This article is about the construction material.

For other uses, see Concrete

(disambiguation).

Concrete being poured, raked and vibrated into place in residential construction in
Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
1930s vibrated concrete, manufactured in Croydon and installed by the LMS railway
after an art deco refurbishment in Meols.

Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland cement) as

well as other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally
a coarse aggregate such as gravel limestone or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as
sand), water, and chemical admixtures. The word concrete comes from the Latin word
"concretus", which means "hardened" or "hard".

Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical
process known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other
components together, eventually creating a stone-like material. Concrete is used to make
pavements, architectural structures, foundations, motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses,
parking structures, brick/block walls and footings for gates, fences and poles.

More concrete is used than any other man-made material in the world.[1] As of 2006,
about 7 cubic kilometres of concrete are made each year—more than one cubic meter for
every person on Earth.[2] Concrete powers a $US 35-billion industry which employs more
than two million workers in the United States alone.[citation needed] More than 55,000 miles
(89,000 km) of highways in America are paved with this material. The People's Republic
of China currently consumes 40% of the world's cement/concrete production.
Contents
[hide]
 1 History
 2 Composition
o 2.1 Cement
o 2.2 Water
o 2.3 Aggregates
o 2.4 Reinforcement
o 2.5 Chemical admixtures
o 2.6 Mineral admixtures and blended cements
 3 Concrete Production
o 3.1 Mixing Concrete
o 3.2 Workability
o 3.3 Curing
 4 Properties
o 4.1 Strength
o 4.2 Elasticity
o 4.3 Expansion and shrinkage
o 4.4 Cracking
 4.4.1 Shrinkage cracking
 4.4.2 Tension cracking
o 4.5 Creep
o 4.6 Physical properties
 5 Damage modes
o 5.1 Fire
o 5.2 Aggregate expansion
o 5.3 Sea water effects
o 5.4 Bacterial corrosion
o 5.5 Chemical damage
 5.5.1 Carbonation
 5.5.2 Chlorides
 5.5.3 Sulphates
o 5.6 Leaching
o 5.7 Physical damage
 6 Types of concrete
o 6.1 Mix Design
o 6.2 Regular concrete
o 6.3 High-strength concrete
o 6.4 High-performance concrete
o 6.5 Self-consolidating concretes
o 6.6 Shotcrete
o 6.7 Pervious concrete
o 6.8 Cellular concrete
o 6.9 Cork-cement composites
 o 6.10 Roller-compacted concrete
o 6.11 Glass concrete
o 6.12 Asphalt concrete
o 6.13 Rapid strength concrete
o 6.14 Rubberized concrete
o 6.15 Polymer concrete
o 6.16 Geopolymer or green concrete
o 6.17 Limecrete
o 6.18 Refractory Cement
 7 Concrete testing
 8 Concrete recycling
 9 Use of concrete in structures
o 9.1 Mass concrete structures
o 9.2 Reinforced concrete structures
o 9.3 Prestressed concrete structures
 10 See also
 11 References
 12 External links
o 12.1 Related article and publications

o 12.2 Industry associations

[edit] History
In Serbia, remains of a hut dating from 5600 BC have been found, with a floor made of
red lime, sand, and gravel. The pyramids of Shaanxi in China, built thousands of years
ago, contain a mixture of lime and volcanic ash or clay [3]. The Assyrians and
Babylonians used clay as cement in their concrete. The Egyptians used lime and gypsum
cement.

During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete was made from quicklime, pozzolanic
ash/pozzolana, and an aggregate of pumice; it was very similar to modern Portland
cement concrete. The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures has ensured
that many survive almost intact to the present day. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are
just one example of the longevity of concrete, which allowed the Romans to build this
and similar structures across the Roman Empire. Many Roman aqueducts have masonry
cladding to a concrete core, a technique they used in structures such as the Pantheon,
Rome, the interior dome of which is unclad concrete.

The secret of concrete was lost for 13 centuries until 1756, when the British engineer
John Smeaton pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and
powdered brick as aggregate. Portland cement was first used in concrete in the early
1840s.
Recently, the use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients is gaining popularity
because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of
these is fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants. This has a significant impact by
reducing the amount of quarrying and landfill space required, and, as it acts as a cement
replacement, reduces the amount of cement required to produce a solid concrete. As
cement production creates massive quantities of carbon dioxide, cement-replacement
technology such as this will play an important role in future attempts to cut carbon
dioxide emissions.

Concrete additives have been used since Roman and Egyptian times, when it was
discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set under water. Similarly,
the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it
hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant[4].

In modern times, researchers have experimented with the addition of other materials to
create concrete with improved properties, such as higher strength or electrical
conductivity.

[edit] Composition

A shovel being used to mix cement with sand.

There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of the
main ingredients below.

The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete will be
mixed and delivered, and how it will be placed to form this structure.

[edit] Cement

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic
ingredient of concrete, mortar and plaster. English engineer Joseph Aspdin patented
Portland cement in 1824; it was named because of its similarity in colour to Portland
limestone, quarried from the English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London
architecture. It consists of a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminium.
Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of
calcium) with clay, and grinding this product (called clinker) with a source of sulfate
(most commonly gypsum).

[edit] Water

Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of
hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and allows
it to flow more easily.

Less water in the cement paste will yield a stronger, more durable concrete; more water
will give an easier-flowing concrete with a higher slump.[5]

Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems, when setting, or in causing
premature failure of the structure.

Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the
reactions proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together
the individual sand and gravel particles, and other components of the concrete, to form a
solid mass.

[edit] Aggregates

Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel
and crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from
construction, demolition and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial
replacements of natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates,
including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted.

Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes
added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular
among landscape designers.

[edit] Reinforcement

Installing rebar in a floor slab during a concrete pour

Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression

load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can
crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding
metal reinforcing bars, glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads.

[edit] Chemical admixtures

Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the
concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In
normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement, and are added to the
concrete at the time of batching/mixing.[6] The most common types of admixtures [7] are:

 Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete.

 Retarders slow the hydration of concrete, and are used in large or difficult pours
where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable.
 Air-entrainers add and distribute tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which will
reduce damage during freeze-thaw cycles thereby increasing the concrete's
durability. However, entrained air is a trade-off with strength, as each 1% of air
may result in 5% decrease in compressive strength.
 Plasticizers (water-reducing admixtures) increase the workability of plastic or
"fresh" concrete, allowing it be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort.
Superplasticizers (high-range water-reducing admixtures) are a class of
plasticizers which have fewer deleterious effects when used to significantly
increase workability. Alternatively, plasticizers can be used to reduce the water
content of a concrete (and have been called water reducers due to this application)
while maintaining workability. This improves its strength and durability
characteristics.
 Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
 Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in
concrete.
 Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete.
 Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste, and reduce dewatering –
the tendency for the water to separate out of the paste.

[edit] Mineral admixtures and blended cements

There are inorganic materials that also have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties.
These very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties
of concrete (mineral admixtures),[6] or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended
cements).[8]

 Fly ash: A by product of coal fired electric generating plants, it is used to partially
replace Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties of fly ash depend
on the type of coal burnt. In general, silicious fly ash is pozzolanic, while
calcareous fly ash has latent hydraulic properties.[9]
 Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by product of steel
production, is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 80% by mass). It
has latent hydraulic properties.[10]
  Silica fume: A by-product of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys.
Silica fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This
results in a higher surface to volume ratio and a much faster pozzolanic reaction.
Silica fume is used to increase strength and durability of concrete, but generally
requires the use of superplasticizers for workability.[11]
 High Reactivity Metakaolin (HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with strength
and durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica fume is
usually dark gray or black in color, high reactivity metakaolin is usually bright
white in color, making it the preferred choice for architectural concrete where
appearance is important.

[edit] Concrete Production

The processes used vary dramatically, from hand tools to heavy industry, but result in the
concrete being placed where it cures into a final form.

When initially mixed together, portland cement and water rapidly form a gel, formed of
tangled chains of interlocking crystals. These continue to react over time, with the
initially fluid gel often aiding in placement by improving workability. As the concrete
sets, the chains of crystals join up, and form a rigid structure, gluing the aggregate
particles in place. During curing, more of the cement reacts with the residual water
(Hydration).

This curing process develops physical and chemical properties. Among other qualities,
mechanical strength, low moisture permeability, and chemical and volumetric stability.

[edit] Mixing Concrete

Cement being mixed with sand and water to form concrete

Thorough mixing is essential for the production of uniform, high quality concrete.
Therefore, equipment and methods should be capable of effectively mixing concrete
materials containing the largest specified aggregate to produce uniform mixtures of the
lowest slump practical for the work. Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of
cement and water into a paste before combining these materials with aggregates can
increase the compressive strength of the resulting concrete.[12] The paste is generally
mixed in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at a w/cm (water to cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45
by mass. The premixed paste is then blended with aggregates and any remaining batch
water, and final mixing is completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment.[13]

High-Energy Mixed Concrete (HEM concrete) is produced by means of high-speed

mixing of cement, water and sand with net specific energy consumption at least 5
kilojoules per kilogram of the mix. It is then added to a plasticizer admixture and mixed
after that with aggregates in conventional concrete mixer. This paste can be used itself or
foamed (expanded) for lightweight concrete.[14] Sand effectively dissipates energy in this
mixing process. HEM concrete fast hardens in ordinary and low temperature conditions,
and possesses increased volume of gel, drastically reducing capillarity in solid and porous
materials. It is recommended for precast concrete in order to reduce quantity of cement,
as well as concrete roof and siding tiles, paving stones and lightweight concrete block
production.

[edit] Workability

Pouring a concrete floor for a commercial building, (slab-on-grade)

Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly
with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability
depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content
and age (level of hydration), and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures.
Raising the water content or adding chemical admixtures will increase concrete
workability. Excessive water will lead to increased bleeding (surface water) and/or
segregation of aggregates (when the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the
resulting concrete having reduced quality. The use of an aggregate with an undesirable
gradation can result in a very harsh mix design with a very low slump, which cannot be
readily made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water.
Workability can be measured by the Concrete Slump Test, a simplistic measure of the
plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test
standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a
fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-
absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being
tamped with a steel rod in order to consolidate the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted
off, the enclosed material will slump a certain amount due to gravity. A relatively dry
sample will slump very little, having a slump value of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm).
A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as six or seven inches (150 to 175
mm).

Slump can be increased by adding chemical admixtures such as mid-range or high-range

water reducing agents (super-plasticizers) without changing the water/cement ratio. It is
bad practice to add excessive water upon delivery to the jobsite, however in a properly
designed mixture it is important to reasonably achieve the specified slump prior to
placement as design factors such as air content, internal water for hydration/strength gain,
etc. are dependent on placement at design slump values.

High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring

methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and
observing how the mix flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted.

[edit] Curing

A concrete slab ponded while curing

Concrete columns curing while wrapped in plastic

In all but the least critical applications, care needs to be taken to properly cure concrete,
and achieve best strength and hardness. This happens after the concrete has been placed.
Cement requires a moist, controlled environment to gain strength and harden fully. The
cement paste hardens over time, initially setting and becoming rigid though very weak,
and gaining in strength in the days and weeks following. In around 3 weeks, over 90% of
the final strength is typically reached.

Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally
fast drying and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement
may lead to increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained significant
strength, resulting in greater shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be
increased by keeping it damp for a longer period during the curing process. Minimizing
stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High early-strength concrete is designed to
hydrate faster, often by increased use of cement which increases shrinkage and cracking.

During this period concrete needs to be in conditions with a controlled temperature and
humid atmosphere, in practice this is achieved by spraying or ponding the concrete
surface with water, thereby protecting concrete mass from ill effects of ambient
conditions. The pictures to the right show two of many ways to achieve this, ponding –
submerging setting concrete in water, and wrapping in plastic to contain the water in the
mix.

Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability, and avoids
cracking where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid
freezing, or overheating due to the exothermic setting of cement. Improper curing can
cause scaling, reduced strength and abrasion resistance and cracking.

[edit] Properties
[edit] Strength

Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile strength
(about 10% of the compressive strength). As a result, without compensating, concrete
would almost always fail from tensile stresses – even when loaded in compression. The
practical implication of this is that concrete elements subjected to tensile stresses must be
reinforced with materials that are strong in tension. Concrete is most often constructed
with the addition of steel reinforcement. The reinforcement can be by bars (rebar), mesh,
or structural fibers, which provide the required tensile strength to concrete producing
reinforced concrete. Concrete can also be prestressed (reducing tensile stress) using
internal steel cables (tendons), allowing for beams or slabs with a longer span than is
practical with reinforced concrete alone. Inspection of concrete structures can be non-
destructive if carried out with equipment such as a Schmidt hammer, which is used to
estimate concrete strength.

The ultimate strength of concrete is influenced by the water-cementitious ratio (w/cm),

the design constituents, and the mixing, placement and curing methods employed. All
things being equal, concrete with a lower water-cement (cementitious) ratio makes a
stronger concrete than that with a higher ratio. The total quantity of cementitious
materials (Portland cement, slag cement, pozzolans) can affect strength, water demand,
shrinkage, abrasion resistance and density. All concrete will crack independent of
whether or not it has sufficient compressive strength. In fact, high Portland cement
content mixtures can actually crack more readily due to increased hydration rate. As
concrete transforms from its plastic state, hydrating to a solid, the material undergoes
shrinkage. Plastic shrinkage cracks can occur soon after placement but if the evaporation
rate is high they often can actually occur during finishing operations, for example in hot
weather or a breezy day. In very high strength concrete mixtures (greater than 10,000 psi)
the crushing strength of the aggregate can be a limiting factor to the ultimate compressive
strength. In lean concretes (with a high water-cement ratio) the crushing strength of the
aggregates is not so significant.

The internal forces in common shapes of structure, such as arches, vaults, columns and
walls are predominantly compressive forces, with floors and pavements subjected to
tensile forces. Compressive strength is widely used for specification requirement and
quality control of concrete. The engineer knows his target tensile (flexural) requirements
and will express these in terms of compressive strength.

Wired.com reported on April 13, 2007 that a team from the University of Tehran,
competing in a contest sponsored by the American Concrete Institute, demonstrated
several blocks of concretes with abnormally high compressive strengths between 50,000
and 60,000 PSI at 28 days.[15] The blocks appeared to use an aggregate of steel fibres and
quartz – a mineral with a compressive strength of 160,000 PSI, much higher than typical
high-strength aggregates such as granite (15,000-20,000 PSI).

[edit] Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity of concrete is a function of the modulus of elasticity of the

aggregates and the cement matrix and their relative proportions. The modulus of elasticity
of concrete is relatively linear at low stress levels but becomes increasingly non-linear as
matrix cracking develops. The elastic modulus of the hardened paste may be in the order
of 10-30 GPa and aggregates about 45 to 85 GPa. The concrete composite is then in the
range of 30 to 50 GPa.

[edit] Expansion and shrinkage

Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. However, if no provision is

made for expansion, very large forces can be created, causing cracks in parts of the
structure not capable of withstanding the force or the repeated cycles of expansion and
contraction.

As concrete matures it continues to shrink, due to the ongoing reaction taking place in the
material, although the rate of shrinkage falls relatively quickly and keeps reducing over
time (for all practical purposes concrete is usually considered to not shrink due to
hydration any further after 30 years). The relative shrinkage and expansion of concrete
and brickwork require careful accommodation when the two forms of construction
interface.

Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after it is initially placed, it is

generally accepted that under thermal loading it will never expand to its originally placed
volume.

[edit] Cracking
Salginatobel Bridge

All concrete structures will crack to some extent. One of the early designers of reinforced
concrete, Robert Maillart, employed reinforced concrete in a number of arched bridges.
His first bridge was simple, using a large volume of concrete. He then realized that much
of the concrete was very cracked, and could not be a part of the structure under
compressive loads, yet the structure clearly worked. His later designs simply removed the
cracked areas, leaving slender, beautiful concrete arches. The Salginatobel Bridge is an
example of this.

Concrete cracks due to tensile stress induced by shrinkage or stresses occurring during
setting or use. Various means are used to overcome this. Fiber reinforced concrete uses
fine fibers distributed throughout the mix or larger metal or other reinforcement elements
to limit the size and extent of cracks. In many large structures joints or concealed saw-
cuts are placed in the concrete as it sets to make the inevitable cracks occur where they
can be managed and out of sight. Water tanks and highways are examples of structures
requiring crack control.

[edit] Shrinkage cracking

Shrinkage cracks occur when concrete members undergo restrained volumetric changes
(shrinkage) as a result of either drying, autogenous shrinkage or thermal effects. Restraint
is provided either externally (i.e. supports, walls, and other boundary conditions) or
internally (differential drying shrinkage, reinforcement). Once the tensile strength of the
concrete is exceeded, a crack will develop. The number and width of shrinkage cracks
that develop are influenced by the amount of shrinkage that occurs, the amount of
restraint present and the amount and spacing of reinforcement provided.

Plastic-shrinkage cracks are immediately apparent, visible within 0 to 2 days of

placement, while drying-shrinkage cracks develop over time.

[edit] Tension cracking

Concrete members may be put into tension by applied loads. This is most common in
concrete beams where a transversely applied load will put one surface into compression
and the opposite surface into tension due to induced bending. The portion of the beam
that is in tension may crack. The size and length of cracks is dependent on the magnitude
of the bending moment and the design of the reinforcing in the beam at the point under
consideration. Reinforced concrete beams are designed to crack in tension rather than in
compression. This is achieved by providing reinforcing steel which yields before failure
of the concrete in compression occurs and allowing remediation, repair, or if necessary,
evacuation of an unsafe area.

[edit] Creep
Because it is a fluid, concrete can be pumped to where it is needed. Here a concrete
transport truck is feeding concrete to a concrete pumper, which is pumping it to where a
slab is being poured.

Creep is the term used to describe the permanent movement or deformation of a material
in order to relieve stresses within the material. Concrete which is subjected to long-
duration forces is prone to creep. Short-duration forces (such as wind or earthquakes) do
not cause creep. Creep can sometimes reduce the amount of cracking that occurs in a
concrete structure or element, but it also must be controlled. The amount of primary and
secondary reinforcing in concrete structures contributes to a reduction in the amount of
shrinkage, creep and cracking.

[edit] Physical properties

The coefficient of thermal expansion of Portland cement concrete is 0.000008 to

0.000012 (per degree Celsius) (8-12 1/MK) [16]. The density varies, but is around 150
pounds per cubic foot (2400 kg/m³).[17]

[edit] Damage modes

[edit] Fire

Due to its low thermal conductivity, a layer of concrete is frequently used for fireproofing
of steel structures. However, concrete itself may be damaged by fire.

Up to about 300 °C, the concrete undergoes normal thermal expansion. Above that
temperature, shrinkage occurs due to water loss; however, the aggregate continues
expanding, which causes internal stresses. Up to about 500 °C, the major structural
changes are carbonation and coarsening of pores. At 573 °C, quartz undergoes rapid
expansion due to Phase transition, and at 900 °C calcite starts shrinking due to
decomposition. At 450-550 °C the cement hydrate decomposes, yielding calcium oxide.
Calcium carbonate decomposes at about 600 °C. Rehydration of the calcium oxide on
cooling of the structure causes expansion, which can cause damage to material which
withstood fire without falling apart. Concrete in buildings that experienced a fire and
were left standing for several years shows extensive degree of carbonation.

Concrete exposed to up to 100 °C is normally considered as healthy. The parts of a

concrete structure that is exposed to temperatures above approximately 300 °C
(dependent of water/cement ratio) will most likely get a pink color. Over approximately
600 °C the concrete will turn light grey, and over approximately 1000 °C it turns yellow-
brown.[18] One rule of thumb is to consider all pink colored concrete as damaged, and to
be removed.
Fire will expose the concrete to gases and liquids that can be harmful to the concrete,
among other salts and acids that occur when gasses produced by fire come into contact
with water.

[edit] Aggregate expansion

Various types of aggregate undergo chemical reactions in concrete, leading to damaging

expansive phenomena. The most common are those containing reactive silica, that can
react (in the presence of water) with the alkalis in concrete (K2O and Na2O, coming
principally from cement). Among the more reactive mineral components of some
aggregates are opal, chalcedony, flint and strained quartz. Following the reaction (Alkali
Silica Reaction or ASR), an expansive gel forms, that creates extensive cracks and
damage on structural members. On the surface of concrete pavements the ASR can cause
pop-outs, i.e. the expulsion of small cones (up to 3 cm about in diameter) in
correspondence of aggregate particles. When some aggregates containing dolomite are
used, a dedolomitization reaction occurs where the magnesium carbonate compound
reacts with hydroxyl ions and yields magnesium hydroxide and a carbonate ion. The
resulting expansion may cause destruction of the material. Far less common are pop-outs
caused by the presence of pyrite, an iron sulfide that generates expansion by forming iron
oxide and ettringite. Other reactions and recrystallizations, e.g. hydration of clay minerals
in some aggregates, may lead to destructive expansion as well.

[edit] Sea water effects

Concrete exposed to sea water is susceptible to its corrosive effects. The effects are more
pronounced above the tidal zone than where the concrete is permanently submerged. In
the submerged zone, magnesium and hydrogen carbonate ions precipitate about 30
micrometers thick layer of brucite on which a slower deposition of calcium carbonate as
aragonite occurs. These layers somewhat protect the concrete from other processes,
which include attack by magnesium, chloride and sulfate ions and carbonation. Above the
water surface, mechanical damage may occur by erosion by waves themselves or sand
and gravel they carry, and by crystallization of salts from water soaking into the concrete
pores and then drying up. Pozzolanic cements and cements using more than 60% of slag
as aggregate are more resistant to sea water than pure Portland cement.

[edit] Bacterial corrosion

Bacteria themselves do not have noticeable effect on concrete. However, anaerobic

bacteria (Thiobacillus) in untreated sewage tend to produce hydrogen sulfide, which is
then oxidized by aerobic bacteria present in biofilm on the concrete surface above the
water level to sulfuric acid which dissolves the carbonates in the cured cement and causes
strength loss. Concrete floors lying on ground that contains pyrite are also at risk. Using
limestone as the aggregate makes the concrete more resistant to acids, and the sewage
may be pretreated by ways increasing pH or oxidizing or precipitating the sulfides in
order to inhibit the activity of sulfide utilizing bacteria.
[edit] Chemical damage

[edit] Carbonation

Carbonation-iniated deterioration of concrete (at Hippodrome Wellington)

Carbon dioxide from air can react with the calcium hydroxide in concrete to form
calcium carbonate. This process is called carbonation, which is essentially the reversal of
the chemical process of calcination of lime taking place in a cement kiln. Carbonation of
concrete is a slow and continuous process progressing from the outer surface inward, but
slows down with increasing diffusion depth. Carbonation has two effects: it increases
mechanical strength of concrete, but it also decreases alkalinity, which is essential for
corrosion prevention of the reinforcement steel. Below a pH of 10, the steel's thin layer of
surface passivation dissolves and corrosion is promoted. For the latter reason,
carbonation is an unwanted process in concrete chemistry. Carbonation can be tested by
applying Phenolphthalein solution, a pH indicator, over a fresh fracture surface, which
indicates non-carbonated and thus alkaline areas with a violet color.

[edit] Chlorides

Chlorides, particularly calcium chloride, have been used to shorten the setting time of
concrete.[19] However, calcium chloride and (to a lesser extent) sodium chloride have been
shown to leach calcium hydroxide and cause chemical changes in Portland cement,
leading to loss of strength,[20] as well as attacking the steel reinforcement present in most
concrete.

[edit] Sulphates

Sulphates in solution in contact with concrete can cause chemical changes to the cement,
which can cause significant microstructural effects leading to the weakening of the
cement binder.

[edit] Leaching

Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found
on the talk page or at requests for expansion. (March 2008)
[edit] Physical damage

Damage can occur during the casting and de-shuttering processes. The corners of beams
for instance, can be damaged during the removal of shuttering because they are less
effectively compacted by means of vibration (improved by using form-vibrators). Other
physical damage can be caused by the use of steel shuttering without base plates. The
steel shuttering pinches the top surface of a concrete slab due to weight of the next slab
being constructed.

[edit] Types of concrete

A highway paved with concrete.

Regular concrete paving blocks

Concrete in sidewalk stamped with contractor name and date it was laid

[edit] Mix Design

Modern concrete uses mix designs that may be very complex.

The design begins by specifying desired "workability" as defined by a given slump,
"durability" requirements taking into consideration the weather exposure conditions
(freeze-thaw) to which the concrete will be exposed in service, and the required "28 day
compressive strength" as determined by properly molded standard-cured cylinder
samples.

Many factors need to be taken into account, from cost of the various possible additives
and aggregates, to the trade offs between easy mixing and placement and ultimate
performance.

A mix is then designed using cement (portland or other cementitious material), coarse and
fine aggregates, water and chemical admixtures. The method of mixing will also be
specified, as well as conditions that it may be used in.

This allows a user of the concrete to be confident that the structure will perform properly.

Various types of concrete have been developed for specialist application and have
become known by these names.

[edit] Regular concrete

Regular concrete is the lay term describing concrete that is produced by following the
mixing instructions that are commonly published on packets of cement, typically using
sand or other common material as the aggregate, and often mixed in improvised
containers. This concrete can be produced to yield a varying strength from about 10 MPa
(1450 psi) to about 40 MPa (5800 psi), depending on the purpose, ranging from blinding
to structural concrete respectively. Many types of pre-mixed concrete are available which
include powdered cement mixed with an aggregate, needing only water.

Typically, a batch of concrete can be made by using 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts dry
sand, 3 parts dry stone, 1/2 part water. The parts are in terms of weight – not volume. For
example, 1-cubic-foot (0.028 m3) of concrete would be made using 22 lb (10.0 kg)
cement, 10 lb (4.5 kg) water, 41 lb (19 kg) dry sand, 70 lb (32 kg) dry stone (1/2" to 3/4"
stone). This would make 1-cubic-foot (0.028 m3) of concrete and would weigh about
143 lb (65 kg). The sand should be mortar or brick sand (washed and filtered if possible)
and the stone should be washed if possible. Organic materials (leaves, twigs, etc) should
be removed from the sand and stone to ensure the highest strength.

[edit] High-strength concrete

High-strength concrete has a compressive strength generally greater than 6,000 pounds
per square inch (40 MPa = 5800 psi). High-strength concrete is made by lowering the
water-cement (W/C) ratio to 0.35 or lower. Often silica fume is added to prevent the
formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in the cement matrix, which might reduce
the strength at the cement-aggregate bond.
Low W/C ratios and the use of silica fume make concrete mixes significantly less
workable, which is particularly likely to be a problem in high-strength concrete
applications where dense rebar cages are likely to be used. To compensate for the reduced
workability, superplasticizers are commonly added to high-strength mixtures. Aggregate
must be selected carefully for high-strength mixes, as weaker aggregates may not be
strong enough to resist the loads imposed on the concrete and cause failure to start in the
aggregate rather than in the matrix or at a void, as normally occurs in regular concrete.

In some applications of high-strength concrete the design criterion is the elastic modulus
rather than the ultimate compressive strength.

[edit] High-performance concrete

High-performance concrete (HPC) is a relatively new term used to describe concrete that
conforms to a set of standards above those of the most common applications, but not
limited to strength. While all high-strength concrete is also high-performance, not all
high-performance concrete is high-strength. Some examples of such standards currently
used in relation to HPC are:

 Ease of placement
 Compaction without segregation
 Early age strength
 Long-term mechanical properties
 Permeability
 Density
 Heat of hydration
 Toughness
 Volume stability
 Long life in severe environments

[edit] Self-consolidating concretes

During the 1980s a number of countries including Japan, Sweden and France developed
concretes that are self-compacting, known as self-consolidating concrete in the United
States. This self-consolidating concrete (SCCs) is characterized by:

 extreme fluidity as measured by flow, typically between 650-750 mm on a flow

table, rather than slump(height)
 no need for vibrators to compact the concrete
 placement being easier.
 no bleed water, or aggregate segregation
 Increased Liquid Head Pressure, Can be detrimental to Safety and workmanship

SCC can save up to 50% in labor costs due to 80% faster pouring and reduced wear and
tear on formwork.
As of 2005, self-consolidating concretes account for 10-15% of concrete sales in some
European countries. In the US precast concrete industry, SCC represents over 75% of
concrete production. 38 departments of transportation in the US accept the use of SCC
for road and bridge projects.

This emerging technology is made possible by the use of polycarboxylates plasticizer

instead of older naphthalene based polymers, and viscosity modifiers to address
aggregate segregation.

[edit] Shotcrete

Main article: Shotcrete

Shotcrete (also known by the trade name Gunite) uses compressed air to shoot concrete
onto (or into) a frame or structure. Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical soil or
rock surfaces, as it eliminates the need for formwork. It is sometimes used for rock
support, especially in tunneling. Shotcrete is also used for applications where seepage is
an issue to limit the amount of water entering a construction site due to a high water table
or other sub-terranian sources. This type of concrete is often used as a quick fix for
weathering for loose soil types in construction zones.

There are two application methods for shotcrete.

 dry-mix – the dry mixture of cement and aggregates is filled into the machine and
conveyed with compressed air through the hoses. The water needed for the
hydration is added at the nozzle.
 wet-mix – the mixes are prepared with all necessary water for hydration. The
mixes are pumped through the hoses. At the nozzle compressed air is added for
spraying.

For both methods additives such as accelerators and fiber reinforcement may be used.[21]

[edit] Pervious concrete

Pervious concrete contains a network of holes or voids, to allow air or water to move
through the concrete.

It is formed by leaving out some or all of the fine aggregate (fines), the remaining large
aggregate then is bound by a relatively small amount of cement paste. When set, typically
between 15 and 25% of the concrete volume are voids, allowing water to drain at around
5 gal/ft²/ min or 200 L/m²/min) through the concrete.

Pervious concrete allows water to drain naturally through roadway or other structures,
reducing the amount of artificial drainage needed, and allowing the water to naturally
replenish groundwater
It can significantly reduce noise, by allowing air squeezed between vehicle tires and the
roadway to escape.

[edit] Cellular concrete

Aerated concrete produced by the addition of an air entraining agent to the concrete (or a
lightweight aggregate like expanded clay pellets or cork granules and vermiculite) is
sometimes called Cellular concrete.

See also: Aerated autoclaved concrete

[edit] Cork-cement composites

Waste Cork granules are obtained during production of bottle stoppers from the treated
bark of Cork oak.[22] These granules have a density of about 300 kg/m³, lower than most
lightweight aggregates used for making lightweight concrete. Cork granules do not
significantly influence cement hydration, but cork dust may.[23] Cork cement composites
have several advantages over standard concrete, such as lower thermal conductivities,
lower densities and good energy absorption characteristics. These composites can be
made of density from 400 to 1500 kg/m³, compressive strength from 1 to 26 MPa, and
flexural strength from 0.5 to 4.0 MPa.

[edit] Roller-compacted concrete

Roller-compacted concrete, sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-cement-content stiff

concrete placed using techniques borrowed from earthmoving and paving work. The
concrete is placed on the surface to be covered, and is compacted in place using large
heavy rollers typically used in earthwork. The concrete mix achieves a high density and
cures over time into a strong monolithic block.[24] Roller-compacted concrete is typically
used for concrete pavement, but has also been used to build concrete dams, as the low
cement content causes less heat to be generated while curing than typical for
conventionally placed massive concrete pours.

[edit] Glass concrete

The use of recycled glass as aggregate in concrete has become popular in modern times,
with large scale research being carried out at Columbia University in New York. This
greatly enhances the aesthetic appeal of the concrete. Recent research findings have
shown that concrete made with recycled glass aggregates have shown better long term
strength and better thermal insulation due to its better thermal properties of the glass
aggregates. [25]

[edit] Asphalt concrete

Strictly speaking, asphalt is a form of concrete as well, with bituminous materials

replacing cement as the binder.
[edit] Rapid strength concrete

This type of concrete is able to develop high resistance within few hours after being
manufactured. This feature has advantages such as removing the formwork early and to
move forward in the building process at record time, repair road surfaces that become
fully operational in just a few hours.

[edit] Rubberized concrete

While "rubberized asphalt concrete" is common, rubberized Portland cement concrete

("rubberized PCC") is still undergoing experimental tests, as of 2007[26] [27] [28] [29].

[edit] Polymer concrete

Polymer concrete is concrete which uses polymers to bind the aggregate. Polymer
concrete can gain a lot of strength in a short amount of time. For example, a polymer mix
may reach 5000 psi in only four hours. Polymer concrete is generally more expensive
than conventional concretes.

[edit] Geopolymer or green concrete

Geopolymer concrete is a greener alternative to ordinary Portland cement made from

inorganic aluminosilicate (Al-Si) polymer compounds that can utilise 100% recycled
industrial waste (e.g. fly ash and slag) as the manufacturing inputs resulting in up to 80%
lower carbon dioxide emissions. Greater chemical and thermal resistance, and better
mechanical properties, are said to be achieved by the manufacturer at both atmospheric
and extreme conditions.[30]

Similar concretes have not only been used in Ancient Rome (see Roman concrete) as
mentioned but also in the former Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s. Buildings in the
Ukraine are still standing after 45 years so that this kind of formulation has a sound track
record.[31]

[edit] Limecrete

Limecrete or lime concrete is concrete where cement is replaced by lime.[32]

[edit] Refractory Cement

High-temperature applications, such as masonry ovens and the like, generally require the
use of a refractory cement; concretes based on Portland cement can be damaged or
destroyed by elevated temperatures, but refractory concretes are better able to withstand
such conditions.

[edit] Concrete testing

Compression testing of a concrete cylinder

Same cylinder after failure

Engineers usually specify the required compressive strength of concrete, which is

normally given as the 28 day compressive strength in megapascals (MPa) or pounds per
square inch (psi). Twenty eight days is a long wait to determine if desired strengths are
going to be obtained, so three-day and seven-day strengths can be useful to predict the
ultimate 28-day compressive strength of the concrete. A 25% strength gain between 7 and
28 days is often observed with 100% OPC (ordinary Portland cement) mixtures, and up
to 40% strength gain can be realized with the inclusion of pozzolans and supplementary
cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash and/or slag cement. As strength gain
depends on the type of mixture, its constituents, the use of standard curing, proper testing
and care of cylinders in transport, etc. it becomes imperative to proactively rely on testing
the fundamental properties of concrete in its fresh, plastic state.

Concrete is typically sampled while being placed, with testing protocols requiring that
test samples be cured under laboratory conditions (standard cured). Additional samples
may be field cured (non-standard) for the purpose of early 'stripping' strengths, that is,
form removal, evaluation of curing, etc. but the standard cured cylinders comprise
acceptance criteria. Concrete tests can measure the "plastic" (unhydrated) properties of
concrete prior to, and during placement. As these properties affect the hardened
compressive strength and durability of concrete (resistance to freeze-thaw), the properties
of workability (slump/flow), temperature, density and age are monitored to ensure the
production and placement of 'quality' concrete. Tests are performed per
National/Regional methods and practices. The most used methods are ASTM
International, European Committee for Standardization and Canadian Standards
Association. Requirements for technicians performing concrete tests are normally given
in the actual methods. Structural design, material design and properties are often
specified in accordance with national/regional design codes.

Compressive-strength tests are conducted using an instrumented hydraulic ram to

compress a cylindrical or cubic sample to failure. Tensile strength tests are conducted
either by three-point bending of a prismatic beam specimen or by compression along the
sides of a cylindrical specimen.

[edit] Concrete recycling

Main article: Concrete recycling

Concrete recycling is an increasingly common method of disposing of concrete

structures. Concrete debris was once routinely shipped to landfills for disposal, but
recycling is increasing due to improved environmental awareness, governmental laws,
and economic benefits.

Concrete, which must be free of trash, wood, paper and other such materials is collected
from demolition sites and put through a crushing machine, often along with asphalt,
bricks, and rocks.

Reinforced concrete contains rebar and other metallic reinforcements, which are removed
with magnets and recycled elsewhere. The remaining aggregate chunks are sorted by size.
Larger chunks may go through the crusher again. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as
gravel for new construction projects. Aggregate base gravel is laid down as the lowest
layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt placed over it. Crushed recycled concrete
can sometimes be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of
contaminants, though the use of recycled concrete limits strength and is not allowed in
many jurisdictions. On March 3, 1983, a government funded research team (the VIRL
research.codep) approximated that almost 17% of worldwide landfill was by-products of
concrete based waste.

Recycling concrete provides environmental benefits, conserving landfill space and use as
aggregate reduces the need for gravel mining.

[edit] Use of concrete in structures

The interior of the Pantheon in the 18th century, painted by Giovanni Paolo Panini

The Baths of Caracalla, in 2003

[edit] Mass concrete structures

These include gravity dams such as the Itaipu, Hoover Dam and the Three Gorges Dam
and large breakwaters. Concrete that is poured all at once in one block (so that there are
no weak points where the concrete is "welded" together) is used for tornado shelters.

[edit] Reinforced concrete structures

Main article: Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete contains steel reinforcing that is designed and placed in structural
members at specific positions to cater for all the stress conditions that the member is
required to accommodate.

[edit] Prestressed concrete structures

Main article: Prestressed concrete

Prestressed concrete is a form of reinforced concrete which builds in compressive
stresses during construction to oppose those found when in use. This can greatly reduce
the weight of beams or slabs, by better distributing the stresses in the structure to make
optimal use of the reinforcement.

For example a horizontal beam will tend to sag down. If the reinforcement along the
bottom of the beam is prestressed, it can counteract this.

In pre-tensioned concrete, the prestressing is achieved by using steel or polymer tendons

or bars that are subjected to a tensile force prior to casting, or for post-tensioned concrete,
after casting.

[edit] See also

Reinforced concrete
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Reinforced concrete at Sainte Jeanne d'Arc Church (Nice, France): architect Jacques
Dror, 1926–1933
Reinforced concrete is concrete in which reinforcement bars ("rebars") or fibers have
been incorporated to strengthen a material that would otherwise be brittle. In
industrialised countries, nearly all concrete used in construction is reinforced concrete.

Contents
[hide]
 1 History
 2 Use in construction
 3 Behaviour of reinforced concrete
o 3.1 Materials
o 3.2 Key characteristics
o 3.3 Anti-corrosion measures
 4 Common failure modes of steel reinforced concrete
o 4.1 Mechanical failure
o 4.2 Carbonatation / Carbonation
o 4.3 Chlorides
o 4.4 Alkali silica reaction
o 4.5 Conversion of high alumina cement
o 4.6 Sulfates
 5 Fiber-reinforced concrete
 6 Non-steel reinforcement

 7 References

[edit] History
The first application of reinforced concrete as a material for the construction of buildings
took place in 1864 when William Boutland Wilkinson built a house in Newcastle-Upon-
Tyne, UK. The German company Wayss & Freitag was formed in 1875, with A.G. Wayss
publishing a book on reinforced concrete in 1887. Their major competitor in Europe was
the firm of Francois Hennebique, set up in 1892.

A reinforced concrete system was patented in the United States by Thaddeus Hyatt in
1878. The first reinforced concrete building constructed in the United States was the
Pacific Coast Borax Company's refinery in Alameda, California, built in 1893.

[edit] Use in construction

Concrete is reinforced to give it extra tensile strength; without reinforcement, many
concrete buildings would not have been possible.

Reinforced concrete can encompass many types of structures and components, including
slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames and more.
Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast concrete and cast in-situ concrete.

Much of the focus on reinforcing concrete is placed on floor systems. Designing and
implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building
structures. Small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on
material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels
and end use of a building.

[edit] Behaviour of reinforced concrete

[edit] Materials

Concrete is a mixture of cement (usually Portland cement) and stone aggregate. When
mixed with a small amount of water, the cement hydrates to form a microscopic opaque
crystal lattice structure encapsulating and locking the aggregate into its rigid structure.
Typical concrete mixes have high resistance to compressive stresses (about 4,000 psi
(27.5 MPa)); however, any appreciable tension (e.g. due to bending) will break the
microscopic rigid lattice resulting in cracking and separation of the concrete. For this
reason, typical non-reinforced concrete must be well supported to prevent the
development of tension.

If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the
composite material, reinforced concrete, resists compression but also bending, and other
direct tensile actions. A reinforced concrete section where the concrete resists the
compression and steel resists the tension can be made into almost any shape and size for
the construction industry.

[edit] Key characteristics

Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties. First, the
coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is similar to that of steel, eliminating internal
stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or contraction. Second, when the cement
paste within the concrete hardens this conforms to the surface details of the steel,
permitting any stress to be transmitted efficiently between the different materials. Usually
steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond or cohesion between
the concrete and steel. Third, the alkaline chemical environment provided by calcium
carbonate (lime) causes a passivating film to form on the surface of the steel, making it
much more resistant to corrosion than it would be in neutral or acidic conditions.

The relative cross-sectional area of steel required for typical reinforced concrete is
usually quite small and varies from 1% for most beams and slabs to 6% for some
columns. Reinforcing bars are normally round in cross-section and vary in diameter (see
rebar for more information). Reinforced concrete structures sometimes have provisions
such as ventilated hollow cores to control their moisture & humidity.
[edit] Anti-corrosion measures

In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for roads, bridges, parking structures and
other structures that may be exposed to deicing salt may benefit from use of epoxy-
coated, hot dip galvanised or stainless steel rebar, although good design and a well-
chosen cement mix may provide sufficient protection for many applications. Epoxy
coated rebar can easily be identified by the light green colour of its epoxy coating. Hot
dip galvanized rebar may be bright or dull grey depending on length of exposure, and
stainless rebar exhibits a typical white metallic sheen that is readily distinguishable from
carbon steel reinforcing bar. Reference ASTM standard specifications A767 Standard
Specification for Hot Dip Galvanised Reinforcing Bars, A775 Standard Specification for
Epoxy Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars and A955 Standard Specification for Deformed and
Plain Stainless Bars for Concrete Reinforcment

Penetrating sealants typically must be applied some time after curing. Sealants include
paint, plastic foams, films and aluminum foil, felts or fabric mats sealed with tar, and
layers of bentonite clay, sometimes used to seal roadbeds.

[edit] Common failure modes of steel reinforced

concrete
Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical failure, or
due to a reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly
designed or constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar corrodes, the oxidation products
(rust) expand and tends to flake, cracking the concrete and unbonding the rebar from the
concrete. Typical mechanisms leading to durability problems are discussed below.

[edit] Mechanical failure

Reinforced concrete can be considered to fail when significant cracks occur. Cracking of
the concrete section can not be prevented however the size of the cracks can be limited
and controlled by reinforcement. Cracking defects can allow moisture to penetrate and
corrode the reinforcement. This is a serviceability failure in limit state design. Cracking is
normally the result of an inadequate quantity of rebar, or rebar spaced at too great a
distance. The concrete then cracks either under excess loading, or due to internal effects
such as early thermal shrinkage when it cures.

Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing of the concrete matrix,
when stresses exceed its strength; by yielding of the rebar; or by bond failure between the
concrete and the rebar.

[edit] Carbonatation / Carbonation

Rebar for foundations and walls of sewage pump station.

The water in the pores of the cement is normally alkaline. This alkaline environment is
one in which the steel is passive and does not corrode. According to the pourbaix diagram
for iron, the metal is passive when pH is above 9.5.[1] The carbon dioxide from the air
reacts with the alkali in the cement and makes the pore water more acidic, thus lowering
the pH. Carbon dioxide will start to carbonate the cement in the concrete from the
moment the object is made. This carbonatation process (in Britain, called carbonation)
will start at the surface, then slowly move deeper and deeper into the concrete. If the
object is cracked, the carbon dioxide of the air will be better able to penetrate into the
concrete. When designing a concrete structure, it is normal to state the concrete cover for
the rebar (the depth within the object that the rebar will be). The minimum concrete cover
is normally regulated by design or building codes. If the reinforcement is too close to the
surface, early failure due to corrosion may occur.

One method of testing a structure for carbonatation is to drill a fresh hole in the surface
and then treat the surface with phenolphthalein. This will turn [pink] when in contact with
alkaline cement, making it possible to see the depth of carbonatation. An existing hole is
no good because the exposed surface will already be carbonated

[edit] Chlorides

The Paulins Kill Viaduct, Hainesburg, New Jersey, is 115 feet (35 m) tall and 1,100 feet
(335 m) long, and was heralded as the largest reinforced concrete structure in the world
when it was completed in 1910 as part of the Lackawanna Cut-Off rail line project. The
Lackawanna Railroad was a pioneer in the use of reinforced concrete

Chlorides, including sodium chloride, promote the corrosion of steel rebar. For this
reason, in mixing concrete only water, cement and aggregates with a low chloride content
may be used, and the use of salt for deicing concrete pavements is avoided where
possible.

[edit] Alkali silica reaction

Main article: Alkali Silica Reaction

This is found when the cement is too alkaline, due to a reaction of the silica in the
aggregates with the alkali. The silica (SiO2) reacts with the alkali to form a silicate in the
Alkali silica reaction (ASR), this causes localised swelling which causes cracking. The
conditions for alkali silica reaction are: (1) aggregate containing an alkali reactive
constituent, (2) sufficiently high alkalinity, and (3) sufficient moisture, above 75%RH
within the concrete. [2][3] This phenomenon has been popularly referred to as "concrete
cancer".

[edit] Conversion of high alumina cement

Resistant to weak acids and especially sulfates, this cement cures quickly and reaches
very high durability and strength. It was greatly used after World War II for making
precast concrete objects. However, it can lose strength with heat or time (conversion),
especially when not properly cured. With the collapse of three roofs made of prestressed
concrete beams using high alumina cement, this cement was banned in the UK in 1976.
Subsequent inquiries into the matter showed that the beams were improperly
manufactured, but the ban remained.[4]

[edit] Sulfates

Sulfates in soil or groundwater can react with Portland cement causing expansive
products, e.g ettringite or thaumasite, which can lead to early failure.

[edit] Fiber-reinforced concrete

Main article: Fiber reinforced concrete

Fiber-reinforcement is mainly used in shotcrete, but can also be used in normal concrete.
Fiber-reinforced normal concrete are mostly used for on-ground floors and pavements,
but can be considered for a wide range of construction parts (beams, pilars, foundations
etc) either alone or with hand-tied rebars.
Concrete reinforced with fibers (which are usually steel, glass or "plastic" fibers) is less
expensive than hand-tied rebar, while still increasing the tensile strength many times.
Shape, dimension and length of fiber is important. A thin and short fiber, for example
short hair-shaped glass fiber, will only be effective the first hours after pouring the
concrete (reduces cracking while the concrete is stiffening) but will not increase the
concrete tensile strength. A normal size fibre for European shotcrete (1 mm diameter, 45
mm length—steel or "plastic") will increase the concrete tensile strength.

Steel is the strongest commonly-available fiber, and come in different lengths (30 to 80
mm in Europe) and shapes (end-hooks). Steel fibres can only be used on surfaces that can
tolerate or avoid corrosion and rust stains. In some cases, a steel-fiber surface is faced
with other materials.

Glass fiber is inexpensive and corrosion-proof, but not as ductile as steel. Recently, spun
basalt fiber, long available in Eastern Europe, has become available in the U.S. and
Western Europe. Basalt fibre is stronger and less expensive than glass, but historically,
has not resisted the alkaline environment of portland cement well enough to be used as
direct reinforcement. New materials use plastic binders to isolate the basalt fiber from the
cement.

The premium fibers are graphite reinforced plastic fibers, which are nearly as strong as
steel, lighter-weight and corrosion-proof. Some experimeters have had promising early
results with carbon nanotubes, but the material is still far too expensive for any building.

[edit] Non-steel reinforcement

Some construction cannot tolerate the use of steel. For example, MRI machines have
huge magnets, and require nonmagnetic buildings. Another example are toll-booths that
read radio tags, and need reinforced concrete that is transparent to radio.

In some instances, the lifetime of the concrete structure is more important than its
strength. Since corrosion is the main cause of failure of reinforced concrete, a corrosion-
proof reinforcement can extend a structure's life substantially.

For these purposes some structures have been constructed using fiber-reinforced plastic
rebar, grids or fibers. The "plastic" reinforcement can be as strong as steel. Because it
resists corrosion, it does not need a protective concrete cover of 30 to 50 mm or more as
steel reinforcement does. This means that FRP-reinforced structures can be lighter, have
longer lifetime and for some applications be price-competitive to steel-reinforced
concrete.

The main barrier to use of FRP reinforcement is the fact that it is neither ductile nor fire
resistant. Structures employing FRP rebars may therefore exhibit a less ductile structural
response, and decreased fire resistance.
However, the addition of short monofilament polypropylene fibres to the concrete during
mixing may have the beneficial effect of reducing spalling during a fire. In a severe fire,
such as the Channel Tunnel fire, conventionally reinforced concrete can suffer severe
spalling leading to failure. This is in part due to the pore water remaining within the
concrete boiling explosively; the steam pressure then causes the spalling. The action of
fibres within the concrete is due to their ability to melt, forming pathways out through the
concrete, allowing the steam pressure to dissipate.

[edit] References