Dike:​ sheet like intrusion cuts

across layers present in host

rocks ​Sill:​ intrusion that is
parallel to layers in host rocks
Strata:​ different layers of sedimentary rock ​Permeability: ​ability to transmit water through connected pore spaces
Aquitard​: an impermeable layer of material ​Aquifer:​ a permeable layer of material
Delta:​ form when the stream water reaches another body of water like lake or sea.
 A container with a volume of 0.0084 m^3 is filled with 13.62 kg of dry sand. The container is then filled
carefully with water so that the condition of the sand is not changed. When filled, the total mass of the soil
and water is 16.98 kg. What is the void ratio of the sand, and what is the specific gravity?
The water is filling the void spaces, so first we need to figure out how much water there is...
16.98 – 13.62 = 3.36 kg
The specific gravity of water is ~ 1, density is 1000 kg/m3 , so 3.36 kg represents a volume of 0.00336 m^3 .
Volume of voids (Vv) = 0.00336 m^3.
Volume of solids (Vs) = 0.0084 – 0.00336 = 0.00504 m^3
Void ratio (e) = Vv/Vs
=0.00336 m^3/0.00504 m^3
= 0.67​, which is the same as 2702 kg/m^3 , or 2.7x heavier than water, so a specific gravity of 2.7.
Milutin Milanković: ​SERB ​He incorporated new information about small variations in the tilt of the Earth’s axis, and factored in small orbital changes caused by the gravitational
tug of other planets. Each of these orbital variations has its own time scale, and consequently they interact in different ways over time, but each one is regular. Going back 600,000 years
in his computations, he carefully calculated the effect of these factors on incoming solar radiation across the Northern Hemisphere. The charts and tabulations Milankovitch created are
still used today. He also measured summer solar radiation curves in high northern latitudes, where the ice age glaciers originated, linking certain low points with four previous European
Pleistocene ice ages. Ultimately, the mathematician arrived at a complete astronomical theory of glaciation.
-theorized that variations in ​eccentricity​, ​axial tilt​, and ​precession​ of the Earth's orbit determined climatic patterns on Earth through ​orbital forcing​.
-​Milankovitch cycles​ refer to long term variations in the orbit of the Earth which result in changes in climate over periods hundred of thousands of years and are related to ice age ​cycles​.
Andrija Mohorovičić: ​CROAT -best known for The Mohorovičić discontinuity: ​ referred to as the Moho, is the boundary between the ​Earth​'s ​crust​ and the ​mantle​.
-​The Mohorovičić discontinuity was first identified in 1909 by Mohorovičić, when he observed that seismograms from shallow-focus earthquakes had two sets of ​P-waves​ and ​S-waves​,
one that followed a direct path near the Earth's surface and the other ​refracted​ by a high-velocity medium.
Controlling Seepage: ​Use a sump or skimmer pump to remove water that permeates through the dike. A 5-gallon pail with numerous holes drilled in the side and placed in a hole
dug into the ground can be used as a sump to collect seepage water. Use ground fault circuit interrupters on circuits or extension cords to reduce the risk of electrocution.
DO NOT BUILD DIKE AGAINST WALL. Dike should be 2-3x as wide as it is tall. Sandbag should be ½ full and tied near top. Bags should be parallel to water flow.
A Safe Operating Space for Humanity​- ​proposes the definition of “planetary boundaries” within which humanity can operate safely. Quantifies 7 out of 9 planetary boundari​es
1. Climate change (CO​2​ concentration in the atmosphere <350 ppm and/or a maximum change of +1 W m​-2​ in radiative forcing)
2. Ocean Acidification (mean surface seawater saturation state with respect to aragonite ≥ 80% of pre-industrial levels)
3. Stratospheric Ozone (<5% reduction in O​3​ concentration from pre-industrial level of 290 Dobson Units)
4. Biogeochemical nitrogen cycle (limit industrial and agricultural fixation of N​2​ to 35 Tg N yr​-1​), Phosphorus cycle (annual P inflow to oceans not to exceed 10 times the natural
background weathering of P)
5. Global freshwater use (<4000 km​3​ yr​-1​ of consumptive use of runoff resources)
6. Land system change (<15% of the ice-free land surface under cropland)
7. Rate at which biological diversity is lost (annual rate of <10 extinctions per million species).
 ← Safe Operating Space for Humanity: ​Estimate of quantitative evolution of control variables
for seven planetary boundaries from pre-industrial levels to the present. The inner (green)
shaded​ ​nonagon​ ​represents the safe operating space with proposed boundary levels at its outer
contour. The extent of the wedges for each boundary shows the estimate of current position of
the control variable. Points show the estimated recent time trajectory (1950–present) of each
control variable.

Map Stuff
Latitude​: angular distance of a point away from the equator measured centre of globe 90° N (0,
90) or S (0, -90)
Longitude​: pt from principal meridian (prime or Greenwich) from centre of globe 180° East (0,
180) or West (0, -180)
Approx. lat​. = (N UTM coord/10,000,000)*90°
Approx. long.​ = 180°-(6°*UTM#)(+3° sometimes (if not(?) asking from central merid.))
Given difference/rate per year=years
UTM Zones​:​ Earth is split into 60 zones, increase from W to E
ex: UTM zone 1=179°W; UTM zone 2=168°W
starts from int’l dateline, 180° W or E
Vert. Exagg.​: find vert. and horiz. scale of cross section, ​VE=HRZ SCALE/VERT SCALE​. ex. Vert =
4.5cm=150m, Horiz = 4.5cm=750m, 750m/150m = 5x exag
Primary (P) waves:​ Push–pull (compressional) motion, travel through solids, liquids, and gases,
greatest velocity of all earthquake waves
Secondary (S) waves:​ “Shake” motion, or “Shear” waves, travel only thru solids, slower velocity than P waves (S-waves can oscillate in any direction perpendicular to wave direction

Example Swedish Method Landslide Question:

The soil in the slope is a uniform saturated clay with density of 1.75 Mg/m3. Failure surface approximated a
circular arc AB, with radius (R) of 20m. The angle formed is 80 degrees. Center of gravity (C) is as shown. Area
was found to be 102.3m2 and the moment arm, X, about the center of the circle was 4.38m. Estimate the shear
strength of the soil at the time of failure. Failure occurs with a safety factor (SF) of 1. Assume a soil thickness of
1 m.

1. Find Mass (m) 2. Find W (Weight) 3. Find L (Length) 4. Solve for S (Shear Strength)

1.75Mg/m3=1750kg/m3 W = mg R = 20m SF = 1
Area=102.3m2 W = 179025kg x 9.81m/s2 L = 2pi x R x (theta/360) X = 4.38m
Thickness= 1m W = 1756235.25kN L = 2pi x 20m x (80/360) SF=SLR/WX
m=(1750kg/m3)x(1m)x(102.3m2) L = 27.63m S = (SF x W x X)/(L x R)
m= 179025kg S = 13.9kN/m2
SANDBAG QUESTION
Number of sandbags required per linear foot of dike for a dike with a​ base width 3 times the height
N = 3H + (9H²)/2
N - Number of Sandbags
H - Dike Height (feet)

Oxygen Fractionation Equation

delta O18= [(O18/O16 sample/O18/O16 standard) -1 ] x1000
The standard that your sample is compared to is either one prepared from ocean water or from a fossil
standard. Positive delta O18 values mean that your sample is enriched in the heavy O isotope; negative
delta O18 values mean it’s depleted in the heavy O18.
Discharge
Q = AV (m3/sec)
Discharge = cross-sectional area x velocity
- Discharge volumes usually increase at the end of stream due to addition of water from tributary streams.
- At the end of the stream, the roughness of the channels is usually smaller than the upstream end (the channel is more semicircular and the walls are made of fine-grained materials)
Predicting the peak discharge from a particular rainfall event is by use of the Rational Equation:
Q = CIA
Q - Peak Discharge (unit³/sec) A - Basin area
C - Runoff Coefficient I - Rainfall intensity (unit/hour)
Strategies to Mitigate River Flooding
Dyke relocation
- Relocating a dyke land-inwards increases the width of the flood plains and provides more room for the river. This entails exposing land that had once been protected by the water dyke
to high water.
Lowering the flood plain
- Lowering sections of the flood plain gives the river more space during periods of high water. Over the past few centuries, the natural process of sedimentation has gradually raised the
level of the flood plain. Excavating the top layers of the flood makes them lower, which in turn contributes to making room for the river.
Deepening the bed
- The river channel can be dredged to make it deeper, and create more room for the river.
High water channel
- A high water channel is not excavated below the water table, but rather formed by building two dykes in the landscape. The channel is a branch of a river used to drain high water via a
different route
Removing obstacles
- Removing or modifying obstacles in the river wherever possible helps increase the flow rate for the water in the river. Removing obstacles includes work such as lowering or eliminating
pier banks lowering quays ferry banks, widening bridge openings and removing or and flood-free areas.

← Lowering perpendicular groynes

- By lowering the groynes in the river, the river will be able to drain excess water easier. A perpendicular groyne
is constructed at a right angle to the flow of the river. These groynes removed will be lowered or removed.

Rock Quality Designation (RQD) Equation:

O18/O16 Fractionation Continued

H2O is evaporated from seawater. The oxygen in the H2O is enriched in the lighter O16. This H2O condenses in clouds,falling on land as precipitation. Thus, H2O that is part of the
terrestrial water cycle is enriched in the light O16 isotope and sea water is enriched in the heavier O18 isotope. Glacial ice is made up primarily of water with the light O16 isotope. This
leaves the oceans enriched in the heavier O18, or “more positive.”
During ​glacial periods​, more O16 is trapped in glacial ice and the oceans become even more enriched in O18, even more positive.
During ​interglacial periods​, O16 melts out of ice and the oceans become less O18 rich, or “more negative” in O18