RAJSTHAN ELECTRONICS & INSTRUMENTS LIMITED

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

Submitted by:

Name-Abhinav Agarwal

REF NO.-ST/2016/B-1/43

COLLEGE- ISM DHANBAD

 COMPANY PROFILE

INTRODUCTION

REIL is Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Ltd. It is a public sector unit and it has a prominent
place amongst the electronics industry of Rajasthan. It was established in 1981. It is situated at the
Kanakpura industrial area about 12 Kms from Jaipur city. REIL has a joint venture between the
Government of India & the Government of Rajasthan, through their respective institutions.
Government of India & Government of Rajasthan holds 51% & 49 % share in this company
respectively. REIL has completed twenty-five years in service of the nation, especially the rural
India, rendering services and products in the technology areas of electronics, renewable energy,
information technology and industrial electronics. The products address needs of the dairy sector,
rural lighting energy, energy metering and e-governance.

View of REIL

REIL subscribes to the belief that the path to social and economic progress of the country lies
through the villages and is committed to the upliftment of the rural economy by taking
technology to the villages. REIL is an ISO9001 public sector undertaking started as a joint
venture between RIICO (Rajasthan State Industrial Development & Investment Corporation) and
Instrumentation Limited, Kota. During my training period I have taken my training in
four department of this organization. These are - Agro dairy division, Renewable energy
division, Industrial electronics division and Quality a REIL aims at retaining its primacy in the
area of Rural Electronics, Non-conventional Energy Systems and Information Technology by
developing, manufacturing and marketing quality products and by offering quality services.

The company was conferred the status of a "MINI RATNA" by the Department of Public
Enterprises, Ministry of Industry, Government of India in 1997 on account of it's good all round
performance and excellent products. The company has added another feather in it is cap by
establishing a Quality Management system for its operations and has been certified as an ISO 9001
firm w.e.f. 31st July, 1998. The area of business extends to manufacturing and marketing of
electronic products are Agro-Dairy division, Renewable energy division or Industrial Electronics
division Information Technology. Recognition of REIL’s achievements in the field of rural
electronics has come in a variety of ways- in customer satisfaction, in its prestigious establishment
of the Rural Electronics Technology Center in 1990 and in an award of the Department of
Electronics for excellence in Electronic- now named as department of Information Technology
under Ministry of communication and Information Technology, for the year 1991 and 2001.[1]

REIL’s remarkable performance in India and abroad has encouraged the company to its sights on
international markets with are newed thrust. In more than two decades of its existence REIL has played
a vital assurance department. The Company, through its market driven in-house Research &
Development(R&D), (recognized by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government
of India), has developed and introduced a number of new products such as data processor
Electronic Milk Tester (DPEMT), Electronic Milk Weighed System, Automatic Milk Collection
Station, Data Processor Milk Collection Unit (DP-MCU),Raw Milk Reception Dock (RMRD)
Automation System, PC based Society Accounting & Management System, Animal Database
Management System, Smart Automatic Milk Collection Station (SAMCS), Auto Zero EMT, Solar
EMT in the diary sector.

REIL is also in the business of Renewable Energy through Solar PhotoVoltaic (SPV) Technology
where It started its operations, in 1986, with manufacture of SPV Modules and Systems. Since
then it has supplied and installed numerous SPV Stand alone Street Lighting System, SPV de-
centralized Domestic Lighting Systems, SPV Water drinking Systems, SPV Dusk Dawn Switching
Systems, SPV Lanterns, SPV powered Railway Signaling Systems, Microwave Repeater Stations,
Satellite Ground Terminals and Grid Interactive Power Plants etc. In this area Company
has produced SPV Modules of about 8 MW generating capacity.
The company has a strong in-house Govt. recognized Research & Development Division which has
enabled the company to effect considerable improvements in the initial adopted technologies.
Indigenisation of the Milk Testing equipment and incorporating the latest State-of-the-Art
microprocessor designs over the initial and older LSI designs has enabled more features and new
add-on equipment has been developed to provide integrated system solutions. A prestigious
collaboration with the Department of Electronics (DoE) in 1990 for the establishment of Rural
Electronics Technology Centre and an award from DoE for Excellence in Electronics in 1991,
testify REIL's achievements in the field of Rural Electronics. The Consistency in Excellence is
recognized with repeated award for Excellence in Electronics for the year 2001, given by the
Ministry of Communication and information theory.

PRODUCT IN WHICH REIL IS INVOLVED

(a) Electronic Milk Tester
(b) Automatic Milk Collection Station (AMCS)
(c) Data Processor- Electronic Milk Tester
(d) Electronic SNF Tester
(e) Solar Photo Voltaic Modules (SPV)
(f) Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
(g) Spot Billing Machine

During my training I have gone through the Renewable energy division, SPV division and agro
dairy division.
AGRO DAIRY DIVISION

INTRODUCTION
The electronics division kicked off its operations in 1982, the year of formation of the company and
has notched up many credits in the last one and a half-decade. The operations started with the
electronics milk tester, under technical collaboration with FOSS electric of Denmark and assembly
of electronic milk tester (EMT), from kits supplied by the collaborator initially. The company has
rapidly absorbed and assimilated the technology, successfully indigenized the product and in
response to customer requirement (based on micro-controller technology) to suit the needs of the
products into a more versatile system, developed in-house through its own development efforts,
called the Milk Collection Station.

ELECTRONIC MILK TESTER

During my training period the first division was agro dairy division and the main product of agro
division is electronic milk tester. It measures the fat content instantaneously on a digital read out. It
does not involve the use of corrosive chemicals. It works on light scattering principle.

Electronic milk fat tester

It operates on AC-main as well as on battery within built battery charger & automatic switch over
to battery in case of power failure .Basic objective in the dairy development program is to increase
the production of milk. Milk collection depends on prompt payment of fair and correct price to
encourage producers to increase milk production. The system of payment based on quality (i.e. fat
content) discourages adulteration and encourages producers to increase production of high quality
milk. it is further necessary that each sample of milk should be tested of its quality and testing
should be completed within 2 to 3 hours time, in order to make correct payment. Milk sample
would also get spoiled if not tested immediately in the absence of facilities to preserve them,
especially at village level.

Old traditional ‘GERBER’ method of testing milk by chemicals has many inherent drawbacks, such
as human error, multistep method, handling of corrosive chemicals and different type of glassware.
All these add to the cost and time to milk testing. A quicker reliable and economical method of
milk fat testing has therefore become inevitable and an immediate problem to solve. In the light of
some problems faced by “GERBER” method of testing, it was felt prudent, to involve a system
which should solve these problems. The process of fat measuring by EMT has involved basic
principle, diluents preparation, homonization, auto zero setting etc.

EMT assembly room

FEATURES OF EMT
 Auto zero facility
 Performs 110-130 samples per hour
 Instant measurement and display of milk fat
 Instant calculation of amount payable
 Facility to feed milk weight directly through keypad in absence of weighing machine
 Operation with 4*4matrix hexadecimal keypad
 Printing facility
 Instant transmission of data’s on remote display
 7 segment LED
 Suitable for interface with electronic weighing machine through serial port
 Data storage up to 800 members for 30 days
 Data transmission speed 2400 baud
 Data storage on EEPROM
 Built in battery charger
 Runs on mains and battery both
 Slip printout by 80 columns serial dot matrix printer.

Features of EMT
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF EMT

Performance Data Installation Requirements

Measuring range 0-13% fat Power Supply AC: 220-24OV

(Max + 10%, Min -

15%)

DC: 12V, 6A

(Max 16 V; Min 10.5V)

A fully-charged 120 AH

battery will last for at

least

10 hours of operation.

Ambient
Capacity 120-150 samples/hour 5-45 0C
temperature

Accuracy (Sd) 0.06% for 0-5% fat Dimensions 23x31x53 cm

(HxWxD)
0.10% for 5-8% fat

0.20% for 8-13% fat

Repeatability (Sd) 0.03% for 0-5% fat Space 60x80 cm

requirement
0.04% for 5-8% fat

0.08% for 8-13% fat

Sample volume 0.5 ml/test Weight 16 kg.

(without
diluent)

Diluent volume 6.5 ml/test

Technical specifications of EMT

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF EMT
Electron milk tester is based on the photometric measurement of light scattered by the milk sample.
The light is scattered by the fat globules, acting as small prisms. Not only fat globules to the light
scattering but also the proteins may affect the measurement. To eliminate their influence, it is
necessary to dissolve them. EDTA solution is used for this purpose.
 All the fat globules do not have the same size. The measuring system requires a Constant
globule size to provide a mixed relation between the amount of light scattered to the fat content.
The range of globule size is limited in the milk tester to a very narrow region outside the natural
range. This is achieved by homogenizing and bringing the globule size into the range of 0.5 to 1.5
microns.

 Light rays from a photo lamp pass through the layer of fluid in the cuvette and are scattered
according to the sample of fat globules in the sample. More is the amount of fat present in the
cuvette, more is the light scattered and less light scattered and less light passes through the cuvette.
The rays that do pass through the cuvette strike photocell, producing a current proportional to the
light intensity. The current is fed to a digital read out unit which gives direct fat percentage read
out.

Front view of EMT

Different assemblies of EMT are as follows-
Photometer
The photometer consists of a lamp, lamp housing and detector assembly. The detector
assembly includes the cuvette and photocell.

Assembly of photometer

Cuvette
It is made of two hundred glass discs. One has a ground depression of 0.4 mm the other has two
small holes to provide inlet and outlet to the cuvette.

Photocell
It is a selenium barriers / silicon detector photocell. Care should be taken not to expose this photocell to
light when not in operation.

Photocell
Temperature testing (thermo block)
Temperature of the thermo block is set with the help of power PCB. Maximum temperature is 50.1
to 50.2 degree Celsius and minimum temperature is 49.1 degree Celsius. All measurement are done
with the help of electronic thermo meter.

Thermo block

PREPARATION OF DILUENT
(a) Diluent is used to dilute the milk sample and dissolve the proteins.
(b) Chemicals required to prepare 10 liters of diluent are as follows:
 EDTA sachet - 52.6 gm containing EDTA powder 45.0gms ,disodium Hydroxide - 7.6gm
Diluent
 Triton-x-100 -- 0.5ml (10 drops) ( Emulsifier )
 Antifoam -- 0.5ml (10 drops)

Procedure
 Take a clean 10 liter plastic container and add one liter clean water. Add contents of
EDTA sachet, containing diluents' powder for 10 liter solution add 0.5 ml of triton-X-100 and 0.5
ml antifoam. Put the lid on the container and shake it until all the chemical are dissolved, then add
liter clean water to prepare 10lt of solution and shake again to mix the solution.
 The PH of this solution should be between 9.5 to 10.1 diluents before the antifoam
becomes inactive. Diluents can be kept longer if antifoam is added to the solution from time to time
(0.5ml for every 2 weeks). warm up before starting measurement. This is done by switch on the
EMT half an hour to one hour before measure.
SUB ASSEMBLIES

EMT Tree

Cable assembly
In this all cables are assembled for different purposes use in EMT.
Charging regulator
It has two functions When battery has been discharged it limits charging current to 5 amps, and
other is When battery has been fully charged and reaches 14.1D charging regulator turns off
charging current entirely.
Control panel
Output of power is given to measure PCB where current from photocell is led to 3 position switch
to IC where current is converted to voltage.
Power supply (power PCB)
This is a serial regulator with no current limit. Base current goes to ground via resistor.
Thermo block
It is used for temperature control. it consists of Heater resistance, thermo fuse NTC, steel coil. An
NTC resistor sensor is located in a hole at rear of thermo block. Temperature control of power
supply PCB contains a bridge circuit which is adjusted to balance when NTC is 50degreeC.
Dispenser unit
It consists of EDTA powder (dissolves proteins except fat) + distilled water + titrounax (lubricant)
+antifoam (reduce foam).
Homogenizer Unit
It uniforms fat globules solution enters and a film is made of sample. If the fat is of high amount
film is thick so light is more saturated thus voltage decreases. If fat is less film is thin, voltage
increase

Homogenizer unit
TECHNICAL FAULTS IN EMT
Rear panel checking
All components of the rear panel are checked using a millimeter. It is a part of final quality control.
Continuities of the circuit are checked.

Rear panel of EMT

PCB calibration

Measure PCB
PCBs are programmed as per need and requirements and fat content. REPEAT and ZERO buttons
are checked for functionality.

Power Supply PCB

It has two operations, Temperature control and Voltage level supply(Low 5.9 V to 9.9V) both are
tested.

Charger PCB
It is checked for charging at 14.1 V for a 5 ampere battery.

Valve testing
There are three types of valve which are classified on the basis of the pressure at which they work.
These are
 Red valve takes diluents to dispenser unit from inlet.
 Green valve dispenser to dispenser again.
 Blue valve outlet of checked sample (waste).
PCB cleaning
PCBs are cleaned with the chemicals meant for the same. All the dust gets removed and PCB is
ready for installation after this.

Calibration of EMT

Mechanical testing
Mechanical connections and joints are checked. Attachments are tightened to provide strength to
the machine.

Life test
It is done to check mechanical faults and leakage after overall testing to see how the device is
working in practical situations.

Life Test Machine

Dispenser test
Leakage of the milk and diluents chambers is checked. If found, dispensers are sent back for
repairing.

PROCESS OF MEASUREMENT
(a) Set power switch at ON
(b) Set battery switch at LINE/BATTERY.
(c) Fill bottle with diluents
(d) Empty bucket for waste.
(e) Do not start procedure three until EMT has been switched ON at least half an hour.
(f) Setting display at 0.00.
(g) Place milk beaker under milk intake.
(h) Push milk in, milk out.
(i) Move mix beaker to mix intake.
(j) Raise and lower handle 6 times.
(k) Push repeat button so display blinks.
(l) Push zero buttons so display reads 0.00.
(m) Push repeat so display doesn’t blink (one decimal).
 PROCESS FLOW CHART
COMPONENTS RICEIPT COMPONENT SUB BASIC UNIT
STORE SOTORE ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY

FINISHED INST. CLEANING SUB ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY

( EMT ) AND STORE CHECKS
PACKING

INWARD SUB ASSY-

GOODS QUALITY
INSPECTION CONTROL

CALIBRATION

ELECTRICAL MECHANICAL
BURN IN TEST
CHECKS CHECKS

Process Flow Chart

After drying and zero setting measurement can begin. First result after zero check /zero setting
should not be recorded as it will be little low. Therefore measure the first sample after zero check
twice and record only second result. Turn the milk sample gently upside down a few times. Place
the sample under milk intake and fully press³MILK IN´ button. Slowly remove the sample without
touching the milk intake tube.

Place clean milk under milk intake so that it fills into notch on the side of EMT Press ‘MIXOUT’
button in all way and diluent into mix beaker. Move mix beaker to mix intake tube and position it
so that it rest in notch operator homogenizer handle up and down 3 times in a steady measurement
when the handle is pressed down and the third time let it test in bottom position and result will soon
appear on the display empty the mix beaker completely and in ready for the next sample.

AUTOMATIC ELECTRONIC MILK TESTER

Automatic Electronic Milk Tester (Auto EMT) manufactured by REIL is simple, economical and
accurate milk fat testing instrument. Manual operation has been automated by using high torque
AC synchronous motor to make more reliable, rugged and to ensure proper homogenization for
higher fat sample. Percentage of fat content is displayed quickly and accurately on a digital read
out.
Working Principle
Automatic Electronic Milk Tester works on the photometric measurement of light scattered by the
fat globules present in the milk sample. The measuring procedure follows the automated system of
dilution, mixing, homogenization and photometric

Automatic Milk Tester

Technical Specifications
Measuring Range 0-13% fat
Capacity 150-180 Samples per hour

Sample Volume 0.5 ml/test

Diluent Volume 6.5 ml/test

Technical specification of Auto EMT

Features
 Auto intake of milk sample
 Auto homogenization
 Auto zeroing
 Process indication
 Quick and instant read-out
 Runs on mains
  Measures up to 13% fat
 Requires small quantity of milk
 Performs 150Min.-180Max. test per hour
 Inexpensive method of testing.

SPV & RENEWABLE ENERGY DIVISION

INTRODUCTION
The REIL entered into the solar photovoltaic industry in 1985.It started its operation by setting up a
manufacturing facility for SPV modules and has expanded its area of operations through
manufacture of balance of systems for large number of applications, utilizing its electronics product
manufacturing facility. The company products are result of its own in-house development efforts.
The company has a capacity of 2MW per year on single shift basis. Solar photovoltaic based
application products, sub-systems most of which were developed in-house, in SPV segment, the
company manufacture SOV modules and application systems including domestic lighting system,
street lighting system, chargeable power packs for the rural, telecom, railway & defence sectors.[4]

Solar panel

SILICON
Silicon is important part of solar cell. Solar cell is made up of silicon. It has some special chemical
properties, especially in its crystalline form. An atom of silicon has 14 electrons, arranged in three
different shells. The first two shells, those closest to the center, are completely full. The outer shell
is only half full, having only four electrons. A silicon atom will always look for ways to fill up its
last shell (which would like to have eight electrons). To do this it will share electrons with four of
its neighbour silicon atoms. It’s like every atom holds hands with its neighbours, except that in this
case, each atoms has four hands joined to four neighbours. Pure silicon is poor conductor of
electricity because none of its electrons are free to move about, as electrons are in good conductors
such as copper. Instead, the electrons are all locked in the crystalline structure.

Silicon Structure

Silicon in Solar Cell

A solar cell has silicon with impurities other atoms mixed in with the silicon atoms. Consider
silicon with an atom of phosphorous here and there, may be one for every million silicon atoms.
Phosphorous has five electrons in its outer shell, not four. It still bonds with its silicon neighbour
atoms, but in a sense, the phosphorous has one electron that doesn’t have anyone to hold hands
with. It doesn’t form part of bond, but there is a positive proton in the phosphorous nucleus holding
it in place.
When energy is added to pure silicon, as in the form of heat, it can cause a few electrons to break
free of their bonds and leave their atoms. A hole is left behind in each case. These electrons then
wander randomly around the crystalline lattice looking for another hole to fall into. These electrons
are called free carriers, and can carry electrical current. There are so few of them in pure silicon,
however, that they aren’t very useful. It turns out that it takes a lot less energy to knock loose one
of our extra phosphorous electrons because they aren’t tied up in a bond their neighbours aren’t
holding them back. As a result, most of these electrons do break free, and we have a lot more free
carriers than we would have in pure silicon. The process of adding impurities on purpose is called
doping and when doped with phosphorous, the resulting silicon is called N- type because of the
prevalence of free electrons. N-type doped silicon is a much better conductor than pure silicon.
That is only one part of solar cell is N-type the other part is doped with Boron; which has only three
electrons in its outer shell instead of four, to become P-type silicon. Instead of having free
electrons, P-type silicon has free holes. Holes carry the opposite (positive) charge, they move
around just like electrons do.

N-Type Plus P-Type Silicon

In photovoltaic module both N-type silicon and P- type silicon. Photovoltaic cell always has at least
one electric field. Without an electric field, the cell wouldn’t work and this electric field is forms
when the N- type and P-type silicon are in contact. The free electrons in the N side looks all holes
to fall into, the free holes on P side, and there’s a mad rush to fill them in. Silicon was all
electrically neutral. The extra electrons were balanced out by the extra protons in the phosphorous
and the missing electrons (holes) were balanced out by the missing protons in the Boron. When the
and electrons mix at the junction between N- type and P- type silicon, however, that neutrality is
disrupted. At the junction electrons and protons are mix and form a barrier, making it harder and
harder for electrons on the N side to cross to the P side.

N Type + P Type SI

TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

PV systems are categorized into three types: autonomous, hybrid and grid-connected.
Autonomous system Autonomous systems are completely independent of other power sources.
These type of systems are generally used to power remote homes, cottages or lodges as well as in
applications such as remote monitoring and water pumping.
In most cases, an autonomous system will require batteries for storage. Such systems are
particularly useful and cost- effective for summer applications, when access to a site is difficult or
costly, or when maintenance needs to be minimized.
Hybrid system
Hybrid systems receive a portion of their power from one or more additional sources. In practice,
PV modules are often paired with wind generator or a fuel-fired generator. Such systems usually
require batteries for storage. They are most appropriate when energy demand is high (in the winter
or year-round), when power must be available on demand.

Hybrid Power System

Grid-connected System
It allows you to reduce your consumption from the electricity grid and, in some instances, to feed
the surplus energy back into the grid. Since power is normally stored in the grid itself, batteries are
not necessary unless you want some form of autonomous power during outages. These systems are
used in buildings, homes or cottages.

Grid Connected System

SOLAR PHOTO VOLTAIC CELL
Solar cells, also called photovoltaic’s (PV) by solar cell scientists, convert sunlight directly into
electricity. Solar cells are often used to power calculators and watches. They are made of
semiconducting materials similar to those used in computer chips. When sunlight is absorbed by
these materials, the solar energy knocks electrons loose from their atoms, allowing the electrons to
flow through the material to produce electricity. This process of converting light (photons) to
electricity (voltage) is called the photovoltaic (PV) effect.

Working of Solar photovoltaic cell

To utilize this resource of energy, REIL use solar cells, which convert Solar Energy into Electrical
Energy. A solar generates approximately 0.5 volts. Higher voltage and current are obtained by
connecting these cells in series or in parallel.

Types of Cell
Solar cells can be categorized into five classes, depending upon their crystal structure.
(a) High Efficiency Silicon Cell
The purification of Si in this type of cell is very high. Hence its efficiency is high. It is used for
laboratory devices having efficiency up to 30%. Example cadmium telluride efficiency is 28%.

(b) Crystalline Silicon Cell

It has high mechanical strength and these are less degraded with time. This is made using
crystallization of Si around one Si crystal; hence it is called Single Crystalline Si Cell. It is best
suited for general purpose application. Float zone - efficiency is 23%CZ (commercial) ± efficiency
is 13%.
 Crystalline silicon cell

(c) Multi-Crystalline Silicon Cell

It is made by crystallization of Si around many crystals of silicon. It has less mechanical strength
than single Crystalline Silicon material, efficiency of this cell is 12 %.

Multi-Crystalline Silicon Cell

(d) Amorphous Silicon Cell
This cell doesn’t have any Si crystal. Simply spreading a layer of p-type Si powder, and then N-
type Si powder over it. Its mechanical strength is very low. Efficiency is 20%.

Amorphous Silicon Cell

(e) Thin Film Silicon Cell
It is made by very thin film of Si p-type and n-type materials and is used for special purpose.
Efficiency is 25 %.
 Thin Film Silicon Cell

TYPES OF DIFFERENT MODULES USED

There is different type of solar module which I saw in REIL during my summer Vocational training
period. A group of cells connected in series or in parallel and then properly laminated over a glass
after curing is known as module. These modules are then fitted onto the areas receiving sunlight.
More often these are placed so that upper part of the module is in the South Direction. Solar
modules of different wattage and made as per orders and requirements. These are all designed to
charge a 12-V battery. The approximation o/p voltage of a module is 16V-18V. Modules are made
of following powers.

(a)18 Watt Module

For making this, a total of 36 cells are connected in series. The o/p voltage is approximately 0.45V
to 0.5V and the o/p current is approx. 2.2A.
This 36 cell series is called a string the o/p of this string, when illuminated by the sunlight is found
to be approx. 38watts. It has 4 rows, each containing 9 cells.
(b)75 Watt Module
Here also, a total of 36 cells are connected in series, which is called string. But the cells used are
Suido-Square having o/p voltage0.45V-0.5V &o/p current 4.5A. The o/p power of the string is
found to be approx. 75 watts. It also has 4 rows, each containing 9 cells.
(c)150 Watt Module
These are also designed by Suido-Square cells. A total number of 72 cells are connected in series.
The module has 6 rows and each row contain 12 cells.
Thus a total of 12*6=72 cells are used. The o/p voltage, current and power of each cell is the same
as that of 75-watt module. The total power obtained is approx. 150 watts.

CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL

Solar cell is a simple p-n junction. It is made up of silicon, since in Si, the minority
carrier concentration is low, hence they do not disturb the flow of electrons and holes, generated by
the solar energy. Less charge carriers can get recombined due to low minority carrier concentration
and we get higher value of current and power. For making p-n junction it is doped with gaseous
Boron (p-type) from one side and solid phosphorous (n-type) from other side.
The doping concentration is taken same for both the impurities. Due to different doping state
difference of impurities (i.e. gaseous and solid), a one side shifted p-n junction is formed. This
junction is shifted towards the n-side. Hence, the light is always made to incident at the n-side, so
that the photons can reach the junction. When the high-energy photons reach the depletion region,
they impart sufficient energy to an electron to break its covalent bond. This electron comes in
conduction band and begins to behave free electron. At the same instant, a hole is also generated
due to broken covalent bond.

Construction of solar panel

Hence, we can say that two charge carriers are generated by one high-energy photon. These carriers
move to opposite direction due to potential barrier at the junction and constitute a current. One must
condition of generation of mobile charge carrier is that the incident photon must have higher energy
than the band gap of the semiconductor.
The induced current is directly proportional to the surface area of the cell, at which the light is
incident. A bare solar cell has some conducting lines made up of Silver oxide for collection of
charge carriers from all the portions of the surface. These carriers are supplied to the bus bar. This
is the place, from where the external terminals are connected by using copper strips. These cells are
made up in different shapes and sizes, like circular, square, suedo-square, cut shaped etc. In these,
Psuedo-Square is optimized size between circular and square to utilize most of the surface area &
for less wastage in the process of shaping. The maximum conversion efficiency for laboratory
devices is up to 20%, but for commercial cells, it lies between10% to 15%.

SPV MODULE
Photovoltaic’s (or PV) is the field of technology and research related to the application of solar
cells for energy by converting solar energy (sunlight, including ultra violet radiation) directly into
electricity. Due to the growing demand for clean sources of energy, the manufacture of solar cells
and photovoltaic arrays has expanded dramatically in recent years. Photovoltaic’s is the direct
conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materials exhibit a property known as
the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of light and release electrons. When
these free electrons are captured, an electric current result that can be used as electricity.

SPV Module

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher
voltages, currents and power levels.. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules
assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photo voltaic array is the complete power-
generating unit, consisting of any number of P materials.
PROCESS FOR PRODUCTION OF SPV MODULE
The manufacturing process for Solar cell module is not much typical but requires a careful handling
since the sub-assemblies are costlier. A bare cell is expensive and hence requires a careful handling.
The manufacturing process of a solar power module contains the following steps as-
PROCESS FLOW CHART FOR SPV PRODUCTION
INSPECTION
PRODUCTION STORE
STRING
COMPONENTS TABBING OF INSPECTION
STRINGING
STORE CELLS AND
REPAIRING

OK
LAMINATION LAY UP

CURING

VISUAL & ELECT.

TRIMMING INSPECTION

OK
CHANNELLING

TERMINAL BOX FITTING

REGRADE
AND SOLDERING

GOODS
OK FINAL
INSPECTION
STORE

NOT OK

Process Flow Chart of SPV Production

Surface texturing-
Forming pyramid like structure on Si wafer does it. This helps in decreasing the top surface
reflection of solar radiation from the cell surface.
P-n junction formation-
To a p type base of Si wafer, an n type usually phosphorus is diffused on it.
Back p+ junction formation-
This is done by depositing an Aluminum layer and alloying it to the wafer at about 800degreeC
Antireflection layer deposition-
It can be deposited before or after the formation of metal contacts. Usually any dielectric material
having refractive index between Silicon & glass is used with an optimum thickness of
70nm.Materials used are Titanium Oxide, Tantalum oxide, Silicon Nitride and Aluminum oxide.
Tabbling-
This is the process of making terminals of a bare cell by soldering copper strips to the bus bar.

Tabbling
Row making-
A row of nine cells is made by connecting positive surface of one cell to the negative surface of
another cell.

Row making
Stringing-
Four rows are connected in series to give a total of 36 cells in series connection. This assembly is
called a string and the process is called Stringing.
 STRING MAKING JIG

74W

5W

Stringing Process
Lay Up
Lay Up is a process of placing laminating material to the either side of the string. The laminating
materials are as listed
 Top Glass (Toughened Glass)
 E.V.A. (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate) sheet
 Crane Glass
 Polyester Taddler
Lamination
The above laminating materials are attached to the string on both sides by the process of
lamination. This process takes place at 110degree C in laminating press. The module after Lay Up
is placed in the press for 11minutes, which is equivalent to one cycle of the press. First five
minutes, soaking takes place. This is the process to generate true vacuum in the module. Each air
particle is stored from the inner part of the module. After these five minutes, heating takes place for
three minutes. And for last three minutes, the heated module is pressed to attain a one-piece
assembly.
 Lamination Machine

Curing
This process comes after the lamination to attain the full strength of laminating material. for this,
the module is placed into 120degree temperature for 20 minutes.

Curing Machine

Trimming
The resultant module from curing process has some extra laminating materials. These materials are
then cut and the final module is then obtained.
Electrical Inspection
This inspection is done to check the output performance of the module
Channelling
Now to provide structural support to the module, channels are fixed around it. These channels
prevent any damage to the module. A terminal box is also fitted for external connections and for
mounting safety diodes and then the final product is cleaned and sent to and sent to he finished
goods store.

FEATURES OF SPV CELLS

(a) High efficiency monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells connected in series.
(b) Lamination using TEDLAR, Crane glass and EVA provides environmental protection.
(c) Solar cells laminated between UV resistant polymer (EVA) and high transmitivity toughened
glass surface.
(d) Rugged weather proof nylon terminal box for output connections.
(e) Anodized aluminum frame provides structural support for mounting and shock resistance.
(f) Manufactured to stringent quality standards and tested to withstand adverse environmental
conditions.

Solar Cell Uses

APPLICATIONS OF SPV
 Domestic lighting systems
 Street lighting
 Water pumping
 Battery charging
 Community TV system
 Microwave repeater station
 Railway signaling and lighting systems
  Rural radio phones and exchanges
 Offshore platforms
 Desalination plants
 Cathodic protection systems
 Portable lantern
 Power pack for village electrification
 Crop sprayer
 Sign boards & Glow signals

Solar Water Pumping System

Solar photovoltaic water pumping system is modular, flexible and are of two basic types i.e.
Shallow well type & Deep well type.The pumping system are extremely rugged, maintenance free
& do not need any other external source of power. D.C. power is generated at site itself and fed to
the pump. They are ideally suitable for those are as where conventional grid supply is either erratic
or non-existent. Also SPV pumps require only one time investment with no recurring cost and have
a long life.

Applications
(a) Drinking water.
(b) Irrigation.
(c) Agriculture related use.
(d) Horticulture.
(e) Animal Husbandry.
(f) Poultry farming.
(g) High value corps
 CONCLUSION
The summer training of 4 weeks in REIL played an important role to develop myself. It was a
golden opportunity for me to get the practical knowledge and hands on experience from the things
about which I had theoretical knowledge from the course curriculum.

Hence I can say that taking training in such an organization proved to be very beneficial for me.
All those that we read in our books theoretically, by this training I observed all those practically. I
learnt quite a lot about agro-electronics products such as Electronic Milk Tester and also renewable
energy source as SPV module.

The first phase of training has proved to be quite fruitful. It provided an opportunity to encounter
with such important machines. The architecture of company has various units. They are linked and
controlled working of whole plant is making the student realize that engineering is not just learning
the structural description and working of various machines. But the greater part is planning proper
management.

I am very grateful to those persons who helped directly & indirectly in the successful completion of
this practical training and this will surely be fruitful in future.