting height and,
frequently, they are invaded by broadleaved weeds. As the
situation progresses, the turf tends to assume a drought-
like, brownish appearance as dead leaves become increas-
Egg, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd larval instar, pupa, and adult of the June beetle. Silhouettes show the
actual size of each stage.
Pest Information
ingly abundant in the canopy. Bare spots where the turf is
completely lost may also appear. In the final stage, all of
the grass is dead in the most severely infested areas, and all
that remain are various broadleaved weeds. Less severely
damaged areas of turf may not die immediately, but the
reduced vigor may prevent them from surviving the fol-
lowing winter. White grubs also can be an indirect cause
of turf injury because they are highly preferred foods of
many nocturnal mammals such as skunks, opossums, rac-
coons, and armadillos. Foraging in the soil by these mam-
mals can ruin areas of a turf even where the white grub
population might otherwise be too low to be a practical
concern.
Life History. All Phyllophaga species have a life cycle
characterized by an egg, three larval instars, a pupa, and
an adult. The generation time for different Phyllophaga
species ranges from 1 to 4 yr. The life cycle begins with
reproductive flights triggered by environmental conditions
such as rainfall and temperature. Conversely, dry weather
may delay flights by several weeks. Males often predom-
inate in light-trap samples, at least in part because they
are more active fliers. In a few species, females are flight-
less. In many locations across the United States, there is
a regular annual sequence of reproductive flights by dif-
ferent species of Phyllophaga. In parts of the South, some
Phyllophaga flight activity may be encountered during any
month of the year. Although a few species are active dur-
ing the day, most Phyllophaga species do not appear be-
fore dusk. Their feeding and reproductive activities may
continue until dawn. Most Phyllophaga adults are strongly
attracted to lights at night; but during the day, they can be
found hiding under litter or in the soil. Males locate mates
by following the sex pheromones
released into the air by calling fe-
males upwind from them. Sex at-
tractants have been identified for
several economically important
Phyllophaga species and may be
useful in monitoring or manage-
ment strategies. Mating usually
occurs on the food plant while the
female continues to feed, or on the
surface of the ground.
After mating, the female lays
her eggs singly in cells in the soil.
The egg, the first two instars, and
the pupa of the various species of
Phyllophaga typically are relatively
short stages. Most of the time in
the life cycle is spent as a third in-
57
Pest Information
May and June beetle distribution.
star white grub. Some species appear to have multiyear life
cycles in the northern parts of their range and singleyear
life cycles farther south. In the extreme southern parts of
the United States, some species may have two generations
a year. Larvae of Phyllophaga feed primarily on live roots
and other underground parts of a plant, although they
may supplement their diets with organic matter. As some
species of Phyllophaga approach the end of larval devel-
opment, they overwinter as mature third instars, pupat-
ing and transforming into adults only briefly before their
reproductive flights. Other species pupate and emerge
as adults in the fall; the adults remain belowground and
pass the final winter in that stage before their reproductive
flights the following spring.
Management. Although recent progress in developing
biological controls for white grubs is encouraging, control
of these pests is currently based on timely applications
of soil insecticides. To minimize turf damage, chemical
treatments generally should be applied as soon after eggs
hatch as is practical. Blacklight trapping of adults is a
simple, reliable way to determine flight activity, although
it is difficult to determine whether the adults captured in
58
the light trap are the same species that are responsible for
the damage to the turf. Researchers studying turf-infest-
ing species in Oklahoma demonstrated that beetles flew
from April through August. They estimated that the best
“treatment window” for a single application of preven-
tive soil insecticides would be from June 1 through July
1. An application at that time would likely control species
that hatched from eggs deposited in April and provide
enough residual to control Phyllophaga and Cyclocephala
larvae that hatched from eggs deposited in July.
Greater precision of treatment timing can be achieved
by subsequently sampling the soil to check for the appear-
ance of first and second instars. Spatial distributions of
white grub populations tend to be irregular; some areas
are heavily infested and similar locations nearby support
few, if any, larvae. Thus, in large lawns and golf courses,
unnecessary application of pesticide can be avoided by
sampling before treatment to determine which areas con-
tain potentially damaging population densities of grubs.
In the southern United States, it usually is considered that
at least three or four Phyllophaga white grubs should be
present per square foot (0.1 m2) to warrant an insecticide
application. That criterion is not experimentally based
and may vary according to local conditions and turf spe-
cies.
If the soil is dry, it may be advisable to irrigate a few
days before applying insecticide to aid penetration by the
chemical and encourage the larvae to move to more vul-
nerable locations close to the soil surface. Many chemical
insecticides do not penetrate dense layers of accumulated
organic thatch easily; it sometimes is advisable to dethatch
a lawn before applying a pesticide to control white grubs.
Turf should be thoroughly irrigated as soon as possible
after applying a chemical to control white grubs to wash
the pesticide down into the layers of the soil where the
white grubs are found. Special attention should be given,
however, to assure that the irrigation is applied slowly to
avoid runoff. Some insecticides are more susceptible to
adverse environmental conditions than are others; thus,
the choice of active ingredient and insecticide formula-
tion can be especially important if thatch, soil moisture,
the pH of the soil or water, or the timely availability of
irrigation water is marginal. When pesticides are used, it
is important to abide by label instructions.
In many cases, potentially damaging populations of
white grubs subside without intervention because they are
killed by their natural enemies. These antagonistic organ-
isms include naturally occurring insect pathogens (mi-
crosporidia, rickettsia, bacteria, protozoans, and fungi),
parasitic insects, and predators (birds, frogs, skunks, arma-
 Pest Information

dillos, raccoons, and predatory insects). Other white grubs

die as a result of physical factors such as flooding, dry soil,
or physical injury caused by soil cultivation.
Among the most promising alternative approaches be-
ing studied for biological control of white grubs is the use
of certain nematodes in the genera Steinernema and Heter-
orhabditis. Although turf managers may be more familiar
with pest species of nematodes, the species being devel-
oped for use in biological control of insects donot dam-
age plant tissue; and they are harmless to higher animals
and humans. Other biological control organisms also offer
promise for the future, as does the development of variet-
ies of turfgrass that are resistant to white grubs.
Selected References. 28, 58, 138, 154, 226, 227, 277, 294 Rhodesgrass mealybug nymph (courtesy NYSAES, H. Tashiro).
Paul S. Robbins and Tom A. Royer

Mealybugs and Scale Insects

Common Names. Turfgrass mealybugs, turfgrass
scales
Scientific Classification. (Hemiptera: Pseudococci-
dae, Coccidae, Diaspididae).
Origin and Distribution. Mealybugs and scale insects
occur worldwide and are widely distributed throughout
the United States. In 1967, McKenzie recognized 46 gen-
era of mealybugs in North America. Within these gen-
era, 37 species were associated with grasses. Worldwide
21 families of scale insects are known. The scales insects
most commonly associated with turfgrasses are from the
families: Pseudococcidae (mealybugs), Coccidae (soft
scales), and Diaspididae (armored scales).
Description. Mealybugs are small, oval insects that are
included in the superfamily of scales–Coccoidea. Nymphs
and adult females range in color from dark pink to light
yellow and are usually covered with a white, waxy secre-
tion. Some species have a series of short, waxy filaments
projecting from the sides of the body. Immature mealy-
bugs (and scale insects) are referred to as “crawlers.”
Individuals range in length from 0.008 in. (0.2 mm) for
early instars to >0.20 in. (5.0 mm) for adult females of
certain species. Adult female mealybugs are wingless and
are similar in appearance to the nymphs. Males resemble
tiny gnats and are characterized by a single pair of wings
and three pairs of red, simple eyes. Because it is difficult to
obtain males, mealybug identification is usually based on
recently molted adult females.
Scale insects get their name from the protective waxy
shell covering their bodies. Scale insects are subdivided
into two main groups: the soft scales, which secrete a
thin, attached waxy layer to their bodies, and the armored
Rhodesgrass mealybug on bamboo (courtesy D. Shetlar).
scales, which use shed skin and wax to form a hard, shell-
like covering. Crawlers are ≈0.008 in. (0.2 mm) long, soft-
bodied, and motile. Adult females range in color from gray
to brown to white and vary in length from 0.06 in. (1.5
mm) to almost 0.40 in. (10 mm) depending on the species.
Male scale insects are tiny and gnatlike in appearance.
Like mealybugs, species identification of scale insects is
difficult and usually requires a trained entomologist.
Pest Status. Mealybugs and scale insects are sporadic
but occasionally serious pests of many grasses including
several important turfgrass species. Among the more im-
portant of the turfgrass-infesting mealybugs are the rho-
desgrass mealybug, Antonina graminis (Maskell) (formerly,
rhodesgrass scale), and the socalled buffalograss mealy-
bugs, Tridiscus sporoboli (Cockerell), and Trionymus sp.
The rhodesgrass mealybug has a wide host range and has
been found in >100 grasses. Turfgrass species known to
be seriously injured by this pest include bermudagrass, St.
Augustinegrass, and kikuyugrass. The two buffalograss-
infesting mealybugs were first discovered infesting buf-

59

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