What is a Photovoltaic Cell?

In the simplest manner, it is a chemical composition that takes the energy

from the reflected light and turns that energy. The PV cells, which have a
semiconductor feature, create voltage and current by providing electron
movement between (+) and (-) poles as a result of the photons that hit
them. In the picture below, you can see the chemical structure of a PV cell
and the electric current flow in detail.

If we were to explain the terms in the picture

briefly:

SiO2: It is the basic element of semiconductor segments. This chemical is

used in the making of the transistors and diodes that are used in electronic
circuits.

Silicon Wafer: The silicon wafer is responsible for creating a semiconductor

environment. The process of separation to the poles occurs with SiO2.

Flow of Electrons: The extra electrons that come out as a result of the
photons move from (-) pole to (+) pole and generate electricity.

Working Principle of Photovoltaic Cells

Let's see how PV cells work in a more detailed manner. In the picture below,
you see the normal state of a PV cell and the voltage it produces. In a PV
cell on which there is no light, (+) and (-) poles seem to be in balance.
 Picture - 1

Picture-2
If you look at the second picture (Picture 2) it can be observed that on the
PV cell which has light on it the (-) pole intensity increases and as a result of
this there is also an increase in the voltage in the voltmeter. The photons in
the light cause the number of electrons on the silicon surface to increase by
activating them; this causes the two poles to generate electricity.
Basically, as long as there is a light falling on the silicon surface which
causes the photon --> electron transformation, this generation continues to
occur.
Note: A silicon surface cannot completely transform the power of the light
which falls on it into electricity. The main reason for this is that even though
there are many colors in light only the red color is transformed into
electricity.

How does a Solar Cell Produce Electricity?

We gave brief explanations above on how photovoltaic solar cells
produce electricity. If we were to explain them in more detail:
The cells which are made of semiconductor matter absorb the light that is
reflected on them and transform it into electric energy. The major process
here is provided by the flow of the extra electrons in the (-) pole to the holes
in the (+) pole by means of the photons. During this flow the generation of
electricity occurs. In the picture below you can see how the flow process
works.
 How much Electricity is produced by Photovoltaic
Cells?
The amount of the electric energy produced by Photovoltaic cells is in
proportion to the power and the angle of the light that comes to the unit
area.
 The light that comes with a right angle provides more power generation
 The light that comes from a higher level provides more power generation
Today, the sun cells which have the best conversion rate work with 15-40%
efficiency. For example, let's assume that on a PV with a 10cm2 surface
area, a light with 10W of power falls. The maximum electric power that this
cell can produce would be 3W. This will have electricity and current values
such as;
I = 6A
V = 0.5V
Or
I = 1A
V = 3V
Generally, generated PV cells generate a maximum voltage of 0.5V. By
connecting these cells as parallel or series, the current and voltage can be
changed.
Ways to combining the PV cells

Series Combination of PV Cells

If more than two cells are connected in series with each other, then the
output current of the cell remains same, and their input voltage becomes
doubles. The graph below shows the output characteristic of the PV cells
when connected in series.
Parallel Combination of PV cells
In the parallel combination of the cells, the voltage remains same, and the
magnitude of current becomes double. The characteristic curve of the
parallel combination of cells is represented below.
Series-Parallel Combination of PV cells
In the series-parallel combination of cells the magnitude of both the voltage
and current increases. Thereby, the solar panels are made by using the
series-parallel combination of the cells.

The solar module is fabricated by connecting the single solar cells. And the
combination of the solar modules together is known as the solar panel.
Types of Photovoltaic Solar Cells
There are 4 types of PV cells according to their manufacturing technology.

a.) Single or Mono Crystalline Cells: Monocrystalline cells, which are

made of pure silicon surface and a thin structure, are known to
have high efficiency. They have two different manufacturing
technologies - Si (Silicon) and Gallium Arsenide (GaAS). The PV
cells with the highest efficiency today are those made of Gallium
Arsenide.
b.) Polycrystalline: Has a crystalline structure. It has a manufacturing
technology in the form of a thin-film. Cadmium telluride (CdTe) or
Copper indium diselenide (CIS) is used in the structure. Efficiency is
not more than 10%.

c.) Amorphous silicon: Has a non-crystalline structure. Rate of

efficiency is not very high. It is used in small devices such as
calculators and digital dictionaries.
 d.) Hybrid Solar Cell: It is one of the newest technologies. Organic and
chemical substances are used together in its structure. Even though
it has quite a high rate of energy efficiency, it is not yet in the
industrial manufacturing phase.

Photovoltaic Solar Cells Efficiency Comparison

 Monocrystalline Cells (Silicon) : 15 – 20%

 Monocrystalline Cells (Gallium Arsenide) : 20 – 35%

 Polycrystalline: 10%

 Amorphous: 7 – 10%

 Hybrid: 30 – 45%
When it comes to manufacturing technology the most expensive one is
Hybrid and the cheapest is Amorphous PV cells.

Photovoltaic Solar Cells and New Technology

We mentioned it briefly above. PV cells generate electricity by absorbing
only the red light and that is why the efficiency has always been at low
levels. Recently, during the studies which have been carried out at
Cambridge University, electricity was generated by absorbing blue
wavelengths along with red light.
In the near future, we will see Solar Power Pv cells that have 25% more
efficiency on the market.
What are the problems of solar cells ?
We have two types of problems

1) Environmental problems:

The potential environmental impacts associated with solar power — land use
and habitat loss, water use, and the use of hazardous materials in
manufacturing — can vary greatly depending on the technology, which
includes two broad categories: photovoltaic (PV) solar cells or concentrating
solar thermal plants (CSP).

The scale of the system — ranging from small, distributed rooftop PV arrays
to large utility-scale PV and CSP projects — also plays a significant role in
the level of environmental impact.

Land Use:
Depending on their location, larger utility-scale solar facilities can raise
concerns about land degradation and habitat loss. Total land area
requirements varies depending on the technology, the topography of the
site, and the intensity of the solar resource. Estimates for utility-scale PV
systems range from 3.5 to 10 acres per megawatt, while estimates for CSP
facilities are between 4 and 16.5 acres per megawatt.

Unlike wind facilities, there is less opportunity for solar projects to share
land with agricultural uses. However, land impacts from utility-scale solar
systems can be minimized by siting them at lower-quality locations such as
brownfields, abandoned mining land, or existing transportation and
transmission corridors. Smaller scale solar PV arrays, which can be built on
homes or commercial buildings, also have minimal land use impact.
Water Use:
Solar PV cells do not use water for generating electricity. However, as in all
manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture solar PV
components.

Concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP), like all thermal electric plants,
require water for cooling. Water use depends on the plant design, plant
location, and the type of cooling system.

CSP plants that use wet-recirculating technology with cooling towers

withdraw between 600 and 650 gallons of water per megawatt-hour of
electricity produced. CSP plants with once-through cooling technology have
higher levels of water withdrawal, but lower total water consumption
(because water is not lost as steam). Dry-cooling technology can reduce
water use at CSP plants by approximately 90 percent . However, the
tradeoffs to these water savings are higher costs and lower efficiencies. In
addition, dry-cooling technology is significantly less effective at
temperatures above 100 degrees Fahrenheit.

Many of the regions in the United States that have the highest potential for
solar energy also tend to be those with the driest climates, so careful
consideration of these water tradeoffs is essential.
Hazardous Materials :
The PV cell manufacturing process includes a number of hazardous
materials, most of which are used to clean and purify the semiconductor
surface. These chemicals, similar to those used in the general semiconductor
industry, include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrogen
fluoride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and acetone. The amount and type of
chemicals used depends on the type of cell, the amount of cleaning that is
needed, and the size of silicon wafer . Workers also face risks associated
with inhaling silicon dust. Thus, PV manufactures must follow U.S. laws to
ensure that workers are not harmed by exposure to these chemicals and
that manufacturing waste products are disposed of properly.

Thin-film PV cells contain a number of more toxic materials than those used
in traditional silicon photovoltaic cells, including gallium arsenide, copper-
indium-gallium-diselenide, and cadmium-telluride. If not handled and
disposed of properly, these materials could pose serious environmental or
public health threats. However, manufacturers have a strong financial
incentive to ensure that these highly valuable and often rare materials are
recycled rather than thrown away.

Life-Cycle Global Warming Emissions:

While there are no global warming emissions associated with generating

electricity from solar energy, there are emissions associated with other
stages of the solar life-cycle, including manufacturing, materials
transportation, installation, maintenance, and decommissioning and
dismantlement. Most estimates of life-cycle emissions for photovoltaic
systems are between 0.07 and 0.18 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per
kilowatt-hour.

Most estimates for concentrating solar power range from 0.08 to 0.2 pounds
of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. In both cases, this is far less
than the lifecycle emission rates for natural gas (0.6-2 lbs of CO2E/kWh)
and coal (1.4-3.6 lbs of CO2E/kWh)
 1) Technical problems:

Solar Intensity :

One of the largest hurdles to the broad adoption of solar power is variances
in solar intensity. According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
the sun provides almost twice as much energy to the Mojave Desert as it
does to the Pacific Northwest. Because a panel's output depends on the
amount of solar energy it receives.

Efficiency :
Another obstacle to solar electricity is photovoltaic efficiency. If you live in
the desert, a single square meter of solar panel could receive the equivalent
of more than 6 kilowatt-hours of energy in the course of a single day. But a
solar panel cannot convert that entire amount of energy to electricity. The
efficiency of a solar panel determines how much of that power is usable, and
most commercial solar panels on the market in 2013 have efficiency ratings
of less than 25 percent. The more efficient a panel is, the more expensive it
is to produce.

Reliability :
One major problem with solar power is reliability. At best, a solar panel can
produce electricity for 12 hours a day, and a panel will only reach peak
output for a short period around midday. Tracking panels that follow the sun
can extend this prime generation period somewhat, but it still means that
panels spend very little of the day producing at maximum capacity. Storage
batteries can charge during peak generation and provide a trickle of power
at night, but they can be expensive, contain toxic materials and wear out
quickly due to repeated charge and discharge cycles.