DAC 21103

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
(Volume 2)

Amir Khan Suwandi

Ahmad Hakimi Mat Nor
Mardiha Bt Mokhtar
Siti Nooraiin Bt Mohd Razali

DEPARTMENT OF

CIVIL ENGINEERING

CENTER OF DIPLOMA STUDIES

Cetakan Pertama (Modul Pembelajaran), 2018
© Amir Khan Suwandi, Ahmad Hakimi Mat Nor, Mardiha Bt Mokhtar & Siti Nooraiin Bt Mohd
Razali

Hak cipta terpelihara. Tidak Dibenarkan mengeluar ulang dalam apa-apa juga bentuk dan
juga cara baik secara elektronik, mekanik, rakaman, atau lain-lain, mana-mana bahagian
kandungan buku ini sebelum mendapat izin bertulis daripada Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia, 86400 Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia.

Diterbit dan dicetak oleh:

Penerbit UTHM
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
86400 Parit Raja, Batu Pahat,
Johor Darul Ta’zim.
Tel: 07-453 7454
Faks: 07-453 6145
E-mel: pt@uthm.edu.my
Laman Web: www.uthm.edu.my/pt
CONTENTS

GOALS vi
LEARNING OUTCOMES vi
SYNOPSIS vi
ASSESSMENT vii
Chapter 1 1
Shallow foundations 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Types of foundations 2
1.2 Foundation load 4
1.3 Theory of bearing capacity 5
1.4 Effect of ground water table on bearing capacity 15
1.5 Inclined load 17
1.6 Eccentric load 20
1.7 Footing on slopes 23
1.8 Footing size 28
1.9 Contact pressure 32
Chapter 2 44
deep foundations 44
2.0 Types of Deep Foundation 44
2.1 Static Methods – Driven Piles 45
2.3 Pile-Driving Formulas 57
2.4 Pile Load Tests 60
2.5 Hiley Formula 63
Chapter 3 69
lAteral earth pressure 69
3.0 Introduction 69
3.2 Rankine’s Theory 70
3.3 Coulomb’s Theory 74
3.4 Effects of a surcharge load upon active thrust 79
3.5 Retaining Wall 81
3.6 Earth Pressure Computation 82

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 3.7 Stability Analysis 82
Chapter 4 98
Stability analysis of Slopes 98
4.0 Introduction 98
4.1 Culmann Method 99
4.2 Method of Slices 103
REFERENCES 110

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 LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1: Single foundation 2

Figure 2: Classification of footing: (a) combined (b) wall (c) strap (d) mat or
raft foundation 3
Figure 3 : Plastic analysis of bearing capacity 6
Figure 4: Chart of Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors and angle of internal
friction, Ø. 8
Figure 5 : Relation between load and settlement of a footing for cases of
local shear and general shear. 9
Figure 6 : Correlation for values of N (SPT), Nq,Nγ and Ø 10
Figure 7 : A strip footing in clay soil 11
Figure 8: Shallow footing in cohesive soil 12
Figure 9 : Footing in dense soil 13
Figure 10: Location of the depth B (equal footing width) 15
Figure 11: Shallow footing submerged under water 16
Figure 12: Footing subjected to an inclined load 18
Figure 13: Inclined load factor, Ri for (a) horizontal footing (b) inclined footing
18
Figure 14: Shallow footing with inclined load 19
Figure 15: Useful width method for bearing capacity determination 20
Figure 16: Eccentric load reduction factor. 21
Figure 17: Footing with eccentric load 22
Figure 18: Footing with eccentric load 22
Figure 19 : Bearing capacity factors for continuous footing on face of slope
(a) cohesive soil (b) cohesionless soil 24
Figure 20: Bearing capacity factors for continuous footing 25
Figure 21: Footing for wall on slope 26
Figure 22 : N*q values for piles penetrating into sand. 48
Figure 23: Variation of 48
Figure 24: Situation of circular pile in sand soil and Pv diagram. 49
Figure 25 : Situation of circular pile in sand soil with 3m 51
Figure 26: Value of α and qu for pile driven in clay 53
Figure 27: Pile driven in clay 54
Figure 28: Pile driven in multilayer of clay 55
Figure 29: Depth of pile determination 56
Figure 30: Typical load versus settlement graph 62
Figure 31: Measurement elastic rebound, Cp+Cq of a pile 64
Figure 32: Value of CC and driving stress with viariation condition set on site
64
Figure 33: Circular plie concrete in layer of soil 66
Figure 34: Find L pile 66
Figure 35: Lateral earth pressure for Rankine’s theory: (a) back side vertical;
(b) back side inclined 71
Figure 36: Wall with the active earth pressure 72
Figure 37: Wall with the inclined active earth pressure 73

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Figure 38: Retaining wall with dimension and soil parameter; Rankine theory
74
Figure 39: Sketch showing failure plane for Coulomb’s theory 76
Figure 40: Sketch showing direction of active pressure resultant for
Coulomb’s theory 76
Figure 41: Coefficient for computation of active earth pressure for vertical
walls supporting cohesionless backfill with a horizontal surface. 77
Figure 42: Retaining wall for Coulomb’s theory 77
Figure 43: The backfill wall with slope for Coulomb’s theory 78
Figure 44: Illustration the computation of pressure due to a surcharge in the
form of a uniform load 80
Figure 45: Retaining wall with the combination of active load and uniform
distribution load 81
Figure 46: Earth pressure charts for retaining walls less than 6 m high. 84
Figure 47: Earth pressure charts for retaining walls less than 6 m high. 85
Figure 48: Earth pressure charts for retaining walls less than 6 m high. 86
Figure 49: Retaining wall with the surface that sliding to backfill soil 87
Figure 50: Analysis of retaining wall using Rankine’s Method 88
Figure 51: Analysis retaining wall by using Figure 46,47&48; Rankine Method
92
Figure 52: L- shaped retaining wall 96
Figure 53: Sketch showing assumed failure plane in the Culmann method 99
Figure 54: FSØ versus FSc 102
Figure 55: Sketch showing assumed curved failure surface for mathod of
slices 103
Figure 56: Sketch showing forces on a single slice in method of slices 104
Figure 57: Examples of slope failure on JB - Kota Tinggi highway 107

LIST OF TABLE

Table 1: Coefficient of Friction between Sand and Pile material 46

Table 2: Value of k 64
Table 3: value of e 65
Table 4: Description of backfill soil types for retaining wall less than 6m high.
86
Table 5: The shearing component and the normal component of each slice’s
weigth are tabulated as follows: 105

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INTRODUCTION

This module is produced based on the discussion by panels of geotechnics

from Centre of Diploma Study where the main author is currently recites
where most of the materials are originates from the previous version in
Bahasa Melayu. The module covers most of the topic offered in Geotechnical
Engineering course by Center of Diploma Study or courses offered by the
previous Faculty of Civil Engineering and Environment. The course code
applicable is DFC 3043 or DAC 21103. Besides these two courses the
module is also applicable to those courses offered by the Faculty of
Technical Education and Faculty of Management Technology under the
name of Soil Mechanic and Foundation Engineering.
Geotechnical Engineering Module explains the basic of topics which is
essential in learning the introduction and the first phase of learning on this
discipline in the higher learning institution.
Generally, module volume 2 covers topics such as shallow foundations,
deep foundations, lateral earth pressure and stability analysis of slope. It
explains the overall significant theory of geotechnical for engineer especially
for construction of foundations.
Any mistyping or weaknesses in the module is not purposely done and
any comment and opinion on improving the module are most welcome.
Thank you to all that involve in improving the collection of notes at early
stage En Mohd Nazri Mohidin dan Pn Zaihasra Abu Talip.
Dedicated to my beloved wife, Zabariah; thank you for the support and to my
children; Amirul, Aftar, Alia, Amal, Aida and Hateem abah love you
always.......
Amir Khan Suwandi,
19 Mei 2018

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GOALS
The purposes of this module to give the students sufficient knowledge about
soil formation, physical properties of soil properties, soil strength,
compressibility of the soil and effect of water in the soil as a knowledge base
that will be applied in the design of shallow and deep foundations, retaining
structures, slope stability and soil improvement.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students will be able to:
1. Describe the problem of the composition, bearing capacity, slope,
vertical an lateral pressure of soil and foundation. (CLO1-C5, PLO1-K)
2. Demonstrate written report of a reference and a visit to the construction
site slopes or foundation. (CLO2-P5, PLO2-PS)
3. Present the findings to showing the teamwork and leadership
characteristics. (CLO3-A2, PLO9-LS)

SYNOPSIS
Soil Properties and Classification; Soil Classifications for Engineering; Soil
Exploration Practice; Stress Distribution in Soil; Water in Soil; Shear Strength
of Soil; Consolidation Test.

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ASSESSMENT

Assessment OBE
Assessment Domain
Methods/Tasks Weightage element
Instruments
Continuous Knowledge
Answers
Assessments Quiz 1,2 & 3 Cognitive 5% (CLO1-
scheme
C5,PLO1)
Knowledge
Answers
Test 1 Cognitive 15% (CLO1-
scheme
C5,PLO1)
Knowledge
Answers
Test 2 Cognitive 15% (CLO1-
scheme
C5,PLO1)
Leadership
Assignment Skills
Rubric Affective 5%
– Report (CLO3-A2,
PLO9)
Practical
Project – Psychmotor Skills
Rubric 10%
Present (CLO2-P5,
PLO2)
Final Knowledge
Answers
Assessment Final Exam Cognitive 50% (CLO1-
scheme
C5,PLO1)
JUMLAH
100%

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 CHAPTER 1
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

1. Explain criteria of shallow foundation, (C2, PLO1).

2. Explain the concept of bearing capacity, (C2, PLO1).
3. Analyze safety factor of shallow footing, (C4, PLO1)
4. Sketch and solve problem on shallow footing in any given problem,
(C4, PLO1)

CHAPTER CONTENT

1.0 Introduction

o Foundation is part of structure that transfer load directly the soil

stratum underneath it.
o A foundation should be qualified to the two basic functions:
i. Safety factor against shear failure for the soil bearing between
2.5 and 3 (normally stated)
ii. Footing settlement shall not be excessive.
o If soil near surface has sufficient bearing capacity to support load
structure; the soil is competent.
o Footing is the small separate portion of the structure that support
the whole load.

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1.1 Types of foundations

o Foundations can be categorized into several types such as single

footing, Figure 1a.
o Single footing – for the purpose analysis, is strong enough as flat
footing, square, exerted on by concentrated load or distributed load,
Figure 1b.

Figure 1: Single foundation

o Combination of footing – footing supports two columns, Figure 2a

o Continuous or wall footing – where the size is extended in one
direction to support wall–like load, Figure 2b.
o Two or more footing connected by a strap is known as strip footing,
Figure 2c.
o Huge pad footing that support several footing that are not in a
straight line known as raft footing, Figure 2d.

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Figure 2: Classification of footing: (a) combined (b) wall (c) strap (d) mat or
raft foundation

o Foundation shall meet to satisfy the three criteria :

i. Shall be located at the right location vertically and
horizontally to reduce the influence of external load.
ii. Free from damage and bearing capacity failure.
iii. Save from excessive settlement.
o Foundation design procedures are as follows :
i. Calculate all loads acting on a footing.
ii. Obtain on site sub-soil information randomly from laboratory
and test.
iii. Determine the depth and location of foundation.
iv. Calculate bearing capacity for supporting soil.
v. Determine size of foundation.
vi. Check the allowable bearing capacity, allowable against
sliding and allowable against overturning.
vii. Estimate total settlement
viii. Design the foundation structure

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1.2 Foundation load

o All loads has to be calculated in designing foundation or footing

such as :- live load, dead load, wind load, snow, soil lateral
pressure, hydrostatic pressure and earthquake.
o Snow load may not be considered in Malaysia, however there is an
awareness on considering earthquake safety factor.
a) Dead load
- Referring to total weight of materials and permanent
accessories installed on a structure that to be designed
(air-condition systems and finishing)
b) Live load
- Referring to the temporary weight of bodies or structures
on building to be designed (human, furniture)
- Normally live intensity used in the design of structure is
determined in local building codes.
c) Wind load
- Not all considered as live load and applied on any surface
of the structure.
- Estimated based on the building codes.
d) Lateral earth pressure
- Result in lateral load which acted on the substructure part
of the building, will be explained more in Chapter 10.
- Assumed as dead load
e) Hydrostatic pressure
- Produce lateral pressure (dead load)
- Also result in hydrostatic uplift (buoyancy) to the bottom
of the structure base.
- Normally hydrostatic lateral pressure is stable but uplift
pressure is not.
- Buoyancy shall be reduced by increasing the dead load
portion of the whole structure.

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 f) Earthquake force
- Earthquake force may act laterally, horizontally or
torsionally on a building structure from various directions.
- A building code need to be consulted for the specification
earthquake forces used in design.

1.3 Theory of bearing capacity

o Conventional method of designing foundation often based on the

theory of bearing capacity.
o Bearing capacity, q – referring to the soil ability to support the
whole foundation and superstructure.
o Ultimate bearing capacity, qult or qu – referring to loading per area
that will just cause shear failure in soil.
o Allowable bearing capacity, qall or qa – referring to loading per
area that the soil is able to support without unsafe movement which
is ultimate bearing capacity divide bysafety factor. Also frequently
referred to as design bearing capacity, qdes.

qult
qa 
FS (1.1)

o The safety factor, FS used is between 2.5 to 3.

o Footing design should ensure the following :-
(i) Collapse of footing structure
(ii) Excessive settlement
o Basic principles of (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967) is shown in Figure 3.

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 Figure 3 : Plastic analysis of bearing capacity

o Least load Q in Figure 3, applied that cause failure is the most

critical; hence the ultimate bearing capacity, q ult is the least load Q
divide by footing’s area – the area that in contact with the soil
beneath.
o A wedge of soil under the footing moves downward with the footing.
The downward movement is resist by the shear resistance along
slip surface cde and cfg and by the sliding wedge of acfg and
bcde.
o For each asssumed slip surface, the corresponding load Q that
would cause failure can be determine.
o The set of slip surface giving the last applied load Q (that would
cause failure) is the most critical, hance the soils ultimate bearing
capacity (qult) is equal to the least load divided by the footing’s
area.
o The following equations for calculating ultimate bearing capacity,
developed by :-

(i) Continuous footing :

qult  cNc   1D f Nq  0.5 2 BN (1.2)

(ii) Circular footing :

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 qult  1.2cNc   1D f Nq  0.6 2 RN

or qult  1.2cNc   1D f Nq  0.3 2 BN (1.3)

(iii) Square footing:

qult  1.2cNc   1D f Nq  0.4 2 BN (1.4)

Where :
qult – ultimate bearing capacity
c – soil cohesion
Nc, Nq, Nγ – Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors
γ1 – effective unit weight for above base soil (kN/m3)
γ2 – effective unit weight for below base soil (kN/m3)
Df – footing depth, or distance between soil surface and base of
footing.
B – breadth of footing, R – radius of circular footing

o Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors are functions of soil’s angle of

internal friction, Ø.
o Every bearing capacity factor has influence on the value of ultimate
bearing capacity :
 Value of Nq : influence of surcharge
 Value of Nc : influence of cohesion,
 Value of Nγ : influence of soil weight and breadth or
radius of footing
o Values of Nc, Nq, Nγ for all bearing capacity shall be determined
from Figure 4

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Figure 4: Chart of Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors and angle of internal
friction, Ø.

o Curve on Figure 4 shows values of Nc, Nq, and Nγ based on the

following equations :

 
N q  e  tan tan 2  45   (1.5)
 2
N c  cot N q  1 (1.6)

N  Nq  1tan 1.4 

(1.7)

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 o Equations 1.2 to 1.4 are used for cohesive and cohesionless soil
o Figure 5 shows dense sand and hard clay that produce general
shear while loose sand and soft clay produce local shear.

Figure 5 : Relation between load and settlement of a footing for cases of

local shear and general shear.

o In local shear equations 1.2 to 1.4 cohesion, c is replaced by c`

where :
2
c' c (1.8)
3

o Terms of Nc, Nq and Nγ are replaced by N’c, N’qdan N’γ where the
latter is determined from Figure 4 by using value of Ø modified, Ø’
by the following equation :-

2 
 '  tan 1  tan   (1.9)
3 

o For loose sand and soft clay, terms N’c, N’q, N’γ and c’ are used in
equations 1.2 to 1.4.

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o For cohesive soils, shear strength at its critical state only after the
completion of construction process, at which where the shear
strength only has cohesion component (c) and in this case Ø = 0
(internal friction angle is taken as zero).
o For cohesionless soil, c terms in equations 1.2 to 1.4 is zero, c = 0.
o Other correlation for N value for (SPT), Nq, Nγ and Ø are as shown
in Figure 6.

Figure 6 : Correlation for values of N (SPT), Nq,Nγ and Ø

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Example 1.1

Given;
a. A strip of wall footing 1.2 m wide supported by uniform deposit of
clay, Figure 7.
b. Unconfined compressive strength of the soil, qu = 122kN/m2
c. Soil unit weight, γ = 19.68 kN/m3
d. Groundwater was no encountered during soil exploration.
e. Footing depth, Df = 0.4 m

Find:
a. Ultimate bearing capacity of the footing
b. Allowable load for the wall with safety factor, FS = 3.
Solution:-

For continuous wall footing:

qult  cNc   1D f Nq  0.5 2 BN

qu 122 kN / m2
c   61kN / m2
2 2
Using c>0, Ø =0 analysis for cohesive soil, when Ø =0. Figure 4 gives
Nc=5.14, Nq=1.0, dan Nγ=0

Clay:

0.4 m γ1 = 19.68 kN/m3

γ2 = 20.52 kN/m3

qu = 122 kN/m2

1.2 m
Figure 7 : A strip footing in clay soil

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    
qult  cN c   1 D f N q  0.5 2 BN  61kN / m 2 5.14   1.0 19.68kN / m3 0.6m   0
 313 .54 kN / m 2  11.81kN / m 2  0  325 .35kN / m 2

325.35kN / m2
wa  qa  B   1.2m  130.14kN / m
3

Example 1.2

Given :
a. Square pad footing with sides of 1.6 m located 1.4 m below the
ground surface
b. The effect of groundwater is negligible
c. The subsoil consist of stiff cohesive soil with unconfined
compressive strength of qu = 145 kN/m2.
d. The unit weight is 19.68 kN/m2.
Find :

Allowable bearing capacity, qall using a safety factor of 3.5.

Solution;

Cohesive soil :
Assuming
1.4 m γ1= γ2 = 19.68 kN/m3
qu = 145 kN/m2

1.6 m
Figure 8: Shallow footing in cohesive soil

For square footing :

qult  1.2cNc   1D f Nq  0.4 2 BN

c=qu/2=145/2 = 72.5 kN/m2

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Using c>0, Ø =0 analysis for cohesive soil, when Ø =0. Figure 4 gives
Nc=5.14, Nq=1.0, dan Nγ=0

qult  1.272.55.14  19.681.4(1)  0  474.7kN / m2

qall = 474.7kN/m2/3.5 = 135.64 kN/m2 (with FS = 3.5)

Qall= 135.64kN/m2 x (1.6m x1.6m) = 347.23 kN

Example 1.3

Given :

Dense soil :
Ø = 30°
1.25 m Assuming:
γ1= γ2 = 21.25 kN/m3
c = 46.8 kN/m2

1.45 m dia
Figure 9 : Footing in dense soil

a. Circular footing with diameter of 1.45 m is to be constructed below

the ground surface at 1.25 m.
b. Subsoil is consist of dense soil having the following strength
parameters:

Internal friction angle, Ø = 30o

Cohesion, c = 46.8 kN/m2

c. The effect of groundwater is negligible

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Find:
The total allowable load (including column load, weight of footing, and
weight of soil surcharge) that the footing can carry if FS=3.

Solution : (for dense soil – hence general shear condition)

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1.4 Effect of ground water table on bearing capacity

o It has been assumed that the water was well below the footing and
that did not affect the bearing capacity. However, this condition
does not always the case, terms γ2BNγ and γ1DfNq require
modification.

o If water table is at or above the footing’s base, soil submerged

unit weight shall be used, γ’ which equals (saturated unit
weight, γsat – unit weight of water, γw) this term should be used in
equations (1.2) hingga (1.4).

o If the water table is at the distance of B (footing width) or more from

the footing base, then the effect of the water is negligible – hence
the full unit weight is to be used, Figure 10

Earth’s surface

Df

Figure 10: Location of the depth B (equal footing width)

below footing base

o If the water table below the footing but at less than B distance – the
value of unit weight shall be linearly interpolate value for effective
unit weight γ’.

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 o If the water table on the earth surface, therefore the value of
effective unit, γ’ shall be used entirely.

Example 1.4

Given :
a. A square footing with dimensions of 2.2 m X 2.2 m
constructed as shown in Figure 11.
b. Water table is on the surface.
c. Subsoil is soft and loose uniform deposit. The result of
laboratory test is as shown :

Qallowable = ?

Groundwater table

Loose soil :
1.8 m Ø = 25°
Assuming :
γ1= γ2 = 16.32 kN/m3
2.2 m x 2.2 m
c = 16.8 kN/m2

Figure 11: Shallow footing submerged under water

Internal friction angle, Ø = 25°

Cohesion,c = 16.8 kN/m2
Unit weight, γ1= γ2 = 16.32 kN/m3

Find

Allowable load,Qall that the footing can sustain with SF of 3.

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 Calculation:
Assume local shear condition because of soft and loose soil
qult  1.2c' N 'c  1D f N 'q 0.4 2 BN '

2
 '  tan 1 

tan 25 o   17.3; c' 
2 2
 
c  16.8kN / m 2  11.2kN / m 2
3  3 3

From Figure 4 : N’c=10.2, N’q=5, dan N’γ=1.8

γ’= (16.32 – 9.81 ) = 6.51 kN/m3

qult  1.2c' N 'c  ' D f N 'q 0.4 ' BN '

    
 1.2 11.2 kN / m 2 10.2   6.51kN / m 3 1.8m 5  0.4 6.51 kN / m 3 2.2m 1.8
 137 .1  58.6  10.3
 206 kN / m 2

Qa  qa A
206kN / m  2.2m  2.2m  332.3 kN
2

1.5 Inclined load

o A footing subjected to by an inclined load can be resolved into

vertical and horizontal load, Figure 12.
o Bearing capacity analysis is conducted in the same manner as
previously explined. The bearing capacity calculated then must be
corrected by a Ri factor which obtained in Figure 13.
o The footing’s stability shall be checked by calculating the FS
against sliding, in Chapter on Retaining Wall.

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 Figure 12: Footing subjected to an inclined load

Figure 13: Inclined load factor, Ri for (a) horizontal footing (b) inclined footing

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Example 1.5

Given

A square footing (1.5 m x 1.5 m) exerted by an inclined load as shown in Figure

14.

Figure 14: Shallow footing with inclined load

Required :
The safety factor against bearing capacity failure

Solution;
For square : qult  1.2cNc   1D f Nq  0.4 2 BN

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1.6 Eccentric load

o Foundation design is more complicated if subjected to eccentric load.

o Two methods of analyzing bearing capacity for eccentric load :

 Useful width concept

 Reduction factors

1.6.1 Useful width concept:

o Figure 15, shows the point of concentrated load with eccentricity in b

direction. Shaded region is assumed to be the main contact area of the
footing base due the load. The shaded area equal to :

A  L  B  2eb  (1.10)

Figure 15: Useful width method for bearing capacity determination

on cohesive soil

o This method based on linear bearing capacity reduction and strictly for
cohesive soil.

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1.6.2 Reduction factors:

o Assuming that the load is applied at the centroid of the footing.

o Corrected bearing capacity is estimated by multiplying with reduction
factor (Re) obtained from Figure 16.

Figure 16: Eccentric load reduction factor.

Cohesive – linear correlation

Cohesionless – parabolic correlation

Example 1.6

Given :
1. A foundation with dimension of 1.5 m X 1.5 m located 1.4 m below
ground surface.
2. The footing is subjected to an eccentric load of 350 kN, Figure 17.
3. Subsoil is the deposit of cohesive soil with the following parameters :
qu = 200 kN/m2, γ1 = 20.40 kN/m3 and γ2 = 19.80 kN/m3
4. The effect of groundwater is negligible.
Find :
Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure by using both methods:

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 Figure 17: Footing with eccentric load

Solution :
1. Useful width concept :
qult  1.2cNc   1D f Nq  0.4 2 BN

qu 200 kN / m2
c   100 kN / m2 ;
2 2
γ1 = 20.40 kN/m3 and γ2 = 19.80 kN/m3
Df = 1.2 m; B’ = B - 2(eb) = 1.5 – 2(0.2) = 1.1 m

Figure 18: Footing with eccentric load

22 | P a g e
 Using c>0, Ø =0 analysis for cohesive soil, when Ø =0. Figure 4
gives Nc=5.14, Nq=1.0, dan Nγ=0

qult  1.2cN c   1D f N q  0.4 2 BN

     
 1.2 100 kN / m 2 5.14   20.4kN / m3 1.4m 1.0  0.4 19.8kN / m3 1.1m 0
 616 .8  28.6  0  645 .4kN / m 2

qult 645 .4kN / m 2

FS    3.04
qa  350 kN 
 
 1.1m  1.5m 

(1) Reduction factors method

Eccentricity ratio = ex/B = 0.2m/1.5m = 0.13
For cohesive soil; Figure 16, Re=0.76

qult  1.2cN c   1D f N q  0.4 2 BN

     
 1.2 100 kN / m 2 5.14   20.4kN / m3 1.4m 1.0  0.4 19.8kN / m3 1.1m 0
 645 .4kN / m 2

 
qult corrected   qult  Re  645.4kN / m2 0.76   490.5kN / m2
490.5kN / m2
FS   3.15
350 kN / 1.5m  1.5m

1.7 Footing on slopes

o Ultimate bearing capacity for continuous foundation on slopes can be

determined by using the following equation :

1
qult  cN cq  BNq (on slope) (1.11)
2

Where Ncq and Nγq are bearing capacity factors for footing on slope

o Bearing capacity factors used in equation 1.11 are obtained from Figure
19 and Figure 20.

23 | P a g e
 o For square and circular footing on slopes, the assumption is the ratios of
their bearing capacities on the slope to their bearing capacities on
level ground are in the same proportions as the ratio of bearing
capacities of continuous footings on slopes to the bearing
capacities of the continuous footings on level ground.

 qult c..or..s..on..ground..level 
qult c..or.s. footing..on..slope  qult continuous.. footing..on..slope  
 
 ult continuous..on..ground..level 
q
(1.12)

Figure 19 : Bearing capacity factors for continuous footing on

face of slope (a) cohesive soil (b) cohesionless soil

24 | P a g e
Figure 20: Bearing capacity factors for continuous footing
on top of slope (a) cohesive soil (b) cohesionless soil

25 | P a g e
Example 1.7

A bearing wall is to be located close to the slope as shown in Figure 1.21. Ground water
located at a great depth. Calculate the allowable bearing capacity if factor safety of 3 is
used.

Cohesionless soil :
γ=19.5kN/m3
Ǿ=30°
c=0

Figure 21: Footing for wall on slope

Solution :
1
qult  cN cq  BNq ;
2
c = 0; γ = 19.5kN/m3; B = 1.0m

from Figure 8.20; with Ǿ = 30°; β=30°;

b/B =1.5/1.0 =1.5; Df/B = 1.0/1.0 = 1; Nγq=40

1
2
1
2
 
qult  cN cq  BN q  0  19.5kN / m 2 1m 40   390 kN / m 2
2
390 kN / m
qa   130 kN / m 2
3

26 | P a g e
Example 1.8

Same conditions as in Example 1.7 except the footing is constructed on slope surface
with safety factor of 3.

Solution :

From Example 8.7 : (qult)continuous footing on slope = 390kN/m2

Figure 4, with Ǿ=30°; values of Nc = 30, Nq = 18, dan Nγ = 16

qult square.. footing..on..ground..level  1.2cN c  D f N q  0.4BN

 0  19.50 kN / m 3 1m 18   0.419.50 kN / m 3 1m 16   475 .8kN / m 2

qult continuous.. footing..on..ground..level  cN c  D f N q  0.5BN

 0  19.50 kN / m 3 1m 18   0.519.50 kN / m 3 1m 16   507 kN / m 2

Substitute into equation :

 qult c..or..s..on..ground..level 
qult square. footing..on..slope  qult continuous.. footing..on..slope  
 qult continuous..on..ground..level 
 475 .8kN / m 
 390 kN / m 
2
2
2 
 366 kN / m 2

507 kN / m 
366 kN / m 2
thus.....qa square.. footing..on..slope..   122 kN / m 2
3

Re-calculate for circular footing : (q a=114 kN/m2; Qa=89.5kN)

27 | P a g e
1.8 Footing size

o After the allowable footing size is determined, the sizing of the footing shall be
determined.

column load kN 

Area of footing 

bearing capacity kN / m 2 
(1.13)

Example 1.9

Given :

Footing in Figure 1.22 was constructed below stif clay uniform deposit. Footing is
subjected to load of 168 kN/m. Calculate the size of the footing with safety factor of 3.5.

168 kN/m

Stiff clay :
1.2 m γ1 = 17.8 kN/m3
γ2 = 19.6 kN/m3
qu = 142.4 kN/m2

B=?

Figure 1.22 : Calculation of footing size

28 | P a g e
Solution :
qult  cN c   1 D f N q  0.5 2 BN


 142 .4 

5.14  17.8kN / m 1.2m 1  0
3

 2 
 387 .3kN / m 2
387 .3
qa   110 .7 kN / m 2 ;
3.5
 footing width
168 .kN / m
B  1.52 m
110 .7 kN / m 2

Example 1.10

Given :

a) A square footing located on deposit of stiff clay with unconfined

compression strength (qu) of 115 kN/m2.
b) Footing is located 1.2 m below the surface and sustain a load of 1250 kN.
Unit weight of clay is 19.60 kN/m3. Ground water has negligible effect on
the bearing capacity of the footing.
c) Determine the dimension of square footing with FS = 3.
d) Re-calculate the diameter of a circular footing used if using the same
safety factor. Footing is located 1.5 m below and sustain 1500 kN of load
has a value of qu= 124 kN/m2

Solution

qu 115kN / m2
c   57.5kN / m2 ; γ1 = γ2 = 19.6 kN/m3 ; Df = 1.2 m;
2 2

qult  1.2cN c   1D f N q  0.4 2 BN

     
 1.2 57.5kN / m 2 5.14   19.6kN / m3 1.2m 1.0  0.4 19.6kN / m3 Bm0
 378 .5kN / m 2

29 | P a g e
 qult 378.5kN / m2
qa    126 kN / m2
FS 3

Contact area needed :

1250 kN
A  9.92m2 ; B2=9.92m2; B=3.15m
126kN / m2

The possible size : 3.2m x 3.2m

Re-calculate if circular footing is used (B=3.55)

Example 1.11

Given

a) A deposit of uniform soil with soil parameter criteria as shown in Figure

1.23. (Note : most examples are at extreme cases of cohesive or non-
cohesive but the intermediate cases often referred to as c-Ǿ soil.
b) The proposed footing is located at 1.5m deep and to sustain load of 2650
kN.
c) Ground water table is very deep and its effect is negligible.

30 | P a g e
 Figure 1.23: Shallow footing in c-Ǿ soil

Determine
The dimensions of the square footing to sustain the load with factor of safety = 3.

Solution :

With Ǿ = 30°; Nc = 30; Nq = 18; Nγ = 16

First trial :

31 | P a g e
Second trial :

1.9 Contact pressure

Contact pressure is referred to as the pressure between a footing’s base and the
underlying soil below.

Contact pressure can be calculated by using the flexural formula:

Q Mxy Myx
q  
A Ix Iy

(1.14)

Where :

q = contact pressure
Q = total vertical axial load
A = footing area
Mx,My = total moment in x and y direction
x,y = distance from centroid to the outer most point where where
the contact pressure is computed along respective x and y
axes
lx,ly = moment of about x and y axes (right hand rule)

32 | P a g e
Example 1.12

Given

A footing of 1.5 m X 1.5 m in dimension with centric axial loading of 225 kN. Unit
weight of soil is 18.84 kN/m3 and the unit weight of concrete is 23.55 kN/m3. The
unconfined compression for the cohesive soil is 144 kN/m2.

Determine

1. Sketch the problem and label the necessary data.

2. Contact pressure and safety factor against bearing capacity failure.

Solution

γsoil = 18.84 kN/m3

γconcrete = 23.55 kN/m3

Figure 1.24a : Sketch of problem example 1.12

Q Mxy Myx
a. Soil contact pressure ; q   
A Ix Iy

Column load is on the centroid therefore Mx = O and My = O (no eccentricity, e)

Q = total axial vertical load on footing’s base

33 | P a g e
Q = column load + weight of footing base pad + weight of stum (pedestal) +
weight of backfill

Column load =
Weight of footing’s base =
=
=
Weight of stum =
=
=
Weight of backfill =
=

Q=225 kN

Figure 1.24b : example 1.12

Contact pressure =

c. Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure

qult  1.2cN c  D f N q  0.4BN

So :

34 | P a g e
Using c>0, Ø =0 analysis for cohesive soil, when Ø =0. Figure 4 gives Nc=5.14,
Nq=1.0, dan Nγ=0

Example 8.13

Given :

1. A footing with the size of 2 m x 2 m, Figure 1.25

2. Base of the column is pinned
3. Load on base P = 300 kN
4. Weight of concrete footing including pedestal and pad (W 1) = 42 kN
5. Weight of backfill (W 2) = 50 kN
6. Horizontal load = 18 kN
7. Bearing capacity for the base soil taken as 145 kN/m2.

35 | P a g e
Find :

1. Contact pressure and the soil pressure diagram

2. Safety factor against bearing capacity
3. Shear and moment at cross-section A-A, Figure 1.25.
4. Safety factor against sliding if the coefficient of friction = 0.40
5. Safety factor gainst overturning

Figure 1.25: Section A-A of a footing

36 | P a g e
Solution

1. Contact pressure and soil pressure diagram:

Q Mxy Myx
q  
A Ix Iy

Q = P + W 1 + W 2 = 300 + 42 + 50 = 392 kN
A = 2m X 2m = 4m2
My = 18kN x 1.5m = 27kN.m (take moment at point C).
x = 2m/2 = 1m

Iy 
2m2m3  1.33m4
12
Mxy
Mx = 0; 0
Ix

q
Q M x y M y x 392 kN
   0
27 kN .m 1m   98  20kN / m2
2
A Ix Iy 4m 1.33m 4

qright  98  20  118kN / m 2  145 kN / m 2  OK

qleft  98  20  78kN / m 2  145 kN / m 2  OK

(If ultimate bearing capacity is given then; q ult /q right > 3.0 then OK)

The pressure is as shown

37 | P a g e
8. Shear and moment at section A-A:
DE EH
From the principal of similar triangle : 
DF FG
DF  118  78  40kN / m2
2m 0.5m
EH    0.75m
2 2
FG = 2m
DE EH 0.75m
  DE   40kN / m2  15kN / m2
DF FG 2m
   
Shear A  A  0.75m  103kN / m 2 2m   12 0.75m  15kN / m 2 2m 
 154 .5kN  11.25kN  165 .75kN
 0.75m 
Moment A  A  154 .5kN    11.25kN  23  0.75m 
 2 
 57.94kN .m  5.63kN .m  63.57 kN .m

38 | P a g e
39 | P a g e
TUTORIAL

QUESTION 1

A footing with size of 3 m x 3 m constructed 1.5 m below the ground surface. The
construction of the footing was on the highly cohesive clay soil with the
unconfined compression strength of 100 kN/m2. The unit weight of the soil is
20kN/m3.
Calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil.

QUESTION 2

A square footing is to be constructed on a uniform thick deposit of clay with the

unconfined compressive strength of 150 kN/m2. The footing will be located 1.5 m
below the ground surface and to carry a total load of 1500 kN. The unit weight of
the supporting soil is 20.1 kN/m3. Effect of ground water is negligible.
Considering general shear condition and safety facor of 3.
Determine the dimension of square footing.

QUESTION 3

A footing with the size of 2.5 m x 2.5 m was buried 2 m below the ground surface
in a dense cohesionless soil. The results of laboratory and field tests on the
supporting soil shows that the soil’s unit weight is 20.4 kN/m3. Average corrected
SPT N-value beneath the footing is 37.
Compute the allowable (design) load with SF = 3.

40 | P a g e
QUESTION 4

A construction company proposed a footing that will sustain a load of 2500 kN.
The footing was constructed on a high density cohesionless. Unit weight of the
soil was 21.20 kN/m3 and the internal friction was 38 o. The footing was
constructed at 1.5 m depth.

Calculate the size of the footing if the using the safety facor of 3.

QUESTION 5

A footing was constructed as shown below. Axial vertical loading on the footing
(including column load, backfill and footing weight) was 600 kN. Horizontal load
was 50 kN and a moment of 67.5 kN-m were also applied on the footing.

Calculate the following :

a. Shear on a-a cross-section.

b. Moment on a-a cross-section.
c. Safety factor against overturning.
d. Safety factor against sliding, if the coefficient of friction 0.6.
e. Safety factor against bearing capacity of soil, if the ultimate bearing
capacity is 540 kN/m2.

41 | P a g e
42 | P a g e
 TUTORIAL 1: SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

SUBJECT : GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

CODE SUBJECT : DFC 3043 / DAC 21103

DURATIONS : 1 WEEKS

INSTRUCTIONS : ANSWER ALL

NAME :

NO. MATRIC :

(SEPARATE THIS PAGE)

43 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 2
DEEP FOUNDATIONS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this lesson, students, will be able to:

1. Explain basic criteria for estimating pile foundation capacity, (C2, PLO1).
2. Analyze safety factor for pile foundations, (C4, PLO1)
3. Compare the change on varying cross-section and soil type on the capacity of the
pile foundations, (C4, PLO1)
4. Sketch complete problem given with the necessary details, (C4, PLO1)

CHAPTER CONTENT

2.0 Types of Deep Foundation

o Deep foundation - is placed deep inside the earth; wall pier, caisson or pile
o Pile and pier; - to distribute structural loads through the weak zone of the
soil to the ground where the soil is capable of providing the desired
support.
o Caissons; - a box or space structure constructed near the site using a
systematic dredging method under the base.

44 | P a g e
2.1 Static Methods – Driven Piles

o Single pile capacity can be assessed with pile structure strength and soil
support strength.
o Pile capacity assessed with pile structure strength
o The pile needs to be strong enough to cover the load
o he strength of the pile structure depends on its size and shape
o The permissible structural strength of different pile types is determined by
the building code. Table 1 shows the permissible stresses in some pile
types based on the code.
o Pile capability assessed with ground support strength
o In addition to the strength of a pile, the pile capability is limited based on
the ground support strength.
o The load is transmitted to the ground around or around the pile friction or
adhesion between the ground and the piling edge and the load is also sent
directly to the ground below the pile end.

Qultimate = Qfriction + Qtip (2.1)

where:
Qultimate = ultimate bearing capacity of a single pile
Qfriction = bearing capacity produced by the friction
between the ground and the pile edge surface.
Qtip = bearing capacity produced by the soil under the
piling tip

o The term Qfriction in Eq. (2.1) can be evaluated by multiplying the unit skin
friction or adhesion between the soil and the sides of the pile ( f ) by the
pile’s surface (skin) area (Asurface).

45 | P a g e
 o The term Qtip can be evaluated by multiplying the ultimate bearing
capacity of the soil at the tip of the pile (q) by the area of the tip (A tip).
Hence, Eq. (2.1) can be expressed as follows:

Qultimate = f Asurface + q Atip (2.2)

2.1.1 Static Method:- Piles Driven In Sand

o In the case of piles driven in sand, skin friction between the soil and the
sides of the pile [f Asurface in Eq. (2.2)] can be evaluated by multiplying the
coefficient of friction between sand and pile surface (tan δ) by the total
horizontal soil pressure acting on the pile.
o The coefficient of friction between sand and pile surface can be obtained
from Table 1

Table 1: Coefficient of Friction between Sand and Pile material

Material Tan δ
concrete 0.45
wood 0.4
Steel (smooth) 0.2
Steel (rough, rusted) 0.4
Steel (corrugated) use tan Ǿ of sand

o The total horizontal soil pressure acting on the pile is a function of

effective vertical (overburden) pressure of soil adjacent to the pile.
o Soil pressure normally increases as depth increases.
o In the special case of piles driven in sand, however, it has been
determined that the effective vertical (overburden) pressure of soil
adjacent to a pile does not increase without limit as depth increases.
o Instead, effective vertical pressure increases as depth increases until a
certain depth of penetration is reached.

46 | P a g e
o Below this depth, which is called the critical depth and denoted Dc,
effective vertical pressure remains more or less constant.
o The critical depth is dependent on the field condition of the sand and the
pile’s size. Tests indicate that critical depth ranges from about 10 pile
diameters for loose sand to about 20 pile diameters for dense
compact sand
o Effective vertical pressure of soil adjacent to a pile varies with depth as
illustrated in Figure 23
o The term f Asurface can now be determined for a pile by multiplying the
pile’s circumference by the area under the p v versus depth curve (Figure
23) by the coefficient of lateral earth pressure (K) by the coefficient of
friction between sand and pile surface (tan δ).

f.Asurface = (Area of pv)(K)( pile circumference)(tanδ) (2.3)

o The coefficient of lateral earth pressure, (K) is assumed to vary between

0.60 and 1.25, with lower values used for silty sands and higher values for
other deposits.
o The bearing capacity at the pile tip can be calculated by using the
following equation

qtip  Pv N q* (2.4)

where Pv = effective vertical pressure adjacent to pile’s tip

Nq = bearing capacity factor (see Figure 22)

o The value of Nq is related to the angle of internal friction (φ) of the sand,
and it should, of course, be based on the value of the angle of internal
friction ofthe sand located in the general vicinity of where the pile tip will
ultimately rest. Values of Nq can then be obtained from Figure 22.

47 | P a g e
 Figure 22 : N*q values for piles
penetrating into sand.

Figure 23: Variation of

effective vertical (overburden)
pressure of soil adjacent to a
pile with depth

48 | P a g e
Example 2.1
A concrete pile is to be driven into a medium dense to dense sand. The pile’s
diameter is 30 cm, and its embedded length is 750 cm. Soil conditions are shown
in Figure 24 No groundwater was encountered, and the groundwater table is not
expected to rise during the life of the structure. Find the pile’s axial capacity if the
coefficient of lateral earth pressure (K) is assumed to be 0.95, and the factor of
safety (F.S.) is 2.

Qrekabentuk
Effective Vertical Pressure, Pv

0m

medium dense
to dense sand   Dc
K=0.95;  20.1  6
γ=20.1 kN/m3
Ǿ=38°  120.6kN / m 2
Dc=6m

750 cm 120.6 kN/m2

6m

120.6 kN/m2
7.5m
(depth,z)

Figure 24: Situation of circular pile in sand soil and Pv diagram.

Solution :

Dc=20xdia. Cerucuk=20x0.3=6m
Qultimate  f Asurface   q  Atip 

1. f Asurface   pile circumferencePv areak tan  

pile circumference  d   0.3  0.94m

area... pv 
1
120.66  120.61.5  542.7kN / m
2

49 | P a g e
 Tan δ = 0.45; (Table 1)
Q friction  f Asurface   0.94542.70.950.45  218.08kN

From equation :
2. qtip  Pv N q*  20.1 680   9648 kN / m 2 (N*q=80: from Figure 22)

D 2  0.32
Atip    0.07 m 2
4 4
Qtip  q Ahujung  96480.07   675.36kN

Qultimate = 675.36 + 218.08 = 893.44 kN

Qultimate 893.4
Qdesign    446.72kN
FS 2

Example 2.2
The same conditions as in Example 2.1, except that groundwater is located 300
cm below the ground surface. Find the pile’s axial capacity if K is 0.95, and a
factor of safety of 2 is used.

Dc=20xdia. Pile=20x0.3=6m
Qultimate  f Asurface   q  Atip 

f Asurface   pile circumferencePv areak tan  

The calculation of effective vertical pressure, Pv

At 3m : d  20.13  60.3kN / m 2

At 6m - 7.5m : 60.3  320.1  9.81  91.17 kN / m 2

50 | P a g e
 Qdesign

Effective Vertical Pressure, Pv

0m

medium dense
3m to dense sand
K=0.95;
γ=20.1 kN/m3 60.3kN/m2
Ǿ=38°
Dc=6m

750 cm
6m

91.17 kN/m2
7.5m
(depth)

Figure 25 : Situation of circular pile in sand soil with 3m

ground water level and Pv diagram

area..Pv 
1
60.33  1 60.3  91.17 3  91.171.5  454.1kN / m
2 2
with k=0.95 dan tan δ=0.45
f Asurface   0.94454.10.950.45  182.5kN

from equation :
qtip  Pv N q*  91.17 80   7293 .6kN / m 2 (N*q=80: From Figure 22)

D 2  0.32
Atip    0.07 m 2
4 4
q Atip  7293 .60.07   510.55kN

Qultimate = 182.5 + 510.55 = 693.15 kN

Qultimate 693.15
Qdesign    346.58kN
FS 2

51 | P a g e
2.1.2 Piles Driven In Clay

o Equation (2.2) also applies for piles driven in clay.

o Unit adhesion between the soil and the sides of the pile (f) in Eq. (2.2)]
can be evaluated by multiplying the cohesion of the clay (c) by the
adhesion factor ().
o The adhesion factor can be determined by using Figure 26. The term of
Eq. (2.2) can thus be evaluated by multiplying the (undisturbed) cohesion
of the clay (c) by the adhesion factor () by the surface (skin) area of the
pile (Asurface).
o The bearing capacity at the pile tip can be calculated by using the
following equation (McCarthy, 2002):

qtip  cN c  9c (2.5)

where :
qtip = bearing capacity at pile tip
c = cohesion of the clay located in the general vicinity of
where the pile
Nc = bearing capacity factor and has a value of about 9
(McCarthy, 2002)

52 | P a g e
 Figure 26: Value of α and qu for pile driven in clay

Example 2.3
Given;
1. A concrete pile with diameter of 0.3m is driven at a site as shown in Figure 27
2. The embedded length of the pile is 10m
Find capacity of the pile, using a factor of safety of 2.

53 | P a g e
 Qdesign=?

Clay:
 = 16.33kN/m3
qu = 67 kN/m2
10m

Diameter
0.3m

Figure 27: Pile driven in clay

Solution:

54 | P a g e
Example 2.4

Diberi;
A 30 cm diameter concrete pile is driven at a site as shown in Figure 28. Find
capacity of the pile, using a factor of safety of 2.

Clay soil:
6m
γ = 16.5kN/m3
qu = 67 kN/m2
10 m

Clay soil:
4m
γ = 19.8 kN/m3
qu = 192 kN/m2

Diameter 0.3m

Figure 28: Pile driven in multilayer of clay

Solution:

55 | P a g e
Example 2.5

A 0.36-m square prestressed concrete pile is to be driven in a clayey soil. The

design capacity of the pile is 360 kN. Find the necessary length of the pile if the
factor of safety is 2.

Qrdesign=360 kN

Clay:
γ = 18.1kN/m3
qu = 115 kN/m2

L = ?m

Size 0.36m x 0.36m

Figure 29: Depth of pile determination

Solution :

Qdesign  360 kN
Qultimate  FS  Qdesign  2360 kN   720 kN
qu 115
c   57.5kN / m 2
2 2
Qtip  qtip Atip  cN c Atip 
 57.5kN / m 2 90.36 m  0.36 m   67.1kN

Qultim ate  Q friction  Qtip

 Q friction  Qultim ate  Qtip  720  67.1  652 .9kN

56 | P a g e
 Q friction  f Asurface   cAsurface ;.....qu  115kN / m 2 ;...  0.76 :
 115kN / m 2 
652 .9kN  0.76  4  0.36m L
 2 
 L  10.4m

2.3 Pile-Driving Formulas

o Soft clays adjacent to piles may lose a large portion of their strength as a
result of being disturbed by pile driving. Propitiously, the disturbed clay
gains strength after driving stops.
o The original clay’s full strength is usually regained within a month or so
after pile driving has terminated.
o Ordinarily, this is not a problem because piles are not usually loaded
immediately after driving; thus, the clay has time to regain its original
strength prior to being loaded.
o In cases where piles are to be loaded immediately after driving, however,
the effect of decreased strength must be taken into account by performing
laboratory tests to determine the extent of strength reduction and rate of
strength recovery
o Slender piles driven in soft clay have a tendency to buckle when loaded.
The ultimate load for buckling of slender steel piles in soft clay can be
estimated by using the following equation (U.S. Department of the Navy,
1971):
Qultimate   cEI (2.6)

where :
Qultimate = ultimate bearing capacity of a single slender pile for
buckling in soft clay
λ = 8 for very soft clay; 10 for soft clay
c = cohesion of the soil
E = modulus of elasticity of the steel
I = moment of inertia of the cross section of the pile

57 | P a g e
o In theory, it seems possible to calculate pile capacity based on the amount
of energy delivered to a pile by the hammer and resulting penetration of
the pile. Intuitively, the greater the resistance required to drive a pile, the
greater will be the capacity of the pile to carry load.
o Hence, many attempts have been made to develop pile-driving formulas
by equating energy delivered by the hammer to work done by the pile as it
penetrates a certain distance against a certain resistance, with an
allowance made for energy losses.
o One simple and widely used pile-driving formula is known as the
Engineering-News formula. It is given as follows (Karol, 1960):
2Wr H
Qa  (2.7)
S C
where:
Qa = allowable pile capacity, lb
Wr = weight of ram, lb
H = height of fall of ram, ft
S = amount of pile penetration per blow, in./blow
C = 1.0 for drop hammer
C = 0.1 for steam hammer

o For use with SI units, Eq. (2.7) may be expressed as

1000Wr H
Qa  (2.8)
6S  C 
o with Qa computed in kN if Wr is in kN, H in m, S in mm/blow, and C = 25
for drop hammers and 2.5 for steam hammers.
o The Engineering-News formula has a built-in factor of safety of 6.
o Tests have shown that this formula is not reliable for computing pile loads,
and it should be avoided except as a rough guide (McCarthy, 2002).
o Another pile-driving formula is known as the Danish formula. It is given as
follows (McCarthy, 2002):

58 | P a g e
 eh Eh 
Qultimate  (2.9)
1
S  S0
2

where

Qultimate = ultimate capacity of the pile

eh = efficiency of pile hammer
Eh = manufacturer’s hammer energy rating
S = average penetration of the pile from the last few driving
blows
So = elastic compression of the pile

 2e E L  
1/ 2

=  h h 
 AE 
L = length of pile
A = cross-sectional area of pile
E = modulus of elasticity of pile material

Example 2.6

Given
1. The design capacity of a 12-in. steel-pipe pile is 100 kips.
2. The pile’s modulus of elasticity is 29,000 kips/in.2
3. The pile’s length is 40 ft.
4. The pile’s cross-sectional area is 16 in.2
5. The hammer is a Vulcan 140C with a weight of pile hammer ram of 14,000 lb
and manufacturer’s hammer energy rating of 36,000 ft-lb.
6. Hammer efficiency is assumed to be 0.80.

59 | P a g e
Required
1. What should be the average penetration of the pile from the last few driving
blows?
2. How many blows/ft for the last foot of penetration are required for the
design capacity, using the Danish formula.

Solution :

eh Eh 
 2e E L 
1/ 2
Qultim ate  ;...... S0   h h  
1
S  S0  AE 
2 with
e E  1  20.80 36 ft  kips 40 ft 
1/ 2

 0.070 ft  0.84in
S  h h  S0
Qultim ate 2  
 16in 2 29,000 kips / in 2 
  

Therefore :
eh Eh  1  0.836 ft  kips (40 ft )  1
S  S0     2 0.084in   0.73in / blows
Qultimate 2  300 kips 

Number of blows required for last foot af penetration:

0.3in / ft
  16blows / ft
0.019in / blows

2.4 Pile Load Tests

o To determine or verify the design capsity piles.
o Pile load test are performed on test piles during the design stage to check
the design capacity.
o Data collected from pile load test are used in the development of criteria
for the foundation installation.
o First drive test piles;- They should be driven at a location where soil
conditions are known (such as near a borehole) and where soil conditions
are relatively poor..
60 | P a g e
o Both test piles and the method of driving them should be exactly the same
as will be used in the construction project.
o A penetration record should be kept as each test pile is driven.
o Load the test pile;-
o - Test piles in sands, however, may be loaded several days after they are
driven.
o - Test piles in clays should not be loaded until some time (at least several
weeks) has passed after piles are driven.
o Test piles may be loaded by adding dead weight or by hydraulic jacking.

Schematic setup for test-pile loading:

(a) using hydraulic jack acting against anchored reaction frame;

61 | P a g e
 (b) Using weighted platform.

o The total load on test piles should be 200% of the proposed design load.
o In any event,a record of the load and corresponding settlement must be
kept as each test pile is loaded and unloaded.
o The load should be applied to the pile in increments of 25% of the total
test load.

Load

Loading
Settlement

Rebound

Unloading

Figure 30: Typical load versus settlement graph

62 | P a g e
 o From this graph, the relationship between the load and net settlement can
be obtained.
o Ordinates along the loading curve of Figure 30 give gross settlement.
o The allowable pile load is generally determined based on criteria specified
by applicable building codes.

2.5 Hiley Formula

o In theory, it seems possible to calculate pile capacity based on the amount
of energy delivered to a pile by the hammer and resulting penetration of the
pile.
o Method that widely used in consturction at Malaysia.
o One simple and widely used pile-driving formula is:
WH
Driving resistance, R  (2.30)
1
S C
2

Where  

k W  e2 P 
dan C  CC  C P  Cq (2.31)
W P

P – weight of pile ;
W – weight of hammer
e – coeffiecient
S – distance driving set (can be measured during driving
process)
Cp dan Cq – Elastic rebound and can be measured (using pencil at the
pile during driving process)
k – Figure 10.12
CC – Figure 10.13
e – Figure 10.14

63 | P a g e
 Figure 31: Measurement elastic rebound, Cp+Cq of a pile

Table 2: Value of k
Hammer k
Drop hammer operated by trigger realese 1.0
Drop hammer operated by trigger realesing the 0.8
winch cluth and overhauling the rope
Single-acting steam or compressed air hammer. 0.9

Figure 32: Value of CC and driving stress with viariation condition set on site

64 | P a g e
 Table 3: value of e
Type of Head Condition Drop Double-
Pile Single- acting
acting Hammer
Hammer
Reinforced Helmet with composite plastic or
Concrete greenheart dolly and packing on top of 0.4 0.5
pile
Helmet with timber dolly (not
0.25 0.4
greenheart), and packing on top of pile
Hammer direct on pile with pad only - 0.5
Steel Driving cap with standard plastic or
0.5 0.5
greenheart dolly
Driving cap with timber dolly (not
0.3 0.3
greenheart).
Hammer direct on pile - 0.5
Timber Hammer direct on pile 0.25 0.4

65 | P a g e
TUTORIAL 2

S1 A 12-in.-diameter concrete pile is driven at a site as shown in Figure33.

What is the pile’s design capacity if the factor of safety is 2?

Clay :
15 ft
qu = 1200 lb/ft2
γ = 102 lb/ft3
40 ft

25 ft Clay :
qu = 4800 lb/ft2
γ = 126 lb/ft3

Diameter 12 in.

Figure 33: Circular plie concrete in layer of soil

S2 Given:
1. A 0.36-m square prestressed concrete pile is to be driven in a clayey soil
(see Figure 33).
2. The design capacity of the pile is 360 kN.

QDesign = 360 kN

Figure 34: Find L pile

Clay
qu = 115 kN/m2
γ = 18.1 kN/m3

L=?

0.36m square

66 | P a g e
S3 Design capacity for steel pile size 400 mm is 555 kN. Length pile is 13 m
and cross-section area for that pile is 103.23cm2. Hammer that used is
Vulcan 140 C with weight 62.23 kN and the energy level is
50 m-kN.

Assume that, effciency of hammer is 0.75. Modulus elasticity pile is

199 X 109 N/m2.

Find :
Average penetration for 0.6m and last 0.3m

S4 A concrete pre-stress pile , size 0.36 x 0.36. Hammer used is Vulcan 140
C with weight 62.23 kN with energy level 50 m-kN.

Distance of driving pile 20 mm and elastic rebound is 15 mm. When the

drive used compressed air pressure driver acting twinly and only used
pad. Weight of unit concrete = 4 kN/m3. Determine how much drive
resistance exprienced by that pile.

State all your opinion that have been use by you

67 | P a g e
 TUTORIAL 2: DEEP FOUNDATION

SUBJECT : GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

CODE SUBJECT : DFC 3043 / DAC 21103

DURATIONS : 1 WEEKS

INSTRUCTIONS : ANSWER ALL

NAME :

NO. MATRIC :

(SEPARATE THIS PAGE)

68 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 3
LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this lesson, students, will be able to:

1. Explains methods of lateral earth pressure (C2, PLO1).
2. Analyzes the safety factor of retaining wall with Rankine and Coulomb
method. (C4, PLO1)
3. Draw the problem of retaining structure as in the question correctly , (C4,
PLO1)

CHAPTER CONTENT

3.0 Introduction
Knowledge in lateral earth pressure is needed to design the retaining wall and
other retaining structures. Three categories of earth pressure are:
(i) Earth pressure at rest
(ii) Active earth pressure
(iii) Passive earth pressure

69 | P a g e
3.2 Rankine’s Theory
o This theory for determining lateral earth pressures is based on several
assumptions; no adhesion or friction between wall and soil.
o Lateral pressure computed from Rankine’s theory are limited to vertical
walls.
o Failure is assumed to occur in the form of a sliding wedge along an
assumed failure plan defined as a function of the soil’s angle of internal
friction (Ǿ )
o The equations for computing lateral earth pressure based on Rankine’s
theory are as follow:

- Active earth pressure, Pa :

Pa  12 H 2 K a 3.1

Where,

kos  
kos 2   kos 2
kos  kos   kos  
Ka  Kos . 3.2
2 2

- Passive earth pressure , Pp :

Pp  12 H 2 K p 3.3

Where,

kos  
kos 2   kos 2
kos  kos   kos  
K p  Kos . 3.4
2 2

Where,
Pa – Active earth pressure
Pp – Passive earth pressure
γ – Unit weight of the backfill soil
β – Angle between backfill surface line and a horizontal line
Ǿ - Angle of internal friction of the backfill soil

70 | P a g e
 Ka – Coefficient of active earth pressure
Kp – Coefficient of passive earth pressure
H – Height of the wall

o If the backfill surface is level, angle β = 0, and equation 3.2 and 3.4 revert
to:
1  sin 
Ka  ; and 3.5
1  sin 
1  sin 
Kp  3.6
1  sin 

o Or by trigonometric identities:
1  sin   
Ka   tan 2  45   ; and 3.7
1  sin   2

1  sin   
Kp   tan 2  45   3.8
1  sin   2

o Pa and Pp is a force per unit length

Figure 35: Lateral earth pressure for Rankine’s theory: (a) back side vertical; (b)
back side inclined

71 | P a g e
Example 3.1
Given the retaining wall is as shown in Figure 36

γ = 18 kN/m3
Ǿ = 30°
c=0
9m
Pa
y

Figure 36: Wall with the active earth pressure

By using Rankine’s theory, identify the total active earth pressure per meter of
wall and its point of application.
Solution:
1  sin 
Pa  12 H 2 K a ; K a  (For level Backfill),
1  sin 
1  sin  1  sin 30
Ka    0.333
1  sin  1  sin 30

Pa  12 H 2 K a  1
2 18kN / m 9m 0.333  242.76kN / m
3 2

The point of application is at y = H/3 = 9/3 = 3 m from the base of the wall.

72 | P a g e
Example 3.2
The retaining wall shown in Figure 37, with the slope 15° behind it.

γ = 18 kN3/m3
Ǿ = 30°
c = 0° Pa
9.0 m
15°

y
90°

Figure 37: Wall with the inclined active earth pressure

Identify the total active earth pressure per meter of wall and its point of
application, by Rankine’s theory:

Solution:

kos  
kos 2   kos 2
kos  kos   kos  
Pa  H K a ; K a
1
2
2
 Kos .
2 2

kos15  kos 15  kos 30 

2 2

kos15  kos 15  kos 30 

Ka  Kos15.  0.373
2 2

Pa  12 H 2 K a  1
2 18kN / m 9m 0.373  271.92kN / m
3 2

The point of application is at y=H/3=9/3=3m from the base of the wall.

73 | P a g e
 Exercise:
Identify the total active earth pressure per meter width of wall for the condition
in Figure 38.
C β=10°
A
B

γ = 19kN/m3
Ǿ=35°
W c=0

H = 6.10 + h

6.1m
Pa
Pa(v)
β=10°

Pa(h)
90°
85°

Figure 38: Retaining wall with dimension and soil parameter; Rankine theory

3.3 Coulomb’s Theory

The equations for computing lateral earth pressure based on Coulomb’s

theory are as follow Pa  12 H 2 K a

o Where,

74 | P a g e
 sin 2    
Ka  3.9
sin    sin     
2

sin 2  sin    1  
 sin    sin     

and
Pp  12 H 2 K p

o Where,

sin 2    
Kp  3.10
sin    sin     
2

sin 2  sin    1  
 sin    sin     

o Where,

Pa – Active earth pressure

γ – Unit weight of the backfill soil
α – Angle between back side of wall and a horizontal line
β – Angle between backfill surface lines and a horizontal line
Ǿ – Angle of internal friction of the backfill soil
δ – Angle of wall friction
H – Height of the wall
Ka – Coefficient of active earth pressure
Kp – Coefficient of passive earth pressure
Pp – Passive earth pressure

75 | P a g e
 Figure 39: Sketch showing failure plane for Coulomb’s theory

Figure 40: Sketch showing direction of active pressure resultant for Coulomb’s
theory

76 | P a g e
Figure 41: Coefficient for computation of active earth pressure for vertical walls
supporting cohesionless backfill with a horizontal surface.

Example 8.4
A retaining wall shown in Figure 42, calculate the active earth pressure by
using Coulomb theory.

γ = 18 kN3/m3
Ǿ = 30°
δ = 25°

Figure 42: Retaining wall for Coulomb’s theory

77 | P a g e
 Solution:

Method 1: Calculation
sin 2 90  30 
Ka   0.296 (Please check)
sin 30  25sin 30  0 
2

sin 2 90 sin 90  251  
 sin 90  25 sin 90  0 

Pa  1
2 18kN / m 9m 0.296   215.8kN / m
3 2

Method 2: Using coefficient diagram

When δ=25° dan Ǿ=30°; so,
 kos   kos 25 
Pa  1 2   0.27;....Pa  1 2
 0.27;....Pa  217.7kN / m
 2 H   2 189 

Example 3.5

Given:
A retaining wall was constructed with a slope 10 ° backfill soil behind it. Identify
the active earth pressure by using Coulomb’s theory.

β=10°

γ = 19 kN3/m3
Ǿ = 35°
δ = 20°
c=0 kN/m2

90°

20° 85°
95°

Figure 43: The backfill wall with slope for Coulomb’s theory

78 | P a g e
 Solution:
With γ=19kN/m3; H=9m; α=85°; Ǿ=35°; δ=20°; β=10°
sin 2 85  35 
Ka   0.318
sin 35  20 sin 35  10  
2

sin 2 85 sin 85  20 1  
 sin 85  20 sin 85  10  

Pa  1
2 19kN / m 9m 0.318   244.7kN / m
3 2

 kos   kos 20 

Pa  1 2   0.24;....Pa  1 2
 0.24;....Pa  196.5kN / m
 2 H   2 19 9 
Slightly different compared to Pa result (Calculation Method) because of inclined
backfill.

3.4 Effects of a surcharge load upon active thrust

o A surcharge (uniform load and/or concentrated load) imposed on the soil,

adds to the lateral earth pressure exerted against the retaining wall by the
backfill.
o This added pressure must be considered when the retaining wall is being
designed.
o Calculate using the equation:
P'  qHK a 3.11

Where,
P’ – Additional active earth pressure as a result of uniform load
surcharge
q – Uniform load (surcharge) on backfill
H – Height of wall
Ka – Coefficient of active earth pressure

79 | P a g e
 P’

Figure 44: Illustration the computation of pressure due to a surcharge in the form
of a uniform load

All the active pressure:

Horizontal : H = Pa + P’
Vertical : V = W + qb

Resultant of active pressure = H 2 V 2

Direction = tan-1(V/H)

Exercise:

A vertical wall is 6.1 m high and retains a cohesionless soil with γ = 19 kN/m3
and Ǿ = 28º.

The top of the soil is horizontal and level with the top of the wall. The top soil
surface carries a uniformly distributed load of 50 kN/m2.

80 | P a g e
 Identify the total active pressure on the wall and point of action of the total
active earth pressure by using Rankine theory.

q =48 kN/m2

γ = 19 kN3/m3
Ǿ = 28°
P’ (resultant)

6.1 m R
Pa (resultant)
h=2.49m
90° O

Figure 45: Retaining wall with the combination of active load and uniform
distribution load

3.5 Retaining Wall

o Gravity wall
- A simple retaining wall
- Depends on its weight to achieve stability
- Often built of plain concrete and are bulky

o Cantilever wall

- A taller walls with large lateral pressure and economic

- More slender and must be adequately reinforced with steel

o Material placed behind a retaining wall is commonly referred as backfill.

81 | P a g e
3.6 Earth Pressure Computation

o To design a retaining wall, the earth pressure acting on the wall must be
determined.
o Retaining wall design based on active earth pressure.
o The earth pressures for walls less than 6 m high was obtained from
Figure 46, 47 & 48 that developed from Rankine’s theory.

3.7 Stability Analysis

o Procedure in retaining wall design is to assume a trial shape and size for
stability.
o If a wall is stable, it means that the wall does not move.
o 3 ways of retaining wall movement:
- Horizontally (by sliding)
- Rotation ( by overturning)
- Vertically (by excessive settlement and/or bearing capacity failure)
o Standard procedure is to check for stability with respects to each of the
three ways or movement to ensure that an adequate factor of safety (F.S)
is present in each case.
o 3 factor of safety for the stability analysis are as follow:
 (F.S) sliding = (Sliding resistance force)
Sliding force

 (F.S) overturning = (Total righting moment about toe)

Total overturning moment about toe

 (F.S) bearing capacity = (Soil’s ultimate bearing capacity)

Actual maximum contact (base) pressure

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o Some common minimum factors of safety for sufficient stability are as
follow:

 (F.S)sliding = 1.5
(If the passive earth pressure of the soil
at the toe in front of the wall is
neglected).
= 2.0
(If the passive earth pressure of the soil
at the toe in front of the wall is included)

 (F.S)overturning = 1.5
(If use granular backfill soil)
= 2.0
(If use cohesive backfill soil)

 (F.S)bearing capacity failure = 3.0

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Figure 46: Earth pressure charts for retaining walls less than 6 m high.

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Figure 47: Earth pressure charts for retaining walls less than 6 m high.

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 Figure 48: Earth pressure charts for retaining walls less than 6 m high.

Table 4: Description of backfill soil types for retaining wall less than 6m high.
Soil Type Description
1 Course-grained soil without admixture of fine soil particles, very
free-draining (clean sand, gravel or broken stone)
2 Coarse-grained soil of low permeability, owing to admixture of
particles of silt size.
3 Fine silty sand; granular materials with conspicuous clay
content, or residual soil with stones
4 Soft or very soft clay, organic silt, or soft silty clay;
5 Medium or stiff clay that may be placed in such a way that a
negligible amount of water will enter the spaces between the
chunks during floods or heavy rains

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Example 3.7
Given:
1. The retaining wall shown in Figure 49 is to be constructed of
concrete having a unit weight 23.6kN/m3. The angle of the backfill
material is 15º.
2. The retaining wall is to support a deposit of granular soil that has
the following properties:
γ = 18kN/m3 ; Ǿ = 30°; c = 0
3. The coefficient of base friction, μ=0.55
4. The foundation soil’s ultimate bearing capacity is 622 kN/m2

γ = 18kN/m3
Ǿ=30°
W c=0

H = 6.1 + h

6.1m

Figure 49: Retaining wall with the surface that sliding to backfill soil

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Required:
Check the stability of the proposed wall; that is, check the factor of safety
against:
1. sliding
2. overturning
3. bearing capacity failure

Solution:

C
β=15°

0.16m

Pa
Pa(v)
β=15°

Pa(h)
6.1m

1 2 3
6.26/3=2.09m

1.22m 1.22m 0.61m

Figure 50: Analysis of retaining wall using Rankine’s Method

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From Figure 50:
H  BC  6.1m  0.61 tan 15  6.26m

kos15    0.373 (please check!!!!)

kos 2 15  kos 2 30
kos15  kos 15  kos 30 
K a  Kos15.
2 2

Pa  12 H 2 K a  1
2 18kN / m 6.26m 0.373  131.55kN / m
3 2

(Pa acts parallel to the surface of backfill)

Horizontal component; Pa ( h)  131.55kN / mkos15  127.07kN / m

Vertical component; Pa (v )  131.55kN / m(sin 15)  34.05kN / m

Wall was divided into 4 segment for the next calculation:

Component Weight of component (kN/m) = γ X Moment arm Righting
Area from A (m) moment
(measure from about A
toe) (kN.m/m)
1 (23.6kN/m3)(1/2)(1.22m)(6.1m)=87.82 2/3(1.22m)=0.813 71.4
2 (23.6kN/m3)(1.22m)(6.1m)=175.63 1.22 + 321.4
1.22/2=1.83
3 (23.6kN/m3)(1/2)(0.61m)(6.1m)=43.91 1.22 + 1.22 + 115.92
0.61(1/3) = 2.64
4 (18kN/m3)(1/2)(0.61m)(6.26m)=34.37 1.22 + 1.22 + 97.95
0.61(2/3) = 2.85
Pv 34.05 1.22 + 1.22 + 0.61 103.85
= 3.05
ΣV = 375.78
ΣMr =
710.55

Calculation for overturning moment, M o :

Mo = Pa(h)(H/3) = 127.07kN/m(6.26m/3) = 265.15 m-kN/m

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Check 1 : Sliding
(F.S) sliding = (Sliding resistance force)
Sliding force

  V  0.55375 .78kN / m 
   1.63  1.5....OK
Pa ( h ) 127 .07 kN / m

Check 2 : Overturning
(F.S) overturning = (Total righting moment about toe)
Total overturning moment about toe


M r

710.55m  kN / m  2.68  1.5.......OK
M o 265 .15m  kN / m

(ok, for backfill granular soil)

Check 3: Bearing capacity failure

Base pressure calculation:

Location of Resultant R (=ΣV) if R acts at x form the point A (toe)

x
M A

M  M
r o

710.55  265.15  1.18m
V V 375.78
B 1.22  1.22  0.61 B 3.05
e x  1.18  0.345    0.508......OK
2 2 6 6
Means, R acts within the middle third of the base

Using the flexural formula (from chapter shallow foundation)

Q Mxy Myx
q  
A Ix Iy

Where,

Q = Resultant R = ΣV = 375.78kN/m

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 A = 3.05m(1m) = 3.05m2 (assume for 1m length of the wall)
Mx=0 ( assume one-way bending)
My=Qxe=375.78kN(0.345m)=129.64m-kN
x=3.05/2 = 1.53m
bh 3 1m 3.05m 
3
Iy    2.36 m 4
12 12

q
375.78kN
0
129.64m  kN 1.53m
2
3.05m 2.36m4
q L  123 .21kN / m 2  84.05kN / m 2  207 .26 kN / m 2
q R  123 .21kN / m 2  84.05kN / m 2  39.16 kN / m 2

Hence, the FS of bearing capacity is:

(F.S) bearing capacity = (Soil’s ultimate bearing capacity)
Actual maximum contact (base) pressure

622 kN / m 2
  3.00  3.0 ….. ok.
207 .26 kN / m 2

qultimate = 622kN/m2

Example : If qallowed = 210kN/m2 > 207.26 OK

Note : If given qallowed; compare it; qL< qallowed......OK

Exercise:
Given:
1. A retaining wall as in Figure 51
2. The backfill material is Type 1soil (Figure 46, 47&48)
3. Unit weight = 18.85kN/m3 dan angle of the backfill material is
Ǿ=37° (Granular soil).
4. The coefficient of base friction is 0.45

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 5. Allowable soil pressure is 140 kN/m2
6. The unit weight of the concrete 23.6 kN/m3
Required:
1. Check the factor of safety agains sliding. Analyze both without and
with passive eart pressure at the toe
2. The factor of safety against overturning
3. The factor of safety against failure of the foundation soil

0.7m

Backfill Material Type

1 (Figure 46,47&48)
3.96m

5.49m

1 3
Ph=71.98kN/m

4
0.91m 1.44m

0.91m 5.49/3=1.83
m
0.7m 2

3.05m

Figure 51: Analysis retaining wall by using Figure 46,47&48; Rankine Method

92 | P a g e
Solution:

From figure 46,47&48:

Type soil 1, then : kh = 4.71 kN/m2/m,
so Ph  1
2
4.71kN / m 2

/ m 5.49m   71.98kN / m
2

Pv = ½ kv H2, with the value of β = 0º, Kv = 0

So Pv = 0

Compo Weight of component (kN/m) = γ Moment arm from A Righting

-nent X Area (m) moment
(measure from toe) about A
(kN.m/m)
1

Calculation for overturning moment , M o :

Check 1 : Sliding(without passive earth pressure)

Check 2 : Sliding( with passive earth pressure)

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 Sliding resistance = passive earth pressure,Pp + base friction

Check 3: Overturning

Check 4: bearing capacity of the base

Location of resultant R (=ΣV) if R acts at x from point A (toe)

Using the flexural formula (from chapter shallow foundation)

Q Mxy Myx
q  
A Ix Iy

Where
Q = Resultant R = ΣV = 286kN/m
A = 3.05m(1m) = 3.05m2 (assume for 1m width of the wall)
Mx=0 (assume one-way bending)

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TUTORIAL 3

1. An 8 m high vertical retaining wall supports a deposit of sand having a

level backfill. A tank was constructed behind this retaining wall and the
uniform load produced is 62 kN/m2. Soil properties is as listed below:

Unit weight = 19.2 kN/m3

Internal friction = 34°
Cohesion = 0

Calculate:
(a) The total active earth pressure by using the Rankine
method.
(b) The point of total pressure following the Rankine method.
(c) Sketch this problem
(d) Total active earth pressure by using Coulomb method if the
angle of internal friction between retaining wall and soil
backfill is 20°.

2. An L- shaped retaining wall with Type 2 backfill soil is as shown in Figure

3.16. Its unit weight is 19.6 kN/m3. The coefficient of base friction is 0.46
and allowable soil pressure for the foundation soil is 200 kN/m2.
Determine:
(a) Factor of safety against overturning
(b) Factor of safety against sliding with and without passive earth
pressure
(c) Check the ultimate bearing capacity of soil’s foundation

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 0.3m

1.4 m

0.6 m

0.3 m

1.0 m

Figure 52: L- shaped retaining wall

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 TUTORIAL 3: LETERAL EARTH PRESSURE

SUBJECT : GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

CODE SUBJECT : DFC 3043 / DAC 21103

DURATIONS : 1 WEEKS

INSTRUCTIONS : ANSWER ALL

NAME :

NO. MATRIC :

(SEPARATE THIS PAGE)

97 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 4
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SLOPES

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

1. Calculate factor of safety fot slope using Culmann Method, (C3, PLO1)
2. Sketching problems such as the slope in the direction in question given, (C4,
PLO1)
3. Analyze slope stability using graph paper for Slices Method, (C4, PLO1)

CHAPTER CONTENT

4.0 Introduction

o Mass of soil has an inclined surface, the potential always exists for part of
the soil mass to slide from higher location to a lower one.
o Sliding will occur if shear stress developed in the soil exceed the
corresponding shear strength of the soil.
o The safety factor (FS) is usually used to measure the degree of stability of
the slope.
o There are several techniques available to calculate the FS however this
module will show two common methods namely the Culmann Method and
the Slices Method.

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4.1 Culmann Method

Figure 53: Sketch showing assumed failure plane in the Culmann method

o In the Culmann method, the assumption is made that failure (sliding) will
occur along a plane that passes through the toe of the fill. Such a plane is
indicated in figure 53.
o Basic formula is as follows:
FSc – factor of safety for cohesion;
FSØ – factor of safely for angle of internal friction;
c
The developed cohesion, c d  ; (11.1)
FS c
tan 
The developed coefficient of friction, tan  d  (11.2)
FS

 H 
h    sin     (11.3)
 sin  

1  H 
W    L  sin      (11.4)
 2   sin  
H 1  cos  d 
cd  dan (11.5)
4 sin  cos d

4cd sin  cos d

H (11.6)
 1  cos  d 
where :

99 | P a g e
 H – safe depth of cut
cd – developed cohesion
β – angle from horozontal to cut surface (figure 53)
Ød – developed angle of internal friction of the soil
γ – unit weight of the soil

Example 4.1

Given : A vertical cut is to be made through a soil mass. The soil to be cut has
the following properties:
Unit weight , γ = 16.5 kN/m3
Cohesion , c = 25 kN/m2
Angle of internal friction, Ø = 21°

Required : Safe depth of cut (H) in the soil, by the Culmann method, using a
factor of safety of 2.
(assume usually FS=FSc = FSØ=2)
Solution :
c 25kN / m 2 tan  tan 21
cd    12.5kN / m 2 ; tan  d    0.192
FS c 2 FS 2

d  tan 1 0.192  10.87 ; β=90°(vertical cut)

H
4c d sin  cos d

 
4 12.5kN / m 3 sin 90 cos10.87
 3.66m
 1  cos   d  16.5kN / m 3 1  cos90  10.87
If β is decrease H can be increase

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Example 4.2

Given :
A 1.8 m deep vertical-wall trench is to be dug in soil without shoring. If the soil
properties is as follows:
Unit weight, γ = 19 kN/m3
Cohesion, c = 20.2 kN/m2
Angle of internal friction, Ø = 28°

Required : FS of this trench, using the Culmann method

Solution : using trial and error

Try FSØ=1.0

tan  tan 28
tan d    tan 28;...d  28;.....  90..( for .a.vertical .wall)
FS 1.0

4cd sin 90 cos 28

1.8m   cd  5.14kN / m 2
19kN / m 1  cos90  28
3

c c 20.2
cd   FS c    3.93
FS c c d 5.14

Because [FSc=3.93] ≠ [FSØ=1.0] another trial factor of safety must be

attemted

Try FSØ=2.0

tan  tan 28
tan  d    0.2659;... d  14.89;..
FS 2.0

4cd sin 90 cos14.89

1.8m   cd  6.57 kN / m 2
19kN / m 1  cos90  14.89
3

c c 20.2
cd   FS c    3.07
FS c c d 6.57
101 | P a g e
 Because [FSc=3.07] ≠ [FSØ=2.0] another trial factor of safety must be
attemted

Try FSØ=3.0
tan  tan 28
tan d    0.177;...d  10.05;..
FS 3.0

4cd sin 90 cos10.05

1.8m   cd  7.17 kN / m2
19kN / m 1  cos90  10.05
3

c c 20.2
cd   FSc    2.82
FSc cd 7.17
Please try again FSØ = 3.0 and plot it as Figure 54:

Figure 54: FSØ versus FSc

The values of FSc and FSØ are plotted in figure 54, from which the applicable
factor of safety of about 2.84 can be read.

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4.2 Method of Slices
o The assumption was made in the Culmann method that failure (sliding)
would occur along a plane that passes through the toe of the slope. It is
probably more likely, and observations suggest, that failure will occur along
a curved surface (rather than a plane) within the soil. (assuming failure
occurs along a curved surface)
o The firs step in applying the method od slices is to draw to scale a cross
section of the slope such as that shown in figure 55.
o Soil contained between the trial surface and the slope is then divided into a
number of vertical slices of equal width. Figure 55.
o The weight of soil within each slice is calculated by multiplying the slice’s
volume by the soil’s unit weight. (This problem is , of course, three-
dimensional; however, by assuming a unit thickness throughout the
computations, the problem can be treated as two-dimensional).

Figure 55: Sketch showing assumed curved failure surface for mathod of slices

103 | P a g e
 Figure 56: Sketch showing forces on a single slice in method of slices

o Where
W – weight of soil in one slices
Wn – normal weight components with sliced bases
Wp – weight component parallel to the base of the slice, it is
parallel component that tends to cause sliding.
o Cohesion force = cohesion value,c X length of the failure surface, L
o Friction force = W n X tan Ø
o Total force tending to cause sliding = Σwsinα
o Total friction force resisting sliding = ΣwcosαtanØ
Therefore :
cL   W cos tan 
Factor of safety, FS  (11.7)
W sin 

104 | P a g e
Example 4.3

Given : A slope as shown in Figure 55

Dimensional and soil parameters:

Length of the failure surface = 10.8 m

Angle of internal friction, Ø = 5°
Cohesion, c = 19.5 kN/m2

Required : Factor of safety of the slope along this particular trial surface.

Table 5: The shearing component and the normal component of each slice’s
weigth are tabulated as follows:

105 | P a g e
Solution :

With c=19.5kN/m2; L=10.8m; Ø=5°

W cos  5.323  21.561  36.580  45.502  49.071  46.543  33.755  1.353  239.69kN / m

W sin    0.937  0.758  1.279  10.736  21.859  27.956  32.714  14.126  106.975kN / m

So:

FS 
   
cL  W cos tan  19.15kN / m3 10.8m   239 .69kN / m3 tan 5
  2.06
W sin  106 .975 kN / m

It should be emphasized that the computed factor of safety 2.20 is for the given
trial surface, which is not necessarily the weakest surface.

The use of the SlopeW program by Geo-studio software can locate this most
critical surface.

Note :

Given a scaled drawing, the value of W can be

obtained by drawing accurately and searching for
each segment within the predetermined unit

Angles α can also be measured by the same figure.

W  (area..of .each..segment)  ( ..soil ..slope)

106 | P a g e
Figure 57: Examples of slope failure on JB - Kota Tinggi highway

107 | P a g e
TUTORIAL 4:

1. Calculate SF for the slopes below using the following method :

(a) Culmann method

(b) Slices method (use graph paper and the appropriate scale)

2. Calculate SF for the slope where the value of the shear and normal
component values are as listed in the following table.
The values of soil parameters are as follows
Length of the failure surface = 12 m
Angle of internal friction, Ø = 15°
Cohesion, c = 10.77 kN/m2

Note : Use graph paper to completion

108 | P a g e
 TUTORIAL 4: STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SLOPE

SUBJECT : GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

CODE SUBJECT : DFC 3043 / DAC 21103

DURATIONS : 1 WEEKS

INSTRUCTIONS : ANSWER ALL

NAME :

NO. MATRIC :

(SEPARATE THIS PAGE)

109 | P a g e
REFERENCES

1. Amir Khan Suwandi, Mohd Nazri Mohidin & Zaihasra Abu Talip: Modul
Kejuruteraan Geoteknik, Penerbit UTHM, 2012.
2. Amir Khan Suwandi, Mohd Nazri Mohidin & Zaihasra Abu Talip: Modul
Kejuruteraan Geoteknik, Penerbit UTHM, 2007., Call Number :TA705.4.M3
.A44 2007.
3. Braja, M D,: Principle of Geotechnical Engineering, McGrawHill,2010., Call
Number: (TA710 .D37 2010).
4. Braja, M D,: Principle of Foundation Engineering, McGrawHill,2011., Call
Number : (TA775 .D37 2011)
5. Cheng Liu & Jack B. Evett,; Soils and Foundations, Prentice Hall; 2008., N Call
Number: TA710 .L58 2008.
6. R.F Craig, Soil Mechanics, Chapman and Hall.
7. Rodrigo Salgado : The Engineering of foundations, Mc Graw Hill, 2008. Call
Number: (TA775 .S34 2008)

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