RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The starfish has a water vascular system in which the respiratory exchange
between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs. The oxygen enters the water vascular system through the
tube feet as the carbon dioxide exits the body.Gas exchange occurs at the folds of skin on the starfish’s
dorsal side, exchanging oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen.

Respiration or gas exchange takes place through the thin skin on the ends of the tube feet, as well
as in the dermal gills or papulae. These gills are lined with cilia that move to produce a current. The
current brings fresh water so the starfish can absorb oxygen and freshens the surrounding water where
the starfish may have just excreted carbon dioxide

The papulae are the chief respiratory organs. They are situated on the aboral surface and are
highly contractile. The outer as well as inner surface of the epithelial cells play a major role in creating a
respiratory water currents in sea water

The tube feet are thin -walled ad always in touch with sea water. The oxygen travels through the tube
feet into the water vascular system. Thesea star’s ventilation process mostly focuses around the tube
feet. Here, the oxygen enters the starfish and the carbon dioxide leaves. The sea star breathes through its
tiny tube feet on the underside of its five arms. They function as gills, as well as enabling movement.
The papulae, also known as the dermal gills help get exchange gases and get rid of nitrogen while the
coelom are canals that run through the starfish and fills with water. The tube feet connect with the canals

Starfish rely on osmosis, the process of particles moving across a membrane, in order to gather
oxygen from the surrounding water and dispel carbon dioxide. The hole on the top of their bodies is
called madreporite. Water is gathered through the madreporite and fills a cavity in the center of the
starfish's body called the coelom. The coelom is intersected by a number of body canals that run from
the center of the starfish to the tips of each arm. These canals fill with the water from the coelom. The
tube feet that are connected to these canals also fill with water. Carbon dioxide then flows through the
thin skin of the starfish's tube feet and body into the surrounding water while oxygen travels through the
skin membrane and into the starfish's body. The water-vascular system, the network of water-filled
canals that intersect the starfish's body, then transport the oxygen throughout the starfish. The water-
vascular system does the same thing with nutrients from the starfish's meals and therefore acts as the
starfish's respiratory, circulatory and digestive system.
Because the oxygen is allowed to move freely in the water vascular system., the starfish is classified
as an Open Respiratory System.
 The pathway for sea stars respiration is as follows: Madreporite and/or tube feet papulae ->
coelom -> water vascular system

NERVOUS SYSTEM

A nervous system has three main functions: (1) to collect sensory input from the body and
external environment, (2) to process and interpret the sensory input (3) to respond appropriately to the
sensory input. The nervous systems of echinoderms, however, is less complicated.

Echinoderms do not have a central brain. Echinoderms all have a network of nerves called nerve
plexus. These nerves run intertwined under the surface of an Echinoderm's skin. Although the
echinoderms do not have many well-defined sensory inputs, they are sensitive to touch, light,
temperature, orientation, and the status of water around them. Sense is cause by sensitivity in the tube
feet of Echinoderms which line the undersides of their bodies and eye spots located throughout the
body. The eye spots each consist of a mass of ocelli, consisting of pigmented epithelial cells that
respond to light intensity, and are lined with sensory cells in between them. Each ocellus is covered by a
cuticle that both protects them through it thickness and acts as a lens with its transparency.

The star fish is categorized as having a central core located around its mouth/anus with multiple
arms branching out of it numbering from normally 5 to the rare 50. In a starfish, the nervous system is
characterized by a nerve ring that surrounds the mouth. A radial nerve branches off of the nerve ring and
extends to each arm: a central nerve ring presently lines the esophagus which sends radial nerves into
each of the arms, often parallel with the branchesof the water vascular system. The ring nerves and
radial nerves coordinate the sea star's balance and directional systems. The tube feet, spines, and
pedicellariae found on sea stars are sensitive to touch, while light sensitivity is felt by eye spots.

Eye spots number from 80 to 200 on each end of a star fish's arm. In locating odor sources, such
as food. tube feet at the tips of the rays are sensitive to chemicals excreted by consumables.
In addition to their eye spots, many starfish also possess individual photo receptor cells throughout their
body allowing them to sense light even when their eye spots are incapable of proper function.

In the incomparable feat of the regeneration of limbs, as well as the capability of regrowth of a
whole starfish from a single limb, the nervous system plays a great role in a incomplete starfish's
survival. Initial loss of limbs may be caused by an act of autotomy, in which connective tissues in limbs
grasped by predators quickly deteriorate and detach. This is due to sensory signals sent out from the
nervous system.

The nerve ring doesnot seem equipped to do any kind of processing of information. Instead, all
the sensory information must go to the radial nerves, any memories must be stored in the radial nerves,
and any decisions about what to do must be made in the radial nerves. And somehow, the five different
radial nerves must coordinate those decisions if the starfish is going to get anywhere.

The pathway of sensory information can be characterized as follows: Eye spots for light
sensitivity/tube feet, spines,and pedicellariae for touch sensitivity -> central nerve ring -> radial
nerve extending into each arm.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

For the sea stars, a true blood vascular system is absent. The system responsible for circulation of
digested food to various organs of body is often termed as circulatory system. The sea star’s circulatory
system is made up of two parts: (1) Perihaemal System, and (2) Haemal System. The Perihaemal System
- composed of systems of tubular coelomic cavities called sinuses or lacunae through which coelomic
fluid is supposed to circulate. The sinuses or “blood vessels” are:

Axial sinus - at its end it communicates with the ampulla of stone canal and also with the exterior by
some of the pore canals of the madreporite. At the same end, it opens into the aboral ring sinus.

Aboral ring sinus - a pentagonal channel lying around the intestine just beneath of central disc. It gives
off 10 genital branches, two in each inter-radius. The aboral ring sinus and its genital branches contain
genital rachis, a continuation of the axial gland.

Genital sinuses - each gonad is surrounded by a small genital sinus which is connected with the aboral
ring sinus by a short and slender branch. Oral ring sinus - at its oral end, the axial sinus opens into the
inner division of a circular channel, the oral ring sinus surrounding the mouth. It is a large tubular sinus.
From the outer part of the oral ring sinus arises five radial perihaemal sinuses.

Radial perihaemal sinuses – five of such arise from oral ring sinus. Each one extends through each arm
between the radial nerve and the radial ambulacral vessel; give out fine channels into the tube feet.

Marginal sinuses - two longitudinal sinuses run longitudinally on each arm just aboral to the marginal
nerve cord. The fine lateral channels connect the marginal channels with the radial perihaemal sinuses.
Peribranchial sinuses – small spaces in the dermis of the body wall.

The axial sinus surrounds the stone canal and axial gland. It is thin-walled, wide, vertically arranged
canal. This sinus with enclosed stone canal and axial gland forms the axial complex. The axial sinus
communicates aborally with oral perihaemal ring sinus.

The aboral ring sinus is the pentagonal sinus around the intestine lying just inside the aboral wall of the
central disc. The sinus communicates with the five pairs of genital sinuses, one pair in each arm. The
oral ring sinus surrounds the mouth and lies aboral to the nerve ring but oral to the water ring. This is a
large tubular sinus which is divided by an oblique imperfect partition, the haemal septum, into a smaller
inner and larger outer division of the ring. The outer division of the ring gives rise to five radial
hyponeural or radial perihaemal sinuses into each arm. These radial sinuses run along the whole length
of the arm between the radial nerve above and the radial canal of the water vascular system below. The
haemal septum of the ring canal extends throughout the length of the radial sinuses dividing them
longitudinally into two channels. The radial sinuses give fine transverse branches to the tube feet and are
also in communication with the perihaemal spaces present in the dermis. The peribranchial sinuses occur
around the basal parts of the papillae or gills

Haemal System – consists of intercommunicating spaces which have no epithelial lining. There are
enclosed in the coelomic spaces of perihaemal system. It includes (1) the axial gland, (2) the aboral
haemal ring, (3) genital haemal strands, (4) pyloric haemal ring, (5) gastric haemal strands, (6) hepatic
haemal strands, (7) oral haemal ring, and the (8) radial haemal sinuses.

The axial gland develops as a fold of the axial sinus, and is in in the form of an elongated fusiform,
brownish or purple colored spongy mass. It is composed of connective tissue having many spaces, and
of cells which have grown into it from the genital rudiment of the larva. This gland is covered by
coelomic epithelium.

The axial gland at its aboral end is continuous with the genital rachis which is in the form of a ring that
runs in the perihaemal sinus and gives off branches to gonads. The sex cells originated in the aboral end
of the axial gland travel along the genital rachis and its branches to finally lodge in the gonads. At the
aboral end this gland gives off an extension called the head process which lies in a closed coelomic sac
called the dorsal sac (madreporite vesicle).

The axial gland becomes thin at its oral end and becomes continuous with the septum that divides the
hyponeural ring sinus. The aboral haemal ring runs inside the aboral perihaemal sinus and extends along
the genital sinus as genital haemal strands, to gonads.

The pyloric haemal ring is located round the pyloric stomach from which are given off to gastric haemal
tufts to the walls of the cardiac stomach and four branches, the hepatic haemal strands to the walls of the
hepatic caeca of each arm. This gastric part of the haemal system is, however, not enclosed in the
channels in the perihaemal system. The oral haemal ring runs along the septum of the hyponeural ring
sinus and also extend along the radial perihaemal sinuses. These sinuses also give branches to tube feet.
 WATER VASCULAR SYSTEM

Madreporite: A calcareous plate like structure is present on the aboral surface of the central disc of star
fish. It is placed near to two arms and these two arms are called 'Biviurrr.' On surface of the madreporite
grooves of furrows are present. Each furrow contains a number of pores. Hence it is called serve plate.
These pores led into small canal which open into a stone canal.

Stone Canal: travels towards the oral side on unite with ring canal at one of inter radius; walls
strengthened by calcarious rings; inner surface lined with flagellated cells. The movement of flagella
will draw water currents into the stone canal.

Ring Canal: penta - radial and is present around the mouth, on the oral side. At each inner radius, it
shows poiian vesicles and Tiedemann's bodies.

Poiian vesicle: considered to produce amoebocytes.

Tiedmann's bodies: are lymphoid sac like structures; believed to produce amoeboytes.

Radial canals: from the ring canal five radial canals arise and run throughout the entire length of the
arm. Each radial canal lies below the ambulacra! groove of the oral surface of the arm. Each radial canal
ends at the tip of the arm as a tentacle. It is olfactory in function.

Lateral canal: from the radial canal of each arm pairs of lateral canals will arise and they end with tube
feet.

Tube feet: the basal part of the tube feet is bulged and is called ampulla. It continues as a long tube foot
which ends with a 'Sucker'. The long tube feet like structure contain only longitudinal muscles. Lateral
canal will open into ampulla and is guarded by a valve.

Functions of Water vascular System: is mainly used for locomotion and food collection.

The pathway for the sea star’s water vascular system is as follows: Madreporite -> Stone canal ->
Ambulacral ring canal -> Tiedmann body -> Poiian vesicle -> Ambulacral radial canal -> Lateral canal -
> Tube foot
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

In physiology, the endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of
hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body. The endocrine system is in contrast to
exocrine system, which secretes its chemicals using ducts. The endocrine system is an information
signal system like the nervous system, yet its effects and mechanism are classifiably different. The
endocrine systems effects are slow to initiate, and prolonged in their response, lasting for hours to
weeks. The nervous system sends information very quickly, and responses are generally short lived.
Hormones are substances (chemical mediators) released from endocrine tissue into the bloodstream
where they travel to target tissue and generate a response. Hormones regulate various human functions,
including Metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, and mood.The endocrine system which
is formed of all endocrine glands ofbody which along with nervous system of body, controls
andcoordinates the body functions and maintains a homestasis insidethe body.

The Starfish is the most commonly known creature in the phylum Echinodermata. Starfish can
reproduce in two ways. The first is fission. In fission, the central disc splits apart and the missing parts
and limbs of each piece grow back onto them. The second is autotomy. In autotomy, one arm of a
starfish breaks of and lives independently on its own, eventually developing into a new starfish.

Both of these ways are controlled by certain glands of the Endocrine System. The main gland in
starfish is the pituitary gland. This is very similar to a lot of living organisms. The pituitary gland sends
hormones throughout the starfish. These hormones aid the in the reproduction process.

In phylum echinodermata echinoderms do not possess a well developed glandular endocrine

system there are complex chemically mediated interactions do occur between cells. In echinoderms,
asexual reproduction, which involves the autotomy of body parts and regeneration of lost structures
looks like it requires neurochemical factors. A gonad stimulating substance known as a peptide is
implicated in the control of sexual reproduction and gametogenesis.
 EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The excretory system is the system of an organism's body that performs the function of excretion, the
bodily process of discharging wastes. The Excretory system is responsible for the elimination of wastes
produced by homeostasis.

The star fish has a very convoluted excretory system. It is convoluted in how simplistic it is. It is
so simplistic that it is complicated to understand how simplistic one organism could excrete so
simplistically. The start fish has no excretory organs. They have a water-vascular system that is made up
of cells devoted to taking in waste and passing it along through tiny openings. They pass it along to an
area known for star fish as the tube feet that put out excretion in the form of nitrogenous waste (urine).

The Starfish's excretory system is similar to that of a human's, other than starfish not having any
excretory organs. Without excretory organs, starfish are still able to get rid of their waste, not quite like
humans. They are capable of excreting waste from their anus and they release liquid nitrogenous waste,
or urine as well. Once a starfish's food is digested it passes from the stomach and passes down through
the anus. A starfish releases its urine through its foot tubes found one of the ends of the starfish. Unlike
spit glands in human's starfish have digestive glands that forms the waste to be removed from the body.
Starfish urinate like humans and unlike other organisms because they are sea creatures. As sea creatures,
they receive more than enough water than needed for their body, so they are capable of releasing more
water from the body. Usually, organisms release their waste but retain the water due to the scarcity of
water that they receive in their lifetime.

Starfish have no distinct excretory organs; waste ammonia is removed by diffusion through the tube feet
and papulae. The body fluid contains phagocytic cells, coelomocytes, which are also found within the
hemal and water vascular systems. These cells engulf waste material, and eventually migrate to the tips
of the papulae, where a portion of body wall is nipped off and ejected into the surrounding water. Some
waste may also be excreted by the pyloric glands and voided with the faeces.
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Starfish are resourceful creatures that can reproduce in more than one way. Starfish can either
spawn together, or they can asexually reproduce- though this isn't the ideal way to produce new starfish
because it doesn't promote genetic diversity within the species. While sexual reproduction is a naturally
occurring process, asexual reproduction for starfish is usually only the result of dismemberment that
results in the formation of two whole starfish with the same DNA.

 Sexual Reproduction

Starfish reproduce sexually by spawning. Spawning means that the sex cells are released into the
water. Starfish gather in groups to reproduce, which increases the likelihood the sperm and eggs will
find each other. Starfish have sexual organs, or gonads, in each arm. During a breeding season the
males' gonads fill with sperm and the females' gonads fill with eggs. When starfish spawn, the males
release sperm and the females release eggs in great numbers. Female starfish may release millions of
tiny eggs into the water during a spawning session.

Starfish commonly reproduce by free-spawning: releasing their gametes into the water where
they hopefully are fertilized by gametes from the opposite sex. To increase their chances of
fertilization, starfish probably gather in groups when they are ready to spawn, use environmental
signals to coordinate timing (day length to indicate the correct time of the year, dawn or dusk to
indicate the correct time of day), and may use chemical signals to indicate their readiness to each
other.

Fertilized eggs grow into bipinnaria and later into brachiolaria larvae, which either grow using a
yolk or by catching and eating other plankton. In either case, they live as plankton, suspended in the
water and swimming by using beating cilia. The larvae are bilaterally symmetric — unlike adults,
they have a distinct left and right side. Eventually, they undergo a complete metamorphosis, settle to
the bottom, and grow into adults.

 Egg Stage

When the eggs become fertilized they develop into zygotes. Some species of starfish brood
their eggs after they're fertilized. They may sit over their eggs, or form a brooding basket in
which the eggs are sheltered. The eggs may be held on the starfish's central disk or in sacs
between the arms. Once the eggs hatch they are released into the open ocean to drift with the
current and search for food.
  Larval Stage

In the larval stage the starfish is a miniscule, jelly-like blob that floats around feeding on
microscopic flora and fauna. These larva are too small to be seen with the naked eye. The
starfish larva metamorphosizes through several stages until it develops into a juvenile. The larva
have bilateral symmetry, but in their adult form they'll have radial symmetry. Bilateral symmetry
means the left and right halves resemble each other, where as in radially symmetrical animals the
limbs radiate from a single point in the center of the body.

 Juvenile Stage

In the last stage of larval development the starfish abandons its free-floating planktonic
lifestyle for a benthic (surface-dwelling) existence. The larva anchors itself to a surface and
transforms into the juvenile stage. A juvenile starfish looks like a small version of an adult.
Juvenile starfish spend most of their time in seclusion, hiding in crevices and under rocks to
protect themselves from predators. After doing some growing they explore the ocean floors and
reefs eating algae and other particulate matter. At about two years old the starfish is grown
enough to be considered an adult starfish and can begin the reproductive stage of its life.

 Asexual Reproduction
If a starfish's arm is removed along with part of the central disk (the center of the body
from which the arms radiate) a whole new sea star can form from that detached piece. The
amputated starfish can also regenerate a new arm to replace the lost limb. Because two starfish
have been formed from one, this is considered asexual reproduction. If you see a starfish that has
some arms significantly longer than the rest, this is a sign the animal has regenerated some of its
limbs.

EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY

Shape, Size and Coloration

The body is flattened in oral-axis and is generally pentamerous in arrangement. The body
consists of a central, pentagonal central disc from which radiate out five elongated, tapering,
symmetrical spaced rays or arms 6, 7 or 8-rayed specimens are rare and probably result due to
regeneration after injury. The body has two distinct surfaces, oral and aboral. The oral surface is flat,
directed downwards having a centrally placed mouth. The aboral surface is convex, directed upwards
and much darker in color. The oral and aboral surfaces are not the ventral and dorsal surface but
correspond to the left and right sides of the bilaterally symmetrical larva. The axes occupied by the arms
are known as radii and the regions of the central disc between the arms areinterradii. A well-defined
head is entirely absent.

The size varies from 10-20 cm in diameter. The smallest starfish is known about 1 cm in
diameter and the latest 80 inches.

They are usually brightly colored yellow, brown, or orange and purple. The coloration is due to
carotenoid pigment.

Oral or Actinal Surface

Mouth

On the under surface, in the centre of the pentagonal central disc is an aperture called mouth or
actinosome. It is a pentagonal aperture with five angles, each directed towards an arm. The mouth is
surrounded by a soft and delicate membrane, the peristomial membrane orperistome. Mouth is guarded
by five groups of oral spines or mouth papillae.

Ambulacral grooves

Five narrow grooves that radiate from the center of the central disc. These grooves run all along
the middle of the oral surface of each arm up to its free end.

Tube feet

The tube feet are soft, extensile, tubular processes arranged in four radial rows in each
ambulacral groove. Each tube foot is provided with terminal disc or sucker. The sucker works as suction
cup to afford a firm attachment on the surface to which it is applied. These are multipurpose organs as
they help in locomotion, food-capturing respiration and as a sensory organs.

Ambulacral spines

Two rows of calcareous ambulacral spines are situated on either side of the ambulacral groove.
These spines are movable and capable of closing over the groove. The muscles present at their bases
bring about the movement of the spines. Outside these spines are three roes of thick and stout
immovable spines

Sense organs

These include five unpaired tentacles and five eyespots. The tip of each arm bears a small
median non-retractile and sucker-less terminal tentacle. Its acts as a tectile and olfactory organ. At the
base of each tentacle, there is a small, light sensitive, bright-red shot called the eye. It is made up of
several ocelli.
Aboral or Abactinal Surface

Anus

It is a small aperture hardly visible with the naked eye. It is situated very nearly, though not
exactly, in the centre of the aboral surface, in an interradius next to that occupied by the madreporite.

Madreporite

A disctinct flat, light colored circular area is present near the anus in an inter-radius between the
two arms. This asymmetrical grooved sieve-like plate is called madreporite. The surface of the
madreporite is marked by a number of straight or curved grooves. The presence of madreporite shows
the animal to be bilaterally symmetrical and not radially symmetrical thus far seen externally.

Spines

The entire aboral surface is also covered with stout, blunt calcareous plates or ossicles. The
ossicles are embedded in the body wall and covered by epidermis forming the endoskeleton. The spines
are arranged in irregular rows parallel with long axis of the rays.

Pedicelariae

These structures are present scattered all over the body. These are found in the intervals between
the spines of the aboral surface. But on the oral surface, they are attached to the bases of spines and also
in the spaces between them. These are small whitish, pincer-like structures that may be stalked or
sessile.

Body Wall

Cuticle

The outermost covering is in the forms of definite cuticle is made up of two layers: Outer layer is
homogenous while the inner layer is delicate.

Epidermis

It is continued over all external appendages. Composed of ciliated columnar epithelium. Located
beneath cuticle. Covers the oral and aboral surface including spines, ossicles, and the pedicellariae.

Dermis

It is the thickest layer of the body wall. Composed of fibrous connective tissue and cells of
mesodermal origin. The dermis can be differentiated into outer and inner dermal zones. The outer
dermal region secretes and houses the endoskeletal calcareous dermal ossicles, and binds them together.
The inner dermal region contains numerous blood containing spaces called the perihaemal spaces.

Coelomic epithelium

Innermost layer of the body wall is the parietal layer of coelomic epithelium. It is composed of
flagellated cuboidal cells of mesodermal origin.

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Ossicle

These are small calcareous elements embedded in the dermis of the body wall of echinoderms.
They form part of the endoskeleton and provide rigidity and protection. They are found in different
forms and arrangements in sea urchins, starfish, brittle stars, sea cucumbers, and crinoids. The ossicles
and spines (which are specialised sharp ossicles) are the only parts of the animal likely to be fossilized
after an echinoderm dies.

Ossicles are created intracellularly by specialised secretory cells known as sclerocytes in the
dermis of the body wall of echinoderms. Each ossicle is composed of microcrystals of calcite arranged
in a three-dimensional lattice known as a stereom. Under polarized light the ossicle behaves as if it were
a single crystal because the axes of all the crystals are parallel. The space between the crystals is known
as the stroma and allows entry to sclerocytes for enlargement and repair. The honeycomb structure is
light but tough and collagenous ligaments connect the ossicles together. The ossicles are embedded in a
tough connective tissue which is also part of the endoskeleton. When an ossicle becomes redundant,
specialised cells known as phagocytes are able to reabsorb the calcareous material. A thin layer of
epidermis covers all the ossicles, even those that protrude from the body wall, but functionally they act
more like an exoskeleton than an endoskeleton.

Exoskeleton

Echinoderms have the ability to use calcium carbonate from the seawater to build their skeleton
of plates. The plates made up of calcium carbonate are called ossicles. The different parts of the body
can only show restricted movement due to the presence of these ossicles.

Endoskeleton
 The endoskeleton is mesodermal in origin instead of ectodermal as in other invertebrates. It is in
the form of calcareous ossicles secreted by the dermis and lodged in its outer region. The ossicles are of
varied but definite form and bound together by connective tissue and muscles. This arrangement
provides rigidity but at the same time permits some flexibility to body.

On the oral side, the ossicles are regularly arranged around the mouth and in the ambulacral
grooves. The ossicles surrounding the mouth are called oral ossicles.The ambulacralossicles lie on either
side of the ambulacral grove. The ambulacralossicles in some forms, possess one to four movable
ambulacral spines which are flattened and united at their bases in fan-like fasciculi. The ossicles of the
opposite row are arranged like an inverted ‘V’. The apex of the ‘V’ forms a prominent ambulacral ridge
projecting into the coelom. Each ambulacralossicle has a notch or pore on its outer as well as inner
margin. Thus, the two notches of the adjacent ossicles together form an oral aperture, the ambulacral
pore, for the passage of tube foot. Outer to each row of ambulacralossicles is a row of
adambulacralossicles bearing movable spines on small tubercles, as well as pedicellariae. Next to the
adambulacralossicleslieinframarginalossicles.

A slightly irregular arrangement of ossicle is observed on the aboral surface. There is a median
or cranial row of ossicles on either side at which are the lateral, next the marginal and outermost the
supramarginalrows of ossicles present on either sides of the median one. The supramarginalossicles of
the aboral surface are in touch with the inframarginalossicles on the oral surface of the arm.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Echinoderms possess a unique water vascular system. This is a network of fluid-filled canals
derived from the coelom (body cavity) that function in gas exchange, feeding, sensory reception and
locomotion. This system varies between different classes of echinoderm but typically opens to the
exterior through a sieve-like madreporite on the aboral (upper) surface of the animal.

Madreporite

The madreporite is a light-colored, sieve-like, circular skeletal plate present inter-radially on the
aboral surface of the disc. Its surface is marked by a number of radiating narrow, straight or slightly
wavy grooves or furrows which provide a characteristic appearance. Each furrow is furnished with
minute pores which open into a sac-like ampulla through minute pore canals. The number of pores may
be 250. The ampulla leads into an S-shaped stone canal or madreporic canal.
Stone Canal

The ampulla opens into an S-shaped stone canal. The stone canal extends downwards and opens
into a ring canal, around the mouth. The walls of stone canal are supported by a series of calcareous
rings. The lumen of stone canal is lined by very tall flagellated cells. In embryonic stages and in young
Asterias, the stone canal remains a simple tube but in adult, lumen of stone canal possesses a prominent
ridge with two spirally rolled lamellae which by branching become more complicated in structure.
During its course, the stone canal along with axial organ is ensheathed by a wide, thin-walled tubular
coelomic sac, called axial sinus. The three together are called axial complex.

Ring Canal

It is a wide, somewhat pentagonal canal forming a ring around the oesophagus. The angles of
pentagon are situated in the radial position.

Tiedmann’s Bodies or Racemose Glands

These are small, rounded yellow glandular sac which open into a ring canal on its inner side,
between each radius and interradius except where stone canal opens into the ring canal, there is one
Tiedmann’s body. Thus, there are in all nine Tiedmann’s bodies. Each consists of a peritoneum
enclosing a stroma of connective tissue and muscle fibers having many radiating tubules. The function
of Tiedmann’s bodies is not yet known. However, it is believed that they serve for filtration or as
enzyme forming structure or lymphatic glands which produce phagocytic amoebocytes to be set free in
the water vascular system.

Polian Vesicles

In most sea stars, but not in Asterias, the ring canal gives off in each interradius one, two or even
four large, thin-walled, pear-shaped sac known as polian vesicles. They are contractile structures and
perform several functions. According to some workers, they serve as central organs for regulating
pressure in the ambulacral system. According to others, they are some sort of lymphatic glands which
give rise to amoebocytes of the ambulacral system.

Radial Canals

From the outer surface of the ring canal are given out five radial canals, one to each arm up to its
extremely through the ambulacral groove of the arm. Each runs passing above the radial nerve and
terminating in the lumen of the terminal tentacle.

Lateral Canals
 In each arm, the radial canal gives out two species of short, narrow, transverse branches called
lateral or podial canals. Each lateral canal is attached to the base of a tube feet and is provided with a
valve to prevent backward flow of fluid into the radial canal.

Tube Feet

There are two double rows of tube feet in each arm, one double row in relation to each series of
alternately placed long and short lateral canals. Each tube foot has to form of a closed thin-walled tube.
It extends through a gap, called the ambulacral pore, which lies between two adjacent ambulacral
ossicles. Each tube foot can be distinguished into three regions.

1) Ampulla. It is a rounded sac-like structure situated above the ambulacral ossicles and projecting
into the coelom.
2) Podium. It is a median tubular part which extends through the ambulacral groove.
3) Sucker. It is a cup-like structure situated at the lower end of podium.

Tube feet have strong longitudinal muscles. The various parts of ambulacral system have a muscular
wall lined internally by ciliated epithelium according to their position, by epidermis or coelomic
epithelium. The whole system is filled a watery fluid which is identical to the sea water. Water enters
through the pores of madreporite and circulates through the system by the action of cilia.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Echinoderms possess a simple digestive system which varies according to the animal's diet.
Starfish are mostly carnivorous and have a mouth, oesophagus, two-part stomach, intestine and rectum,
with the anus located in the centre of the aboral body surface.The digestive system consists of
alimentary canal and digestive glands.

Alimentary Canal

The alimentary canal is complete extending from oral to aboral side. Therefore, it is very short
and wide at places. It comprises mouth, oesophagus, stomach, intestine, and anus.

Mouth
 The mouth is the anterior most aperture of alimentary canal and is situated in the center of the
peristomial membrane on the oral surface. It is provided with a sphincter muscle and radial fibers and is
capable of great expansion and retraction.

Oesophagus

The mouth leads to oesophagus which is short and wide. It extends ventrally and opens into the
stomach.

Stomach

The stomach is a broad sac and fills the interior of the disc. It is typically divided by a horizontal
constriction into a voluminous oral part, the cardiac stomach and a flattened aboral, the pyloric stomach.

Cardiac stomach

It is a larger oval part connected with the oesophague. Its wall is thin and greatly folded. The
cardiac stomach is held in position by five pairs of mesenteries or retractor muscles or the gastric
filaments which are formed of connective tissue and muscles. A pair of gastric ligaments connect the
cardiac stomach to the ambulacral ridge in each arm. The stomach is capable of everting out through
mouth by the action of muscles extending from the body wall.

Pyloric stomach

It is a small, flat pentagonal sac opening aborally into the intestine. The angles of the pentagon
lie along the radii and each receives a duct, called the pyloric duct, from the corresponding pyloric caeca
or digestive glands.

Intestine

It is a short, narrow five-sided tube which is continued to the aboral surface where it opens into
the anus. It gives out at interradial position two or three small branched and brownish appendages called
the intestinal or rectal caeca. The intestinal caeca secrete a kind of brownish fluid which is supposed to
be excretory in function.

Anus

The anus is a very small opening on the aboral surface somewhat eccentrically located.

Digestive Glands
 The digestive glands are five pairs of pyloric caeca which are long, brownish or greenish in
color. Each arm of sea star contains a pair of digestive glands or pyloric caeca extending up to its tips,
and each is suspended from the aboral body wall by a pair of longitudinal mesenteries.

The hollow axes of the two pyloric caeca of an arm open into a common pyloric duct which
opens into the pyloric stomach at one of its angles.

The pyloric caeca are lined by ciliated columnar epithelium having four types of cells:

a) Secretary or granular cells which produce proteolytic, amylolytic and lipolytic enzymes.
b) Mucous cells which secrete mucous.
c) Storage cells which store reserve food as lipids, glycogen and protein-polysaccharide complex.
d) Current producing cells which bear longer flagella that maintain a steady flow of enzymes
towards the stomach along the aboral side of digested food into the pyloric caeca along the oral
side.

Food

Asterias species are carnivorous and feed upon all sorts of invertebrates, especially snail,
bivalves, crustaceans, polychaetes, other echinoderms and even fishes. They also consume the bodies of
dead animals encountered on the bottom.

Feeding mechanism, digestion and absorption

In some sea stars, the prey is swallowed whole and digested within the stomach, although the
stomach wall must be in contact with the tissues being digested. Shell and other indigestible materials
are then eliminated out of the mouth. In Asterias through the contraction of the body wall muscles, the
coelomic fluid exerts pressure on the cardiac stomach, causing it to be everted through the mouth. The
everted stomach, which is anchored by gastric ligaments, engulfs the prey. The prey then may be
brought into the stomach by retraction, or digestion may begin outside the body. The digested food in
then passed into the body in ciliated gutters. When digestion is completed, the stomach muscles contract,
retracting the stomach into the interior of the disc. The clams are devoured in an interesting manner.
During feeding, the sea star extends itself over a clam, holding the gape of the clam upward against the
mouth and applying the arms against the sides of the clam valves. The gape is produced quite rapidly
and not by causing the clam to fatigue over a long period. The everted stomach pours out powerful
proteolytic enzymes which completely dissolve the soft viscera of clam. The cilia of stomach set up
strong currents that carry the digested food into the stomach and then pyloric caeca. By the contraction
of muscles, the everted stomach is withdrawn into the interior of the disc.
 Therefore, the digestion is extracellular. Some intracellular digestion is believed to take place in
pyloric caeca. The food is chiefly absorbed in pyloric caeca, which also store the food material.
Distribution of food of various parts of the body takes place through the coelomic fluid. The undigested
materials are eliminated mainly through the mouth. Little, if any egestion takes place through the anus.