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ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF Nickel and Nickel Alloys PDF
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF Nickel and Nickel Alloys PDF
by
John l. Everhart,P. E.
Metallurgical Engineer
Westfield, New Jersey
Nickel is probably the most versatile of the metallic elements. Among alloys
containing nickel are some having high corrosion resistance and others that
retain excellent strength and ductility from temperatures approaching ab-
solute zero to those near 2000 F. Some nickel alloys are strongly magnetic,
others are virtually nonmagnetic; some have low rates of thermal expansion,
others have high rates; some have high electrical resistivities; some have
practically constant moduli of elasticity; one has an "elastic" memory. In
addition, nickel is magnetostrictive.
With this wide range of characteristics, it is not surprising that there
are several thousand alloys containing nickel. It is impossible to consider
all of these compositions in this publication and, therefore, several alloys in
each of a number of categories have been selected to indicate the properties
to be expected of the group. Low-alloy and constructional nickel-containing
steels have been excluded on two grounds. To do them justice would require
excessive space and, in addition, their applications differ generally from these
of the materials under discussion. On the other hand, nickel-containing
stainkss steels have been included because many of their applications fall
into the same areas as those of a number of the high-nickel alloys.
Many of the compositions discussed are proprietary alloys and they are
protected by trademarks. A list of the trademarks and their owners is in-
cluded in the appendix.
Data are presented in the form of tables and graphs. All of the graphs
.have been drawn especially for this publication, in a number of instances to
permit combining data from several sources to point out some characteristic
of the group under discussion. To simplify the graphs, some symbols have
been used on the curves and, although the meaning is usually self-evident, a
list of these symbols is included in the appendix.
v
vi Preface
Chapter 2. Nickel.............................................. 8
Effect of Impurities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
Physical Properties .............................................. 9
Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
Electrical Properties .......................................... 11
Magnetic Properties .......................................... 11
Elastic Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Miscellaneous Physical Properties ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Mechanical Properties .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Room-Temperature Properties .................................. 13
Tensile Properties .......................................... 13
Hardness .................................................. 16
Fatigue Properties .......................................... 18
Impact Properties 18
vii
viii Contents
The discussion of the properties of nickel alloys, which is the major subject
of this book, would be rather pointless if there were to be a continued
shortage of nickel. Therefore, it seems desirable to discuss the nickel situa-
tion briefly.
For several years, there has been an imbalance between the supply and
the demand for nickel, with the demand exceeding the supply by a sufficient
amount to cause a significant shortage. This has led in the United States to
allocation of available supplies by the Government and by industry, to a
price increase which in black market operations reached six to seven times
the nominal price, and to attempts to find substitutes for nickel. However,
it has also been instrumental in stimulating production. The major producers,
of whom there are very few, are expanding their facilities and opening new
ones, and a number of new organizations are entering the nickel mining and
recovery fields.
There is no shortage of nickel ore. The difficulty in maintaining an
adequate supply lies in the unexpected sharp increase in demand which has
overtaxed the facilities and in the problems of winning nickel from the ore
after it is mined.
Progress is being made in the expansion of mining and in the develop-
ment of more efficient recovery methods and it requires no clairvoyance to
predict that, within a few years, supply will equal demand even though the
demand continues to increase.
OCCURRENCE
According to Ware, 1 there are three major types of nickel deposits:
nickel-copper sulfides, nickel silicates, and nickel laterites and serpentines.
2 Chapter 1
They are found in different areas of the earth and vary considerably in the
ease of handling to win the nickel they contain.
Sulfide Ores
Nickel Silicates
The largest known deposits of nickel silicate ores occur in New Cale-
donia, and two varieties are mined there. The richer is a green hydrous
nickel-magnesium silicate of variable composition, H 2 (NiMg)Si0 4 ·nH 2 0,
known as garnierite. The intensity of the green color of this mineral is
directly proportional to the nickel content. The second variety ranges from
greenish yellow to chocolate brown in color and has a higher iron and lower
magnesium content than garnierite.
From 1875 to 1905, New Caledonia was the world's largest producer
of nickel; since that time Canada has moved into the lead. In 1965, about
one-eighth of the world's supply of nickel came from New Caledonia.!
The only source of nickel in the United States is a garnierite deposit
in Oregon. Specimens of ore from that deposit range from 2.3 to 37 % nickel
and from yellowish to green in color. Commercially significant nickel silicate
deposits occur also in South American and Indonesia.
Lateritic Ores
According to Ware, nickeliferous lateritic mantles are formed by the
weathering of ultra basic rocks, notably serpentine. The content of mineral
decreases with depth down to unweathered rock and there is no line of de-
marcation between laterites and the serpentine. Therefore the deposits are
The Nickel Situation 3
referred to as laterite and serpentine. However, they are also called nickeli-
ferous iron ores, lateritic ores, or simply oxide ores. A typical composition
of the mantles is about 49 %iron, 1 %nickel, 2 %chromium oxide, and 0.05 %
cobalt.
Lateritic ores are abundant in a wide belt of tropical and semitropical
countries around the world. The reason for this distribution is that the type
of weathering that dissolves the metallic elements is most active in tropical
climates where there is plenty of rainfall and abundant decaying vegetation
to supply organic acids and carbon dioxide to the ground water.
Nickel-bearing lateritic ores occur in Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican
Republic, Brazil, Venezuela, Greece, Pakistan, India, the Republic of the
Philippines, the Malagase Republic, the Republic of Indonesia, New Cale-
donia, and probably in other locations. The prospects of discovering addi-
tional deposits is excellent because many areas in the tropics have not been
explored.
RESERVES
Most of the nickel produced in the free world is furnished by the fol-
lowing organizations: The International Nickel Company of Canada, Ltd.,
Falconbridge Nickel Mines Ltd., Societe Le Nickel, and Sherritt Gordon
Mines Ltd. In the United States nickel is mined and smelted only by the
Hanna Nickel Smelting Company. All of these organizations are engaged in
expanding their facilities or in planning such expansion.
In Canada, International Nickel is developing six new mines in Ontario
and three in Manitoba and a new refinery is being built in Copper Cliff,
Ontario. These new facilities and expansion of older ones will bring the
company's Canadian production capacity to 300,000 tons per year by the
end of 1971. 2
Also in Canada, Falconbridge started production in a new facility in
1968 and broke ground for a new iron ore concentrator that will handle
nickeliferous pyrrhotite to produce 300,000 tons per year of iron-nickel
pellets containing approximately 90 % iron and 1.5 % nickel. Delivery was
to start in 1969. 2
Societe Le Nickel is doubling its production capacity in New Caledonia
to produce 72,000 tons per year by 1972 and expects to expand further to
reach 200,000 tons per year by 1980. 2
In 1967, Australia joined the nickel-producing countries of the world.
By the end of that year, Western Mining Corporation was producing at the
rate of 100,000 tons of ore per year. Its reserves were reported to be about
14.3 million tons with a nickel content of 3.4 %. The company has taken a
license to use the Sherritt Gordon ammonia leach process in a refinery being
built in Western Australia which is expected to start operations in 1970 with
an annual capacity of 20,000 tons. 2
Also in Western Australia, Metals Exploration Ltd. began trucking ore
from its mine to a mill operated by Western Mining Corporation in late 1969
at the rate of 120 tons per day. 3
Falconbridge is developing a mining and metallurgical complex in the
Dominican Republic which will have an annual capacity of 31,000 tons of
nickel contained in ferronickeI. Operations are scheduled to begin in 1972. 3
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
In New Caledonia, Le Nickel plans to erect a new smelter for the treat-
ment of low grade silicate ores to be supplied by several New Caledonian
mining enterprises, with an annual capacity of 40,000 metric tons of nickel
contained in ferronickel. 4
In August 1969, a new organization entered the nickel industry in New
Caledonia. American Metal Climax, Inc. and a French associate signed an
agreement with the government for the development of nickel deposits with
production of 50,000 tons per year scheduled to begin in 1975. 5
Japanese interests have signed agreements with the Indonesian Govern-
ment for exploration and exploitation of lateritic deposits and similar con-
tracts were signed previously by International Nickel and a consortium of
United States, Dutch, and Canadian companies. 6, 7
Copper-nickel deposits in northeastern Botswana have been found
with proven reserves of about 12 million tons of ore containing from 0.6 to
1.5 % nickel and 1.2 to 1.5 % copper and probable reserves of about 14 mil-
lion tons of ore with lower nickel content. Plans are underway for exploi-
tation by a group consisting of Roan Selection Trust, American Metal
Climax, and the Botswana Government. 8
Marinduque Mining and Industrial Corporation is developing lateritic
nickel ores in the Philippines. Planned production is 75 million pounds
of nickel per year by mid-1973. Of this capacity, 70 million pounds will be
pure nickel powder and briquettes, the remainder along with about 3 million
pounds of cobalt will be in the form of concentrates. 8
In addition to these developments, active exploration is proceeding in
many other parts of the world. Thus, there should be an adequate supply of
ore within a few years.
RECOVERY OF NICKEL
REFERENCES
1. Glen C. Ware, "Nickel," Mineral Facts and Problems, Bull. 630, Bureau of Mines (1965),
p.607.
2. G. L. DeHuff, "Nickel," 1968 Minerals Yearbook Preprint, Bureau of Mines (1969).
3. "Nickel in January 1970," Mineral Industry Surveys, Bureau of Mines, March 31,1970.
4. "Nickel in October 1969," ibid., December 23, 1969.
5. "Nickel in August 1969," ibid., October 27, 1969.
6. "Nickel in July 1969," ibid., September 30, 1969.
7. "Nickel in February 1969," ibid., June 3, 1969.
8. "Nickel in December 1969," ibid., March 9, 1970.
9. J. R. Boldt, Jr. and Paul Queneau, The Winning of Nickel, Van Nostrand (1967).
Chapter 2
Nickel
The element nickel is a member of the transition group in the fourth series
of the periodic table, which includes iron, nickel, and cobalt. It has the atomic
number 28.
The atomic weight of nickel is 58.71 and it is a composite of five stable
isotopes, having atomic weights of 58,60,61,62, and 64 in the proportions
of 67.7, 26.2, 1.25,3.66, and 1.16 % respectively. Seven unstable radioactive
isotopes have also been identified. These have atomic weights of 54, 56, 57,
59,63,65, and 66 and have half-lives, respectively, of 0.16 second, about 6
days, 36 hours, about 100,000 years, approximately 85 years, 2.6 hours, and
56 hours.!
The normal crystal structure of nickel is face-centered cubic and it has
a lattice constant of 3.5238 A at 68 F.
Although nickel with a purity of 99.99 % has been made, the properties
reported for "high purity" nickel have generally been determined on material
having a nickel content of99.95 %. By contrast, commercial nickel in wrought
form generally contains about 99.5 %nickel + cobalt and specifications, such
as those of the ASTM for wrought material, set a minimum of 99 % nickel
+ cobalt. This is the material on which most properties of nickel have been
determined.
EFFECT OF IMPURITIES
source of nickel for the next few years at least will be Canada. The impurities
normally found in nickel from Canadian sources are carbon, cobalt, copper,
iron, silicon, and sulfur. They are introduced from the ore or during pro-
cessing.
Carbon is soluble in nickel to a limited extent at room temperature.
When it is in solid solution, carbon increases the ease of hot working, but in
the quantity usually present, causes work hardening which is detrimental to
cold working operations. To reduce the effect of work hardening, a low
carbon modification was developed. This material work hardens at a signif-
icantly lower rate which facilitates deep drawing and other severe cold
forming operations.
Cobalt is present in Canadian ores, and nickel produced from these
ores, except by the carbonyl process, normally contains about 0.5 % cobalt.
Although this cobalt content slightly increases the electrical resistivity and
raises the Curie temperature, it has little effect on other properties.! Con-
sequently, in commercial practice, a single determination is made for nickel
and cobalt and the result is reported as nickel plus cobalt. In recent years,
improved processing methods have been developed which permit reducing
the cobalt content to about 0.1 %.
Copper, iron, and silicon, in the amounts normally present in nickel,
have relatively minor effects on the properties, although some physical
properties are more sensitive to their presence than others. Sulfur, however,
does have a significant effect. Even in the amounts normally present, sulfur
reduces both the hot and cold workability of nickel.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Thermal Properties
The melting (or freezing) point of nickel is 1453 C (2647.4 F) and has
been selected as a secondary fixed point on the International Temperature
Scale. Impurities not only lower the melting point but extend it into a range
as indicated in the values given for commercial nickel in the table. The boil-
ing point has not been determined directly but was extrapolated from vapor
10 Chapter 2
pressure data. Morris et al. 4 give the following equation for the vapor pres-
sure of liquid nickel in the temperature range 2800 to 2950 F:
log P mm = -21,030jT + 9.689
where T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin.
As shown in the table, the specific heat is practically unaffected by the
difference in purity between "high purity" and commercial nickel but both
the thermal conductivity and the coefficient of thermal expansion show the
influence of increasing impurities.
The relationship between temperature and thermal conductivity of
"high purity" nickel is shown in Fig. 2-1 based on the work of Ro, Powell,
and Liley. S As shown in this figure, the thermal conductivity increases to a
maximum at very low temperatures. Based on data reported by Rosenberg, 1
commercial nickel shows little change in thermal conductivity at low tem-
peratures. The thermal conductivity has a minimum value near the Curie
point.
Nickel expands uniformly with temperature up to the Curie point, where
there is a sharp discontinuity; above this point uniform expansion again
Nickel 11
Temperature, K
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
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Temperature, F
Fig, 2-1. Effect of temperature on the thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and
electrical resistivity of "high purity" nickel. I. S
occurs. The relation between temperature and expansion for "high purity"
nickel is shown also in Fig. 2-1. I
Electrical Properties
The electrical resistivity of nickel increases with temperature and also
with impurity content, As shown in Table 2-1, the resistivity of "high purity"
nickel is considerably lower than that of commercial nickel. At temperatures
below -200 F, the resistivity of "high purity" nickel is very low but it in-
creases with rising temperatures as indicated in Fig. 2-1. I Unlike the curves
for thermal conductivity and thermal expansion in the same graph, which
show sharp discontinuities at the Curie temperature, the curve for resistivity
shows only a change in slope near this temperature. Rosenbergl points out,
however, that if the rate of change with temperature is plotted against the
temperature there is a sharp break at the Curie point.
Magnetic Properties
Ferromagnetic materials, which include nickel, iron, cobalt, the rare
earth gadolinium, and certain oxides, are capable of retaining magnetic
order at room temperature after being magnetized. As the temperature is
increased, however, they reach a point where ordering disappears and they
become paramagnetic (nonmagnetic). This change occurs at the Curie tem-
12 Chapter 2
Elastic Properties
Studies on single crystals have shown strong anisotropy in the elastic
properties of nickel, but this effect is not apparent in the measurements made
on polycrystalline material. The average values of the modulus of elasticity
in tension (Young's modulus) are 30,000 ksi for "high purity" nickel and
29,600 ksi for commercial nickel. According to Rosenberg,l the modulus of
elasticity in compression is the same as that in tension.
Nickel 13
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Room-Temperature Properties
Tensile Properties
Nominal tensile properties of wrought commercial nickel in a number
of mill forms are given in Table 2-28. In its softest condition, commercial
14 Chapter 2
nickel has a tensile strength of about 55 ksi, but the strength can be increased
to as much as 145 ksi by cold working. Of course, the increase in strength is
accompanied by loss of ductility, as measured by the elongation, from a
maximum of about 60 %to a minimum of about 2 %over a 2 inch gage length.
ASTM Specifications B161 for nickel rod and bar, Bl62 for seamless
pipe and tube, and B162 for plate, sheet, and strip, require a minimum tensile
strength of 55 ksi for annealed 99 %nickel (0.15 %C max) and 50 ksi for 99 %
nickel (0.02 % C max). These specifications also include minimum tensile
properties for nickel after various amounts of cold work. 9
The effect of cold drawing on the tensile properties of commercial nickel
is indicated in Fig. 2_2.10 The strength increases uniformly to a maximum of
about 140 ksi at a cold reduction of 80 %. At the same time, the ductility falls,
reaching a minimum elongation of about 8 % in 2 inches.
The effect of heating at a series of temperatures on the softening of
commercial nickel, cold worked to a tensile strength of 96 ksi, is indicated
in Fig. 2_3. 10 Strength increases slightly up to about 500 F with an accom-
panying reduction in ductility particularly as indicated by the data for reduc-
Nickel 15
160
140
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Reduction by Drawing, %
Fig. 2-2. Effect of cold work on the tensile properties of com-
mercial nickel.! 0
Temperature, K
400 600 800 1000 1200
120 r---,----,----.-----,,---,..---,
IS.
100
80 80 ~
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Temperature, K
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
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Cold Work, %
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Rockwell B Hardness
Fatigue Properties
The fatigue strength of commercial nickel at 10 8 cycles is reported to be
24 ksi for annealed, 30 ksi for hot rolled, and 42.5 ksi for cold drawn material. I
Tensile and fatigue strengths of annealed and cold worked sheet and rod are
given in Table 2-3. Based on the fatigue strength at 108 cycles, the fatigue
ratios for both annealed and cold worked material lie in the range 0.31 to
0.42.
Fatigue curves for cold drawn and annealed commercial nickel are
given in Fig. 2-7. 8 The cold drawn material had a tensile strength of 132 ksi
and the annealed material, 78 ksi. The resulting endurance ratios were 0.37
and 0.42, respectively. Although the cold worked material had a higher
endurance limit in air than the annealed material, corrosion fatigue limits
in fresh and brackish water were practically the same for both. 8
Impact Properties
As measured by notched-bar tests, nickel is a very tough material.
Charpy values for commercial nickel have been given as 216 ft-Ib for annealed,
195 ft-Ib for hot rolled, and 185 ft-Ib for cold drawn materia}.!
Data from another source give Charpy V-notch values of 228 ft-Ib for
annealed, 200 ft-Ib for hot rolled, and 204 ft-Ib for cold drawn material
which had been reduced 24 %.8 Additional data on impact properties are
given under low-temperature properties.
Nickel 19
120
100
80
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4 5 6 7 8
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Cycles
Fig. 2-7 S-N curves for cold drawn and annealed commercial nickel. 8
Neutron Irradiation
Shober l2 reports that the effect of fast neutron irradiation on the
mechanical properties of metals is unusual because while some properties
are enhanced others are adversely affected. He notes that, in general, yield
strengths are significantly increased, hardness and tensile strengths are
increased moderately, and elongations are reduced. For example, the neutron
irradiation of annealed commercial nickel at 1 X 10 19 neutrons/cm 2 and
240 F resulted in an increase in the Brinell hardness from 64 to 137, an
increase in tensile strength from 65 to 69 ksi, and a reduction in elongation
from 45 to 34 % in? inches.
Makin 13 also investigated the effects of neutron irradiation on nickel.
After irradiation at 5 X 10 19 neutrons/cm 2 and 212 F, he found only a small
increase in the room-temperature tensile strength from about 58 to 63 ksi,
but there was a significant increase in yield strength from 34 to 59 ksi.
Temperature, K
400 600 800 1000 1200
60
50 240
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Above this range, the strength falls quite uniformly and the ductility as
measured by the elongation increases rapidly.
The creep properties of "high purity" nickel were investigated by Jenkins,
Digges, and Johnson l4 and by Jenkins and Willard. ls Some of their data
are included in Table 2-4 as a basis for the comparison of the properties of
commercial nickel. Although only limited data were available by which "high
purity" nickel and commercial nickel could be compared, these data indicate
that the low carbon commercial nickel and the "high purity" nickel have
comparable creep properties.
In the commercial grades of nickel, the low carbon modifications have
superior creep and stress-rupture properties at temperatures above 600 F.8
Some indications of the effect of carbon content on the creep and stress-
rupture properties are given in Table 2_4. 8 • 16 These data indicate that low
carbon nickel (0.02 % C max) has higher resistance to creep at 1000 F than
commercial nickel (0.15% C max) has at 800 F. Although the differences
z
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Table 2-4. Creep and Stress-Rupture Properties of Nickel
II.)
...
22 Chapter 2
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
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Low-Temperature Properties
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
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120 60
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Cycles
Fig. 2-11. Subzero-temperature S-N curves in reverse bending for annealed com-
mercial nickel sheet. 19 Notch factor, K, = 3.0. Tested at (1) -423 F, (2) -320 F,
(3) -110 F, (4) 70 F.
The ductility as measured by the elongation also improves although the an-
nealed material passes through a minimum at about -200 F.
The effect of low temperature on the fatigue strength of commercial
nickel sheet, having a tensile strength of 61.6 ksi, is shown in Fig. 2-11Y In
line with the tensile strength, the fatigue strength also increases as the tem-
perature is reduced. Apparently, notches reduce the fatigue strength by
approximately the same degree at low temperatures as they do at room
temperature.
CAST NICKEL
The compositions of alloys used for castings usually differ from those
used for the corresponding wrought material because, for example, greater
fluidity is required in order to fill the mold properly. Although commercial
wrought nickel has the nominal composition 99 % nickel +
cobalt, com-
mercial cast nickel contains about 1.5 % silicon and has a higher carbon
content. The nominal composition is 97 % nickel + cobalt, 1.5 % silicon,
0.50% manganese, 0.50% carbon, 0.30% copper, 0.25% iron, and 0.015%
maximum sulfur.
Nickel can be melted for the production of castings in electric, oil-fired,
or gas-fired furnaces using practices which follow those used for steel cast-
ings. The melt can be made under a thin limestone slag with additions of
nickel oxide and carbon to cause a boil to eliminate gases. After the boil,
the metal is killed with silicon, the carbon content is adjusted, manganese
Nickel 25
is added, and the metal is allowed to lie quietly in the furnace for a period
sufficient to permit the trapped oxides to rise into the slag. After this period,
the metal is poured at temperatures ranging from 2725 to 2900 F, following
final deoxidation in the ladle. Although sand mixtures similar to those used
for steel can be used for nickel castings, gates and risers should be larger
than those used for steel. Pattern equipment should provided for a linear
shrinkage of 114 in. 1ft. 1
Grobecker 20 described a method of producing castings of nickel having
a higher purity than that used for commercial cast nickel, which is a modi-
fication of the commercial method. This procedure requires melting under
highly oxidizing conditions, a conventional boil, and deoxidation with car-
bon, manganese, aluminum, and magnesium. The metal had high shrinkage
during cooling in the liquid state, also during solidification, and in the solid
state. Because of this high shrinkage, it was necessary to increase the shrink-
age allowance to 5/16 in./ft. The composition of the product was 98.5-
99.0% nickel + cobalt, 0.5-0.7% carbon, 0.15-0.40% silicon, 0.15-0.25%
iron, 0.05-0.25 % manganese, and 0.004 % maximum sulfur. The castings
showed a slight tendency to be brittle, but lack of ductility was not severe
and castings of the desired shape could be produced in sand molds. The
procedures are fully described.
Physical Properties
Reflecting the greater impurity content, the physical properties of cast
nickel are somewhat different from those of commercial wrought nickel.
The melting range is reduced to 2450-2600 F from 2615-2635 F, a
reduction of the solidus temperature of 165 F. The electrical resistivity is
about double that of the wrought material which might be expected since
this property is very sensitive to impurity content. However, the thermal
conductivity and coefficient of expansion are less seriously affected. The
modulus of elasticity of cast nickel is also significantly lower than that of the
wrought material. Properties of the cast grade are given in Table 2_5. 21
Comparisons can be made with those of the commercial wrought type which
are given in Table 2-1.
Mechanical Properties
The "as cast" mechanical properties of cast nickel are also included in
Table 2-5. These are the properties which can be expected to be achieved in
commercial castings.
Both the yield and tensile strengths are comparable with those of an-
nealed wrought material although they are on the low side of the range. On
the other hand, the ductility, as measured by the elongation, is much lower
26 Chapter 2
Physical properties
Melting range, F 2450--2600
Specific heat (80--750 F), Btu/lb;oF 0.13
Thermal conductivity (212 F), Btu/hr/ftz/"F/ft 34.2
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70--1400 F), per of 8.9 x 10- 6
Electrical resistivity (32 F), ohms/cir mil ft 125
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 21,500
Mechanical properties
Yield strength, ksi 20-30
Tensile strength, ksi 45-60
Elongation (2 in.), % 30-15
Brinell hardness 80-125
Charpy impact, ft-lb 60
than that of the wrought material although still very good for a material in
cast form.
The Brinell hardness is about the same as that of the wrought type,
values ranging from 80 to 125 for cast nickel and 90 to 120 for annealed
wrought nickel in the form of bars or plates.
Cast nickel is a tough material as measured by the notched-bar test but
considerably less tough than its wrought counterpart. The resistance of cast
nickel as determined by the Charpy impact test is given as 60 ft-Ib but the
type of notch is not indicated. zl This compares with about 215 ft-Ib for
annealed and 185 ft-lb for cold drawn wrought nickel. I
The effect of subzero temperatures on the impact properties of cast
nickel is indicated in Fig. 2-9, which includes data on wrought nickel also.
This source gives the room temperature Charpy value for cast nickel as about
38 ft-lb as contrasted with that previously mentioned, but it is apparent
that there is no indication of embrittlement at low temperatures and the
cast nickel is as tough at - 320 F as it is at room temperature. IS
NICKEL POWDER
Carbonyl Nickel
In the production of nickel powder by the carbonyl process, nickel is
extracted from reduced nickel oxide by reaction with carbon monoxide under
Nickel 27
pressure. The product is liquid nickel carbonyl which may contain some iron
carbonyl also picked up from the raw material but is essentially free of other
impurities. Because of the differences in boiling points of nickel and iron
carbonyl, it is possible to separate them by fractionation. The nickel car-
bonyl is distilled off as a gas and is subsequently liquefied in a condenser.
The liquid nickel carbonyl is decomposed at elevated temperature to
produce nickel powder. 22 Adjustment of the conditions permits some control
over the characteristics of the powder produced. The carbonyl process yields
nickel powder of uniform size and high purity with particles less than 10
microns in size and with quite low density.
Prill and Upthegrove 23 determined the properties of compacts produced
from commercial carbonyl nickel powder having the following characteristics:
average particle size, 3.8 microns; apparent density, 1.87 g/cm 3 ; composi-
tion-O.lO % carbon, 0.08 % oxygen, 0.004 % iron, less than 1 part per mil-
lion sulfur, balance nickel.
The material was compacted at pressures ranging from 30 to 70 tons per
square inch and sintered in hydrogen at 2000 to 2100 F for periods ranging
from 5 min to 24 hr. After this series of treatments, the range in properties was
Sintered density, % of theoretical 84-95
Yield strength (0.2 % offset), ksi 8-30
Tensile strength, ksi 33-77
Elongation (1 in.), % l3-35
Charpy impact (V-notch), ft-lb 3-24
This range of properties, which is achieved by varying the compacting
pressure to achieve differences in sintered density, indicates that powder
metallurgy (P/M) parts having good strength, ductility, and toughness can
be produced from carbonyl nickel powder. Of course, the best properties are
obtained with the highest density, i.e., the parts having the lowest porosity.
Worn and Morton 24 determined the properties of extruded rod pro-
duced from carbonyl nickel powder. The powder was pressed at 35 tons/in. 2
and given a preliminary sintering at 1100 F for 2 hours in hydrogen. It was
then sintered at 2000 F for 2 hours in hydrogen, extruded in a steel sheath,
heated for 1 hour at 1830 F, and cooled in air. Finally the sheath was re-
moved by machining. This procedure yielded a bar of nickel which had been
worked and annealed out of contact with the air and had practically theoret-
ical density. The properties resulting from this working procedure were:
Vickers hardness 75
Proof stress (0.2 %), ksi 16
Tensile strength, ksi 40
Elongation, % 46
Reduction of area, % 65
28 Chapter 2
Reflecting the purity of the starting material, the strength of this bar is
quite low. The tensile strength of 40 ksi compares with 46 to 52 ksi reported
for "high purity" nickel by Rosenberg.! The ductility, as measured by the
elongation and reduction of area, is somewhat lower than that reported for
"high purity" wrought nickel but is excellent.
Worn and Morton also reported that the stress for rupture in 100 hours
at 1500 F was 2.2 ksi for the bar produced from powder. This value is fairly
close to the value of 3.6 ksi reported for low carbon commercial nickel under
the same conditions in Table 2-4.
Physical properties
Thermal conductivity (158 F), BtuJhrJftzrF/ft 49.9
Coefficient of thermal expansion (68-212 F), per OF 7.7 x 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft 45.9
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 30,100
Density,lb/in. 3 0.322
Mechanical properties of annealed material
Yield strength (0.2 % offset), ksi 8
Tensile strength, ksi 50
Elongation (1 in.), % 45
Shear strength, ksi 47.5
Rockwell hardness, 30T scale 25
"Nickel 29
Physical Properties
The density of sheet rolled from powder is the same as that of wrought
"high purity" nickel as shown in Table 2-1. The electrical resistivity, thermal
conductivity, coefficient of expansion, and modulus of elasticity also compare
favorably with those of wrought "high purity" nickel. The close relationship
between properties of material produced conventionally and that produced
from powder shows that the latter procedure is an excellent means of pro-
ducing a mill form for further processing by conventional secondary fab-
ricating procedures.
Mechanical Properties
The tensile strength of the sheet, 50 ksi, lies within the range reported
by Rosenberg for "high purity" nickel. l As in the case of the bar produced
from carbonyl nickel powder, the sheet rolled from powder is somewhat less
ductile than that of "high purity" nickel produced conventionally.
An interesting comparison can be made of this rolled strip with the ex-
truded bar produced from carbonyl nickel. The chemically reduced powder
100
80
"Vi
-"=
60 60 ~
vJ
<f)
~
c'
-
Q)
'-
if) 40 40 C\J
c
0
B
20 20 0>
c
0
W
0 20 40 60 80
Reduction by Rolling, %
Fig. 2-12. Effect of cold rolling on the tensile proper-
ties of nickel strip prepared from powder. 25
30 Chapter 2
is somewhat lower in purity than the carbonyl product and this difference
is reflected in the higher strength of the former. The ductilities of the two
materials, however, are quite comparable.
The effect of cold rolling on the tensile properties of strip rolled from
powder is indicated in Fig. 2_12.26 The tensile strength rises to a maximum of
about 90 ksi at a reduction by rolling of 70% and the yield strength rises
rapidly, approaching the tensile strength at a reduction of about 40%. How-
ever, the ductility, as measured by the elongation, falls to a very low value
with a reduction of 40%.
REFERENCES
1. S. J. Rosenberg, Nickel and Its Alloys, Monograph 106, National Bureau of Standards
(1968).
2. Handbook of Huntington Alloys, Huntington Alloy Products Division, The Inter-
national Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
3. Nickel-Containing Magnetic Materials, The International Nickel Co., Ltd. (1961).
4. J. P. Morris, G. R. Zellars, S. L. Payne, and R. L. Kipp, Vapor Pressures of Liquid
Iron and Liquid Nickel, RI 5364, Bureau of Mines (1957).
5. C. Y. Ho, R. W. Powell, and P. E. Liley, Thermal Conductivity of Selected Materials,
NSRDS-NBS 16, National Bureau of Standards (1968).
6. S. Bouwman, "Magnetic materials," International Science and Technology, Dec. 1962,
p.20.
7. Magnetostriction, The International Nickel Co., Inc., (1960).
8. Huntington Nickel Alloys, Huntington Alloy Products Division, The International
Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
9. ASTM Standards, Part 7, American Society for Testing and Materials (1969).
10. J. L. Everhart, E. Lindlief, J. Kanegis, P. G. Weissler, and F. Siegel, Mechanical Prop-
erties of Metals and Alloys, Circular 447, National Bureau of Standards (1943).
11. H. J. Grover, R. A. Gordon, and L. R. Jackson, Fatigue of Metals and Structures,
NAVWEPS 00-25-534, Department of the Navy (1961).
12. F. R. Shober, The Effect of Nuclear Radiation on Structural Materials, DMIC Report
166, Battelle Memorial Institute (1961).
13. M. J. Mekin, "The effect of neutron radiation on the mechanical properties of copper
and nickel," J. Inst. Metals 86, 449 (1957).
14. W. D. Jenkins, T. G. Digges, and C. R. Johnson, "Creep of high purity nickel," J.
Res. Nat. Bur. of Std. 53, 329 (1954).
15. W. D. Jenkins and W. A. Willard, "Creep of cold drawn nickel, copper, 70% nickel-
30% copper and 30% nickel-70% copper," J. Res. Nat. Bur, Std. C 66,59 (1962).
16. P. Shahinean and M. R. Achter, "Comparison of the creep rupture properties of
nickel in air and vacuum," Trans. A/ME 215,37 (1959).
17. M. G. Lozinskiy and N. Z. Pertsivskiy, "Influence of temperature and degree of
deformation in thermomechanical treatment on the creep resistance of nickel," Physics
of Metals and Metallography 23 (2), 68 (1967).
18. R. M. McClintock and H. P. Gibbons, Mechanical Properties of Structural Materials
at Low Temperatures, Monograph 13, National Bureau of Standards (t 960).
Nickel 31
This and the following two chapters will deal with several groups of alloys
which are in a sense related either through their major applications or
through their compositions. The original materials were developed for
corrosion resistance; later alloys extended the range of applications to heat
resistance at higher temperatures, finally culminating in the alloys which
extended the range to the highest temperatures at which nickel-base alloys
are used, the so-called superalloy range.
It is essential to point out that the breakdown is strictly arbitrary. The
corrosion-resistant alloys are frequently used in heat-resistant applications
and the latter are used in corrosion-resistant applications, even at cryogenic
temperatures. Because of their high alloy content and hence rather high cost,
the superalloys are generally used in high-temperature service.
Unfortunately, there is no simple numbering system for the nickel-
base alloys like that used by the AISI to classify steels. Several technical
societies are working together to develop a universal numbering system for
metallic materials but it is in the early stages of development. Consequently,
many of the materials to be discussed are familiar to engineers by the names
assigned to them by the originators of the alloys. Although use of trademarks
does not seem to be a particularly desirable procedure in a general publica-
tion, it appears to be the best method of identifying the alloys for the benefit
of the reader and therefore will be used. A list of trademarks and their owners
is included in the appendix.
Many alloys have been developed that would fit into the classification
of nickel-base corrosion- and heat-resistant materials and it is impossible
to cover them all. Therefore, representative alloys in various systems have
32
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-I 33
been selected to indicate the properties that can be expected of the nickel-
base alloys. The most widely used materials can be broken down into the
following groups:
Nickel-copper alloys
Nickel-molybdenum and nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys
Nickel-silicon alloys
Nickel-chromium alloys
Nickel-chromium-iron and nickel-iron-chromium alloys
Nickel-chromium-cobalt alloys
Superalloys which are generally age hardenable modifications of
the alloy systems containing chromium
The first three groups will be considered in this chapter. Others will be
discussed in succeeding chapters.
NICKEL-COPPER ALLOYS
Nickel and copper are soluble in each other in all proportions. The only
transition in the solid alloys is the magnetic transition at the Curie tempera-
ture which, according to Rosenberg,l varies from 639 F for nickel to -274 F
for the 50% nickel-50 % copper alloy. This chapter deals only with the high-
nickel end of the system. The high-copper alloys will be discussed in Chapter
6.
The most important of the nickel-copper alloys are those containing
approximately 67 % nickel and 33 % copper, and modifications of this basic
composition. These alloys are called "Monel" alloys by their originator. The
basic member of the series is Monel alloy 400. This alloy has good strength,
is weldable, and has excellent corrosion resistance and toughness over a wide
range of temperatures. The nominal composition is given in Table 3-1. 2
Several modifications of this basic composition are:
Composition, %
Monel alloy 400 66.5 31.5 0.15 1.0 1.25 0.12 0.25
Money alloy 404 54.5 44.0 0.08 0.05 0.D25 0.12 0.05 0.03 Al
Money alloy R405 66.5 31.5 0.15 1.0 1.25 0.43 0.25
Monel alloy K-500 66.5 29.5 0.13 0.75 1.00 0.005 0.5 3.0 AI, 0.63 Ti
"Nickel + cobalt.
34 Chapter 3
I. Monel alloy 404, which was developed to obtain an alloy having low
magnetic permeability and excellent brazing characteristics. Alloy
404 has a low Curie temperature and its magnetic properties are not
significantly affected by fabrication.
2. Monel alloy R-405, a material similar to alloy 400 to which sulfur
has been added to improve the machining characteristics for use as
stock for automatic screw machines.
3. Monel alloy K-500, an age harden able modification of alloy 400.
Heating the solution-annealed alloy to about 1100 F causes a precipi-
tation of an intermetallic compound, Ni 3 (AI, Ti), which increases
the strength and hardness of the material.
The compositions of these three alloys are given in Table 3-1. 2
A number of other modifications of alloy 400 are available. They in-
clude Monel alloy 401, produced for specialized electronic applications;
alloy 402, developed for resistance to pickling solutions; alloy 403, developed
for nonmagnetic applications in minesweepers; alloy 406, for use in cor-
rosive mine waters; and alloy 474, a higher-purity modification of alloy 404. 3
These materials will not be discussed in this publication.
Physical Properties
Representative physical properties of Monel alloy 400, alloy 404, and
alloy K-500 are given in Table 3_2.2,4 According to the producer, the physical
aAnnealed.
•Age hardened.
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-I 35
properties of alloy R-405 are identical with those of alloy 400 and, therefore,
they have not been included in the table.
The electrical resistivities and thermal conductivities of alloy 400 and
alloy 404 are quite similar. Reflecting the higher alloy content, Monel alloy
K-500 has a considerably higher electrical resistivity and a correspondingly
low thermal conductivity. Other physical properties of the three alloys are
also quite close together with the exception of the magnetic transformation
point.
The Curie temperature of alloy 400 is in the ambient temperature re-
gion, that of alloy 404 at -110 F, and that of alloy K-500 ranges from -210
F for the alloy in the solution-annealed condition to -153 F after age hard-
ening. The low Curie temperatures of alloy 404 and alloy K-500 indicate
that these alloys are virtually nonmagnetic at quite low temperatures.
Mechanical Properties
Room-Temperature Properties
Monel alloy 400, alloy 404, and alloy R-405 are solid-solution alloys
which can be hardened only by cold work. On the other hand, alloy K-500,
which contains aluminum and titanium, can be age hardened to achieve
higher strength and hardness than are obtainable by cold work alone.
Yield
strength Tensile Elongation
(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), Rockwell
Form and condition ksi ksi % hardness
Monel alloy 400
Rod and bar
Annealed 25-50 70-90 60-35 B60-80
Hot finished 40-100 80-110 60-30 B95-100
Cold drawn, stress-relieved 55-100 84-120 40-22 B85-C20
Plate, hot rolled
Annealed 28-50 70-85 50-35 B60-76
As rolled 40-75 75-95 45-30 B70-96
Sheet
Annealed 25-45 70-85 50-35 B73 max
Cold rolled, hard 90-110 100-120 15-2 B93 min
Strip, cold rolled
Annealed 25-45 70-85 55-35 B68 max
Spring temper 90-130 100-140 15-2 B98 min
Monel alloy R-405
Rod and bar
Annealed 25-40 70-85 50-35 B60-76
Hot finished 35-60 75-90 45-30 B72-86
Cold drawn 50-105 85-115 35-15 B85-C23
Monel alloy 404
Rod
Annealed 25 67 47 B58
Hot rolled 31 69 45 B67
Cold drawn, stress-relieved 64 77 29 B84
Strip, cold rolled
Annealed 22 64 44 B54
Monel alloy K-500
Rod and Bar
Annealed 40-60 90-110 45-25 B75-90
Hot finished 40-110 90-155 45-20 B75-C35
Hot finished, aged 100-150 140-190 30-20 C27-38
Plate
Hot finished 40-110 90-135 45-20 B75-C26
Hot finished, aged 100-135 140-180 30-20 C27-37
Strip, cold rolled
Annealed 40-65 90-105 45-25 B85 max
Annealed, aged 90-120 130-170 25-15 C24 min
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-I 37
220~---.---.----.---~----r---,
46
200 44
42
__ 180 40 (f)
(f)
(f)
.:.::
37 c Q)
~
34 :r::0
(f)
31 0
~ 140 27 Q)
3
iii .:.::
c u
Q) 22 0
f- 0::
120 16
9
100 0
80 ~--~----~--~----~--~~--~
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cold Work, %
Fig. 3-1. Effect of cold work and age hardening on the strength and
hardness of alloy K-500 5 •
tensile strength of alloy K -500 are indicated in Fig. 3-1. 5 Age hardening
produces a significant improvement in strength. For example, it results in
an increase in tensile strength of about 30 ksi in material cold worked with
a reduction of 60 %.
Hardness. Rockwell hardness ranges for the four alloys are included
in Table 3-3. The hardness values for alloy 400, alloy R-405, and alloy 404
range from about R60 for annealed material to C20 for cold worked material.
Reflecting its ability to be hardened by aging, the hardness of alloy K-5oo
ranges from about B75 in the annealed condition to a minimum of C24 in
the worked and aged condition. The range of hardness values to be expected
as a result of cold working followed by aging is indicated in Fig. 3-1.
There is an approximate relationship between the tensile properties and
the hardness of Monel alloy 400, which is useful to the engineer. This rela-
tionship is shown in Fig. 3-2 for sheet and strip.3 The tensile strength in-
creases gradually from 70 ksi to 115 ksi with yield strength increasing more
rapidly as the hardness resulting from cold work increases from Rockwell
38 Chapter 3
120
100
80
.iii
..><:
en- ~
en
...
<l>
60 60 ~
-
c
if)
C\J
40 40 c
0
..;=
0
Cl'
c
20 20 0
W
60 70 80 90 100
Rockwell B Hardness
Fig. 3-2. Relationship between tensile properties and hardness
of alloy 400 sheet and strip. 3
B60 to BlOO. In the same hardness range, the elongation falls from about
48% to 5%.
aWater quenched.
bFractured completely.
40 Chapter 3
Temperature, K
400 600 800 1000 1200
160 .........---..-----,-----,.--,...---..,....---,
140
120
(f)
-"" 100
-£
CJ1
C
~ 80
en
-ill
§ 60
f-
40
20
Data on the creep and stress-rupture properties of alloy 400 and alloy
K-500 are included in Table 3_6. 3 ,5 The creep strengths of alloy 400 in the
annealed condition are markedly higher than those of the same alloy in the
hot rolled or the cold rolled stress-relieved conditions and the differences
increase with rising temperatures. The stress for rupture in 100 hours of
annealed material is also somewhat higher than that of material which has
been stress-relieved after cold rolling.
Alloy K-500 in the cold worked and aged condition has much higher
creep strengths than alloy 400 in the 800 to 1000 F range, as might be ex-
pected. As indicated in the table, this alloy has a creep strength at 1100 F
practically equivalent to that of annealed alloy 400 at 1000 F. The differences
in the 100-hour stress rupture strengths are much lower.
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
160
140
120
20
McClintock and Gibbons 6 included data on alloy 400 and alloy K-500
in their compilation of low-temperature properties. As shown in Fig. 3-4,
the strength of alloy 400 in both the annealed and worked conditions increases
continuously with falling temperatures. Similarly, the strength of alloy K-500
also increases, the difference in strength between the aged and unaged material
remaining practically constant as the temperature falls (Fig. 3-5).
The ductility of alloy 400 as measured by impact tests remains practi-
cally unaffected as the temperature falls to very low values, as shown in Fig.
3-6. 6 Although the Izod values are considerably lower than the Charpy, both
follow the same trend.
Fatigue data on alloy K-500 cold rolled and aged to a tensile strength of
182 ksi are given in Table 3-7. 5 In common with the other mechanical prop-
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-I 43
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
240
200
160
en
.Y
ul 120
en
~
U5
80
20
--
I Ann. I
200 - ~=;
160 - -
>. 120- -
01
"-
CLl - ___ • Ann.
W
C
80 r-
-------------,-
40 r- -
-CharpyV
----Izod
I I I I I
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 3-6. Subzero-temperature impact properties of alloy 400. 6
44 Chapter 3
erties of the Monel alloys, the fatigue strength increases with falling tem-
perature.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of these two casting alloys are given in
Table 3_8. 8 ,9 With the exception of the modulus of elasticity, which is con-
siderably lower, the physical properties of alloy 410 are quite similar to
those of alloy 400, which were given in Table 3-2.
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-I 45
Physical properties
Melting temperature range, F 2400-2450 2300-2350
Specific heat (32-212 F), Btu/lb;oF 0.13 0.13
Thermal conductivity (68-212 F),
Btu/hr/ft2;oF/ft 15.5 11.3
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70-1000 F),
per of 9.2 x 10- 6 8.9 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft 320 380
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 23,000 24,000
Density,lb/in. 3 0.312 0.302
Mechanical properties
Yield strength (0.2 % offset), ksi 35 75 110
Tensile strength, ksi 75 115 135
Elongation (2 in.), % 40 10 2
Brinell hardness 150 225 340
Charpy impact (V-notch), ft-lb 70
Reflecting the higher silicon content, the melting range of alloy '505 is
about 100 F lower than that of alloy 410, whereas the electrical resistivity is
considerably higher and the thermal conductivity is somewhat lower.
Mechanical Properties
Typical mechanical properties of the two nickel-copper casting alloys
are given in Table 3-8. The "as cast" tensile properties of alloy 410 lie in the
same range as those of annealed alloy 400, but the toughness as measured by
the Charpy method is considerably lower.
Reflecting the higher silicon content, alloy 505 has considerably higher
strength and hardness than alloy 410 but the elongation is much lower. Age
hardening of alloy 505 results in a significant increase in strength and hard-
ness with a corresponding reduction in ductility.
Warren and Reed! 0 included alloy 410 in their investigation of mechan-
ical properties at low temperatures. As shown in Fig. 3-7, both tensile and
yield strength increase continuously as the temperature falls from room to
-423 F. Charpy V-notch impact tests showed very little loss in energy
absorbed as the temperature was reduced: 41 ft-lb at room temperature,
39 ft-Ib at -320 F.
46 Chapter 3
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
160
140
~120
en
<f)
Q)
'-
iii 100
80
60
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
NICKEL-MOLYBDENUM ALLOYS
Composition, %
Designation Ni Co Mo Cr Fe C Other
aMaximum.
ing agents, moist chlorine gas and chlorine solutions, and to oxidizing acids
and many organic acids and salts. It is resistant to oxidizing and reducing
atmospheres up to 2000 F.14
Hastelloy alloy N was developed for resistance to molten fluoride salts.
It has good oxidation resistance up to 1800 F.J5
Hastelloy alloy X has excellent strength and oxidation resistance up to
2200 F. It also resists stress-corrosion crackingY
A number of other Hastelloy alloys are available including alloy B 282
for service in strong reducing media in the as-welded condition, alloy C 276
for all-around corrosion resistance in the as-welded condition, and alloy G for
resistance to hot sulfuric and phosphoric acids. These alloys will not be
discussed in this publication.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the nickel-molybdenum alloys are given
in Table 3_10. 13 ,14,15,16 The electrical resistivities, ranging from 712 to 811
ohmsjcir mil ft, are much higher than those of the nickel-copper alloys
discussed previously, and the thermal conductivities are considerably lower.
The coefficients of thermal expansion are generally lower than those of the
nickel-copper alloys but there is no great difference between the two series of
alloys. On the other hand, the moduli of elasticity of the nickel-molybdenum
alloys are markedly higher than those of the nickel-copper alloys. Although
not listed in the table, the nickel-molybdenum alloys under discussion are
virtually nonmagnetic.
Mechanical Properties
Nominal tensile properties and hardness values for the four alloys
under discussion in several forms and conditions are given in Table
Yield
strength Tensile Elongation
(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), Rockwell
Form and condition ksi ksi % hardness
Hastelloy alloy B
Sheet
2000 F, raea 67 104 51 B96
Cold rolled, 10% 110 147 33
Cold rolled, 20% 138 164 22
Bar
2125 F, rae 56 127 52 B95
Hastelloy alloy C
Sheet
2225 F, rae 68 128 49 B91
2225 F, rae, aged 16 hr, 82 146 44 B98
l100F
Cold rolled, 20 % 1I8 145 23
Bar
2225 F, rae 51 121 50 B94
Hastelloy alloy N
Sheet
2150 F, rae 46 115 51 B96
Hastelloy alloy X
Sheet
2150 F, rae 50 112 43 B90
2150 F, rae, aged 25 hr, 58 121 28
1400F
Plate
2175 F, wqb 54 1I4 41
aRapid air cooled. bWater quenched.
Nickel-Base Corrosion and Heat-Resistant Alloys-I 49
3_11. 13 ,14,15,16 Alloy B and alloy N can be hardened only by cold work but
alloy C and alloy X can be aged to achieved a moderate improvement in
tensile properties.
Izod Charpy
Form and condition (V-notch) (V-notch)
Hastelloy alloy B
Bar
2150 F, rac· 58-62
Hastelloy alloy C
Bar
2225 F, rac 21-23
Hastelloy alloy N
Bar
2150 F, rac 80-88
Hastelloy alloy X
Plate
2150 F, wqb 54
2150 F, wq, 168 hr, 1500 F 9
2150 F, wq, 500 hr, 1600 F 9
2150 F, wq, 500 hr, 1800 F 20
2150 F, wq, 50 hr, 1900 F 30
on alloy X indicate that this alloy is considerably more shock resistant in the
solution-annealed condition than it is after aging. They also indicate that the
aging conditions have a marked effect on the toughness.
Temperature, K
400 600 800 1000 1200
140
120
·Vi
100
--X:
£
c;, 80
c:
~
if)
(j) 60
Vi
c:
(j)
f-
40
20
Hastelloy alloy B
Sheet, 0.078 in.
2000 F, rae· 50 24b 15.9
Hastelloy alloy C
Sheet, 0.050-0.141 in.
2250 F, rae 50 33 18 10 e
Hastelloy alloy N
Sheet, 0.063 in.
2150 F, rae 55d 26 e 9 3.7
Hastelloy alloy X
Sheet
2150 F, rae 42 26 14 6.2 3.8
the other materials but retains a greater proportion of its strength than the
others as the temperature increases.
Fatigue tests on alloy B bar, water quenched from 2000 F and aged at
1200 F for 4 hours, showed an endurance limit of 66 ksi at 1200 F and 10 8
cyclesY Similar tests on alloy N sheet, after rapid air cooling from 2150 F,
showed the following stresses for failure in 10 8 cycles:
47.5 ksi at 1100 F
38 ksi at 1300 F
23 ksi at 1500 F
Low-Temperature Properties
As shown in Fig. 3-9, the tensile strength of alloy B cold rolled sheat
increases with falling temperature. 1 7 The increase is gradual for material
which had been cold worked 20% but is very marked below about -320 F
for material cold worked 40 %. Elongation also increased but there was a
downward trend for the material that had been cold worked 40 %, at tempera-
tures below -320 F.
Alloy X plate also showed an increase in strength with falling tempera-
turesY On material which had been water quenched from 2150 F, the tensile
strength was 150 ksi at -321 F compared with 104 ksi at room temperature.
The elongation, however, remained virtually the same at the two tempera-
tures: 45.5% at -321 F and 46.2% at room temperature.
52 Chapter 3
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
280
260
"Vi
~
240 60
.c
g.220 50 ~
~
(jj c
o
(!) '"5
~200
c
40 g
o
~ W
180 30
160 20
140
Hastelloy alloy B
Bar
2125 F, raca Room 60
-58 49
-148 53
-326 53
Hastelloy alloy C
Bar
2225 F, rac Room 21-23
-58 25
-148 22
-326 27
HasteJloy alloy X
Plate
2150 F, wqb Room 54
-20 56
-108 51
-216 44
-321 37
The four Hastelloy alloys discussed previously are also produced in cast
form. Another group of cast corrosion-resistant alloys is called "IIlium"
alloys by its originator. This group includes three nickel-chromium-molyb-
denum aIloys having the following designations and nominal compositions:
Designation Composition, %
Ni Mo Cr Cu Fe
IIlium B 52 8.5 28 5.5 1.15
IIlium 98 55 8.5 28 5.5 1.0
Illium G 56 6.4 22.5 6.5 6.5
Illium B is a machinable wear- and corrosion-resistant alloy developed
54 Chapter 3
for corrosion resistance where resistance to erosion, galling, and wear must
also be considered. I 8
Illium 98 is a machinable casting alloy developed to withstand the cor-
rosive attack of 98 %sulfuric acid at elevated temperatures. It is also resistant
to other nonhalogen acids. I 8
Illium G is a machinable casting alloy which is resistant to attack by
acids and alkalies under oxidizing and reducing conditions up to moderately
high temperatures, especially to most sulfur compounds. 18
Physical Properties
The physical properties of the four cast Hastelloy alloys are similar to
those of the corresponding wrought alloys and are given in Table 3-2.
No data were found on the physical properties of Illium B or Illium 98
but the following properties were reported for Illium G: 18
Specific heat, Btu/lbtF 0.105
Thermal conductivity (70 F), Btu/hr/fPtF/ft 7.0
Coefficient of thermal expansion (32-1472 F), per of 8.5 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohmsJcir mil ft 743
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 24,300
Density, Ib/in. 3 0.31
The electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity of Illium G lie in the
same range as those of the Hastelloy alloys and its coefficient of expansion is
about the same as that of Hastelloy alloy N.
Mechanical Properties
The properties of the Hastelloy alloys in the form of sand and invest-
ment castings are given in Table 3_15. 13 ,14,15,16 The strengths of the cast
alloys in the "as cast" condition are somewhat lower than those of the cor-
responding wrought alloys in the annealed condition, as will be apparent
from a comparison of Table 3-15 with Table 3-11. The ductilities of the cast
alloys are much lower than those of the wrought materials. However, the
Rockwell hardness values of the cast and wrought materials are comparable.
The cast alloys are also less tough than the corresponding wrought materials,
as indicated by the data in Tables 3-12 and 3-15.
The strength of alloy B can be improved considerably by aging, and this
effect is accompanied by a small increase in ductility. On the other hand,
although the strength of alloy C can be improved to some extent by aging,
the ductility is adversely affected.
Properties of the Illium alloys in the "as cast" condition are included
Table 3-15. Nominal Mechanical Properties of Cast Nickel-Molybdenum and
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum All oys I3,14,IS,16,18 2
n'
,..
Yield strength Tensile Elongation Reduction Impact ~
(0,2 % offset), strength, (in 1 in,), of area, Rockwell (V-notch), l1li
II>
Form and condition ksi j:si hardness ft-Ib III
% % CD
(')
Hastelloy alloy B 0
Sand cast
...
lOb
;;III
2125 F, 1 hr, raca 50 90 10 B93 18 c
Investment cast 0'
~
As cast 53 85 15 15 B93 13 e .
II>
Cast, aged 25 hr, 1475 F 64 107 18 21 B97 ~
c.
Hastelloy alloy C %
CD
Sand cast II>
2250 F, 1 hr, rae 51 83 9b 12 B93 20 c 1-
:u
Investment cast CD
III
As cast 52 89 11 12 B96 iii'
Cast, aged 25 hr, 1475 F 76 98 4 5 C37 II>
~
..
Hastelloy alloy N
Sand cast ~
0'
2150 F, rae 44 87 22 '<
III
Investment cast
2150 F, rae 37 86 17 28d -I
Hastelloy alloy X
Sand cast
As cast 43 78 23 27 B89
Investment cast
As cast 46 70 12 17 B87
IIIium B
As cast 62 1.0b 244-
IIIium 98
As cast 54 18 b 22 160-
Illium G
As cast 39 68 8b 11 168- 61 CII
CII
-Rapid air cooled. .In 2 in. cIzod. ·Charpy. ·Brinell. INotched specimen, type of test not specified.
56 Chapter 3
also in Table 3-15. 18 These alloys are not as strong as the cast Hastelloy
alloys. Illium B is quite brittle in the "as cast" condition but Illium 98 and
Illium G have ductilities which are comparable with those of the Hastelloy
alloys in the "as cast" condition.
NICKEL-SILICON ALLOYS
Physical Properties
The physical properties of Hastelloy alloy D are given in Table 3-16Y
Although the compositions are not comparable in any sense, some of the
physical properties of alloy D lie in the same range as those of the nickel-
copper alloys previously discussed. These include the specific heat, thermal
Physical properties
Melting temperature range, F 2030-2048
Specific heat (70 F), Btu/lbrF 0.11
Thermal conductivity (72 F), Btu/hr/ft 2 /oF/ft 12
Coefficient of thermal expansion (32-1800 F), per OF 10.1 x 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft 679
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 28,800
Density, Ib/in. 3 0.281
Mechanical properties
Tensile strength, ksi 115
Elongation (1 in.), % 1
Reduction of area, % 1
Rockwell hardness C30-39
Izod impact, ft-Ib 1-2
Transverse breaking strengtha
Load,lb 5
Deflection, in. 0.070-0.080
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of Hastelloy alloy D are included also in
Table 3-16. The alloy is generally furnished in the solution-annealed condition
to provide optimum machinability. This treatment consists of heating at
1800-1850 F followed by furnace cooling.
The tensile strength of Hastelloy alloy D is comparable with that of
Monel alloy 505 in the annealed condition and with Hastelloy alloy C "as
cast" and age hardened. However, alloy D is much less ductile than the other
two alloys as indicated by the low values of elongation and reduction of area.
REFERENCES
1. S. J. Rosenberg, Nickel and Its Alloys, Monograph 106, National Bureau of Standards
(1968).
2. Handbook ofHuntington Alloys, Huntington Alloy Products Division, The International
Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
3. Engineering Properties of Monel Nickel-Copper Alloys, Tech. Bull. T5, Huntington
Alloy Products Division, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
4. M. E. Langston and C. H. Lund, Physical Properties of Some Nickel-Base Alloys,
OTS PB 151086, Battelle Memorial Institute (1960).
5. Engineering Properties of Monel Alloy K-500, Huntington Alloy Products Division,
The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1965).
6. R. M. McClintock and H. P. Gibbons, Mechanical Properties of Structural Materials
at Low Temperatures, Monograph 13, National Bureau of Standards (1960).
7. J. T. Eash and T. E. Kihlgren, "Effect of composition on the properties and structure
of cast monel," Trans. Amer. Foundrymen's Soc. 57, 535 (1949).
8. Properties of Some Metals and Alloys, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
9. J. S. Yanick, "Nickel-base alloy castings," Cast Metals Handbook, Amer. Foundry-
men's Soc. (1957), p. 291.
10. K. A. Warren and R. 1". Reed, Tensile and Impact Properties of Selected Materials
from 20 to 300 K, Monograph 63, National Bureau of Standards (1963).
11. R. J. Favor, D. A. Roberts, and W. P. Achbach, Design Information on Nickel-Base
Alloys for Aircraft and Missiles, OTS PB 151090, Battelle Memorial Institute (1960).
12. Corrosion Resistance of Union Carbide Alloys, Union Carbide Corp., Stellite Division
(1966).
13. Hastelloy alloy B, ibid. (1967).
14. Hastelloy alloy C, ibid. (1966).
15. Hastelloy alloy N, ibid. (1967).
16. Hastelloy alloy X, ibid. (1968).
17. F. R. Schwartzberg, S. H. Osgood, R. D. Keys, and T. F. Kiefer, Cryogenic Materials
Data Handbook, AD 609562, The Martin Co. (1964).
18. Illium Alloys, Stainless Foundry and Engineering, Inc. (1969).
19. Hastelloyalloy D, Union Carbide Corp., Stellite Division (1960).
Chapter 4
NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS
The basic member of this group of alloys is Inconel alloy 600. This alloy
was developed for use in severely corrosive environments at elevated tem-
peratures. It is resistant to oxidation at temperatures up to 2150 F and also
58
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-II 59
Composition, %
aplus cobalt.
g
Alloy 600 Alloy 601 Alloy 625 Alloy 718 Alloy X-750
aDynamic. "Computed. cAnnealed. dAged. 'As hot rolled. ISolution treated and double aged.
o
::r
III
'tI
;-
....,.
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-II 61
alloy 722 for special applications in jet engines; and alloy 751, a modification
of alloy X-750. 3 These alloys will not be discussed.
Physical Properties
The physical properties of the nickel-chromium alloys included in
Table 4-1 are given in Table 4_2. 4 ,5,6,7,8 In the 600 series, the total alloy
content increases from alloy 600 to alloy 625 and this progression is reflected
in some of the physical properties.
Thus the thermal conductivity decreases and the electrical resistivity
increases markedly from alloy 600 to alloy 625. There is also a moderate
decrease in the elastic constants. However, the Curie temperatures of alloy
601 and alloy 625 are much lower than that of alloy 600. All three materials
are essentially nonmagnetic to quite low temperatures.
Both alloy 718 and alloy X-750 are age harden able and this property
influences some of the physical properties, as can be noted from the table.
Age hardening influences the electrical resistivity moderately but has con-
siderable effect on the magnetic properties. Thus, the Curie temperatures of
the alloys in the solution-annealed condition are considerably lower than
those in the aged condition. Essentially, the properties of these two age
hardenable alloys fall within the range of those of the 600 series, however.
Mechanical Properties
Room- Temperature Properties
Inconel alloy 600, alloy 601, and alloy 625 are not harden able by heat
treatment. Strengthening can be achieved only by cold work. On the other
hand, both alloy 718 and alloy X-750 can be strengthened by heat treatments
which result in age hardening.
that of alloy 600, to 225 ksi for sheet which had been aged after cold rolling.
The corresponding elongations were 62 % and 8 %.
Inconel alloy X-750 is also age hardenable with tensile strengths ranging
up to 200 ksi in the aged condition. Even as aged, however, the ductility of
alloy X-750, as measured by the elongation, is considerably higher than that
of alloy 718.
The relationship between the tensile properties and hardness of alloy 600
is indicated in Fig. 4-1 for hot rolled and cold drawn rods. s The yield strength
rises rapidly, the tensile strength more gradually as the hardness resulting
from cold work increases from Rockwell B70 to BI05. The ductility is
reduced during cold work but the reduction of area is less affected than
the elongation.
The effect of cold reduction on the tensile properties of alloy 625 is
shown in Fig. 4-2.6 Although the strength levels achieved are considerably
160
140
120
100
'Vi
.::r:.
ul ~
(/)
Q)
80 80 ~
"-
en
Q)
"-
<{
60 60 '0
-0
Q)
n::
40 40.-.:-
.S
C\J
20 20 g'
o
W
60 70 80 90 100 110
Rockwell 8 Hardness
Fig. 4-1. Relationship between the tensile properties and hard-
ness of hot rolled and cold drawn alloy 600 rods. 5
64 Chapter 4
220 r---~----r-----r-----.
200
180
160
'Vi
-'<:: 140
c.n-
c.n
....
(l)
(jj 120 80
100 60 0
~
<!
'+-
80 40 0
"0
(l)
0:::
60 20 CJl
c
o
W
o 20 40 60 80
Cold Reduction, %
Fig. 4-2. Effect of cold work on the tensile properties
of alloy 625 strip.6
higher than those of alloy 600, a similar relationship exists between cold
work and the properties developed.
Hardness. Rockwell hardness values for some of the alloys are included
also in Table 4-3. The hardness of alloy 600 ranges from B65 in the annealed
condition to C30 for strip cold rolled to spring temper. The hardness of
alloy 718 ranges from B83 in the annealed condition to C45 in the aged
condition and that of alloy X-750 ranges up to C41 in the age hardened
condition.
The limited data indicate that the endurance ratio of alloy 600 is reduced
moderately by cold work.
The effects of aging treatments on the fatigue properties of alloy 718 are
also included in Table 4-4. 7 Aging this alloy reduces the endurance ratio.
The fatigue strength of alloy X-750 in the aged condition approximates that
of alloy 718.
V-notch Keyhole
"1750 F, I hr, air cooled; 1325 F, 8 hr, furnace cooled to 1150 F and held for total aging time of 18 hr.
"1950 F, I hr, air cooled; 1400 F, 10 hr, furnace cooled to 1200 F and held for total aging time of 20 hr.
'2100 F, 2 hr, 1550 F, 24 hr, 1300 F, 20 hr.
'1300 F, 20 hr.
are quite tough, although the treatment given the age hardenable alloys
influences the impact resistance. Thus, changing the aging conditions for
alloy 718 more than doubles the toughness as measured by the impact test.
Additional data on toughness are included in the section on low-temperature
properties.
"Annealed 1700-1850 F; aged 1325 F, 8 hr, furnace cooled to 1150 F and held for total aging time of 18 hr.
.Annealed 2100 F, 2-4 hr, air cooled; 1550 F, 24 hr, air cooled; 1300 F, 20 hr. ....GI
68 Chapter 4
Temperature, K
300 500700 900 1100 1300
200 r-r----r-----.-----..----.----,--r
180
160
140
(f)
..0.:::
L
-
"&
c 120
~
(f)
~ 100
-Vi
c
Q)
I-
80
60
40
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
240 r-~.---.---~--~--~--~
220
200
"(j)
.:.: 180
..r:::.
0>
c
~ 160
(f)
-'!!
"(j)
a3 140
f-
120
100
80 ~~--~----~--~--~--~
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 4-4. Subzero-temperature tensile strengths of some
nickel-chromium alloys. 7, 10 (1) Alloy X-750, solution an-
nealed and aged; (2) alloy 718, solution annealed and aged;
(3) alloy 600, cold reduced 50%; (4) alloy 600, cold reduced
20%; (5) alloy 600, as rolled.
70 Chapter 4
Composition, %
Designation Ni Cr Fe Si Cu C Cb +Ti
Inconel alloy 610 68.5 15.5 Bal. 1.5 0.5 0.2 2.0
Inconel alloy 705 68 15.5 Bal. 5.5 0.5 0.2
HW 60 12 Bal. 2.5 a 0.55
HX 66 17 Bal. 2.5a 0.55
aMaximum.
Physical Properties
Limited physical property data on the four alloys are given in Table
4_9. 11 ,13 Alloy 705, reflecting the higher silicon content, has a higher electrical
resistivity than alloy 610, which in turn has a much higher resistivity than that
of wrought alloy 600. However, the thermal conductivities of alloy 600 and
610 are comparable.
The coefficients of thermal expansion of these cast materials lie in the
same range as those of the wrought nickel-chromium alloys.
The modulus of elasticity of alloy 610 is comparable with that of alloy
.....
N
Table 4-9. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Some Cast Nickel-Chromium All oys ll.13
o
:::r
til
~...
...
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-II 73
600. However, the three other cast alloys have moduli considerably lower
than those of the wrought nickel-chromium alloys.
Mechanical Properties
Typical mechanical properties of the four casting grades of nickel-
chromium alloys are included also in Table 4-9.
Reflecting the higher silicon content, alloy 705 is somewhat stronger
and, in particular, has a much higher yield strength than alloy 610. This
improvement in strength, however, is accompanied by a drastic reduction in
ductility as measured by the elongation. Alloy 705 can be age hardened after
annealing to achieve properties which are practically the same as those given
in the table for the "as cast" condition.
Alloys HW and HX are not as strong as the other two alloys but they
are somewhat more ductile than alloy 705. Alloys 610, HW, and HX have
comparable hardness values as cast but all are much softer than alloy 705.
NICKEL-IRON-CHROMIUM ALLOYS
Composition, %
Designation Nia Fe Cr Al Ti Mo Cu
"Plus cobalt.
Physical Properties
"70-1750 F.
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-II 75
Mechanical Properties
Room-Temperature Properties
None of these alloys can be hardened by heat treatment. Strength and
hardness can be increased only by cold work. As will be mentioned later,
special annealing is used to enhance certain properties.
Yield
strength Tensile Elongation
(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), Rockwell
Form and condition ksi ksi % hardness
Incoloy alloy 800
Rod and bar
Annealed 30-60 75-100 60-30 B65-90
Hot finished 35-90 80-120 50-25 B75-95
Cold drawn 75-125 100-150 30-10 B85-C35
Plate
Annealed 30-60 75-105 50-30
Hot rolled 30-65 80-110 50-25
Sheet and strip
Annealed 30-55 75-105 50-30 B88 max
All forms and sizes
Solution-annealed 20-50 70-95 50-30 B55-90
Incoloy alloy 804
Mill-annealed (1900 F, 1/2 hr) 45 95 40 B85
Solution-annealed (2000 F, 2 hr) 34 89 53 B69
Incoloy alloy 825
Rod and bar
Annealed (1725 F, 1 hr) 44 100 43
tensile strength of alloy 800 ranges from about 75 ksi for annealed material
to about 150 ksi for material that has been cold worked and the elongation
ranges from 60 % for annealed to 10 % for cold worked material. Solution
annealing results in somewhat lower strength. The purpose of this treatment
will be discussed under elevated-temperature properties.
Only limited data are available for alloy 804 and alloy 825. Both have
tensile properties in the annealed condition which are comparable with those
of alloy 800. The solution annealing of alloy 804 yields a product that is
76 Chapter 4
Hardness. Rockwell hardness values for the Incoloy alloys are included
also in Table 4-12. The hardness of alloy 800 ranges from about B95 for
material which has been given a conventional anneal to C35 after cold work-
ing. Solution annealing yields the lowest hardness obtainable in this alloy,
a minimum of about B55.
The hardness of alloy 804 lies in the same range as that of alloy 800 and
solution annealing again reduces the hardness.
70
60
~ 50
vi
If)
Q)
"-
(j) 40
30
20
7
10 4 106 10
Cycles
Charpy impact
(V-notch),
Form and condition ft-lb Ref.
Incoloy alloy 800
Annealed at 2050 F 207 14
Plate, annealed at 1800 F, 1 hr 90a
Incoloy alloy 804
Annealed 56 b 15
Cold worked 28 b
Incoloy alloy 825
Plate 79- 16
o::T
DI
"C
::
.
.po.
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-II 79
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100
120 r-r---r---r----r---,.----,,...:..,
100
-Vi
.0<:,80
..c
Q,
c 3
~ 60
(f)
~
Vi
c 40
~
20
Temperature, K
.g 50 100 150 200 250 300
--
~IOO~~--~--~---.---.---n
L
U ~ Alloy 800
c 80
-0
Q)
(5
L
ii)'
~
60
----
~~AlIoy825
uo
Cl. 40
.£
>-
2
Cl.
20~~----~----~--~~--~----~
<.) -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 4-7. Subzero-temperature impact properties of two nickel-
iron---<:hromium alloys in the annealed condition. 14 • 16
REFERENCES
Nickel-Base Superalloys
Temperature, K
1000 1100 1200 1300
100 r--....--.,.----~----..-------,I'"t
"in
~
80
.r::.
~
0
Q
60
.r::.
"&
c
~
i/) 40
~
~
Q.
:::J
20
a:::
WROUGHT ALLOYS
Composition, %a
Designation C Cr Co Mo Ti Al Other
M-252 0.15 20.0 10.0 10.0 2.6 1.0 0.005 B
Waspaloy 0.08 19.5 13.5 4.3 3.0 1.3 0.006 B; 0.06 Zr
Rene 41 0.09 19.0 11.0 10.0 3.1 1.5 0.005 B
Udimet 500 0.08 18.0 18.5 4.0 2.9 2.9 0.006 B; 0.05 Zr
Nimonic 115 0.15 15.0 15.0 3.5 4.0 5.0
TDNickel 2.2 ThO z
"Nickel remainder. With the exception of TD Nickel, the alloys are arranged in order of increasing Al + Ti
content.
Nickel-Base Superalloys 85
Physical Properties
Representative physical properties of the six selected alloys are given
in Table 5-2.3, S, 6, 7 With the exception of TD Nickel, the physical properties
of these materials are quite comparable with each other. The electrical
resistivities of the precipitation harden able alloys are quite high and their
thermal conductivities correspondingly low. These properties lie in the same
range as those of the nickel-chromium alloys discussed in Chapter 4. They
are practically nonmagnetic and have permeabilities in the same range as
those of the nickel-chromium alloys. Their coefficients of thermal expansion
are comparable with those of certain of the chromium-nickel stainless steels.
The physical properties of TD Nickel are quite different. Rices noted that
this material is approximately 98 %nickel with 2 % inert oxide. Therefore its
properties are quite close to those of nickel. For example, the electrical
resistivity and thermal conductivity lie within the same range as those of
commercial nickel. Thus TD Nickel is a much better conductor of electricity
and heat than the precipitation harden able superalloys. The coefficient of
thermal expansion of TD Nickel also approaches that of commercial nickel
but is also comparable with those of the other superalloys under discussion.
The elastic properties of these alloys, again with the exception of TD
Nickel, lie within the same range as those of other wrought nickel-base alloys
discussed previously. The modulus of elasticity of TD Nickel, on the other
hand, is much lower than that of commercial wrought nickel and is compa-
rable with that of commercial cast nickel.
The effects of temperature on the dynamic modulus of elasticity of these
materials are indicated in Fig. 5-2.3 The age hardenable alloys are shown as
a band because their properties are quite close together. This modulus can
be determined from the natural frequency of a length of rod or sheet of known
(1)
en
Nimonic
M-252 Waspaloy Rene 41 Udimet 500 115 TD Nickel
'Annealed 2150 F, air cooled. 'Annealed 1975 F, air cooled. cDynamic modulus.
o
:r
III
1.
en
Nickel-Base Superalloys 87
Temperature, K
40000 300 500 700 900 1100 1300
,
.£ 30,000
u
Ui
o
w
'+-
o
If)
:::J
:; 20,000
D
o
~
Mechanical Properties
somewhat more ductile than the other two alloys. The two heat treatments
used for Rene 41 resulted in considerable variations in strength properties
with less variation in ductility. The ductility of Rene 41 appears to be com-
parable with those of M-252 and Udimet 500.
TD Nickel is produced by compacting and rolling a powder produced
by the aqueous reduction of nickel ammonium carbonate in which an aquesol
of thoria is incorporated according to Rice. S After compaction, the material
is usually sintered in hydrogen. Subsequent hot rolling, cold rolling, and
annealing determine the properties. As shown in Table 5-3, the room-tempera-
ture strength of TD Nickel is much lower than those of the precipitation
harden able alloys, but the ductility lies approximately in the same range.
RiceS notes that exposure to elevated temperatures has virtually no effect
on the room-temperature tensile strength or on the shock resistance of TD
Nickel. As an example, he notes that the Charpy V-notch impact value was
34 ft-Ib for material in the "as received" condition and fell only to 30 ft-Ib
after exposure of 100 hours at 2400 F.
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
200 ,....,...---r----,----..,.----,---,I""""'I
180
160
140
~
..c
0, 120
c
.....~
Cf)
.Si! 100
'iii
c
~
80
60
40
20 L-_....l-_---'-_ _....L.-_---I..._;::a..J
M-252
Bar, heat treateda 1200 98 79
1400 52 38
1600 23 10
Waspaloy
Bar, heat treated b 1200 110 86
1400 60 42
1600 25 16
Rene 41
Bar, heat treated c 1200 100
1400 64 40
1600 23 14
Udimet 500
Bar, heat treated b 1200 135 110
1400 66 47
1600 29 18
Nimonic 115
Bar, heat treatedd 1400 79 61
1600 38 27
1800 16 9.5
TD Nickel
Stress-relieved 1200 28 26
1400 23 21
1600 18 16
1800 14 13
2000 11 9.5
jet-engine burner cans, the former was superior by a wide margin after 151
hours.
Low- Temperature Properties
The high strengths of the nickel-base superalloys have led to the investi-
gation of some of them for possible service at subzero temperatures. Among
these are Rene 41, Waspaloy, and TD Nickel. Others were discussed in
Chapters 3 and 4.
92 Chapter 5
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
260~~----~--~--T---~--~
240
220
200
"Vi
->C 180
..c
0,
c
QJ
In 160
~
Vi
~ 140
f-
120
100
80
As shown in Fig. 5-4, the strengths of all three of the alloys mentioned
in the preceding paragraph increase as the temperature is reduced below zero.
There is, however, some difference in the rate of change. The greatest increase
in strength occurs in material which has been solution annealed.
The tensile strength of Rene 41 bar stock in the solution-annealed condi-
Nickel-Base Superalloys 93
tion increased from 188 ksi at room temperature to 255 ksi at -400 F. The
tensile strength of Rene 41 sheet increased from about 135 ksi at room
temperature to 200 ksi at -400 F, whereas the strength of aged hardened
sheet increased only from 181 ksi to 209 ksi with the same temperature
change.
Similarly, the strength of solution annealed Waspaloy sheet increased
from approximately 142 ksi at room temperature to about 215 ksi at -423 F,
whereas the strength of age hardened material increased only from 178 ksi
at room temperature to 197 ksi at -423 F. In addition, the Waspaloy sheet
in the aged condition reached a peak value in the -250 to -300 F range and
decreased below that range. However, Martin and Miller I 2 note that although
the notched-to-unnotched strength ratio (K, = 10) is below unity for Wasp-
aloy in both the solution annealed and aged conditions, notch sensitivity
would probably not pose any problems at low temperatures.
The tensile strength of TD Nickel also increases significantly with fall-
ing temperatures ranging from 67 ksi at room temperature to 117 ksi at
-423 F. According to Martin and Miller,12 the ductility also shows a marked
increase with falling temperature and no serious problems with notch sen-
sitivity would be expected.
An indication of the toughness of Rene 41 sheet in the solution annealed
condition is given in Fig. 5_5. 11 Charpy V-notch tests, made on subsize speci-
mens, indicated that there was only a small reduction in the energy absorbed
as the temperature was reduced from room temperature to -400 F. There
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
£20
I
+-
'+-
~
..c
u 15
0C
I
>
+-
10
u
0
Q.
.s 5
>.
....
Q.
0
..c
()
0
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 5-5. Subzero-temperature impact properties of Rene
41 solution annealed bar. I I
94 Chapter 5
CAST ALLOYS
Designation C Cr Co Mo Ti Ai Other
aNickel remainder.
Physical Properties
Limited data on the physical properties of these alloys are given in Table
5_6. 3 • 7 • 14 The thermal expansion data indicate that these cast alloys have
expansion characteristics similar to those of the wrought age hardenable
z
n'
~
!!.
,
III
I»
1/1
CD
en
c
"C
CD
!.
0"
<1/1
Table 5-6. Physical Properties of Some Cast Nickel-Base Superall oys 3,7,14
aDynamic modulus.
CD
CII
96 Chapter 5
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
40,000 .-.---,----,---,--,---...,.,
f.30,000
.(3
.~
c
W
'0
VI
-§ 20,000
"0
o
::?!
10,000 L - . . _ . . . I . . - _ - l - _ - - - L_ _L...---I
Mechanical Properties
Room-Temperature Properties
Typical tensile properties for the five alloys in the "as cast" condition are
given in Table 5_7.3.13.14 Alloys GMR-235D, 713C, and IN-loo, which de-
pend primarily on the intermetallic compound, gamma prime, for hardening,
Nickel-Base Superalloys 97
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
160 r-T""---,----r--r---.,...--~
140
60
40 '----'-----'---..........---'------'
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Temperature, F
Fig. 5-7. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths
of some cast superalloys.3.13 (1) IN-l00; (2) MAR-M246;
(3) MAR-M200; (4) GMR-235D; (5) 713C.
98 Chapter 5
prime phase is indicated by the increase in strength which occurs in the 1200
to 1500 F range. Above that range, the strengths fall off rapidly and are so
close together that they have been indicated by a band. At 1800 F, all five of
the alloys have strengths in the 70 to 80 ksi range.
Typical stress-rupture properties of these cast alloys are given in Table
5_8. 3 ,13 The effect of increasing the aluminum and titanium content on im-
proving the rupture properties is indicated by the data reported for GMR-
235D, alloy 713C, and IN-IOO at 1500 F. The stress for rupture in 1000
hours at that temperature, for example, increased from 33.5 ksi for GMR-
235D to 56 for IN-lOO, an improvement of about 75 %. MAR-M200 and Mar-
M246, which contain large quantities of matrix-strengthening elements in
addition to aluminum and titanium, show an additional improvement over
IN-JOO. Their 1000-hour rupture strengths at 1500 Fare 60 and 62 ksi, re-
spectively. This improvement is maintained at the highest temperature on
which data were reported, 1800 F.
REFERENCES
1. S. J. Rosenberg, Nickel and Its Alloys, Monograph 106, National Bureau of Standards
(1968).
2. C. T. Sims, "A contemporary view of nickel-base superalloys," J. Metals, October
1966, p. 1119.
3. High-Temperature High-Strength Nickel-Base Alloys, The International Nickel Co.,
Inc. (1965).
4. J. Prock, Jr. and H. J. Wagner, A Primer of Soviet Superalloys, DMIC Report 235,
Battelle Memorial Institute (1966).
5. L. P. Rice, Metallurgy and Properties of Thoria-Strengthened Nickel, DMIC Memo
210, ibid. (1965).
6. M. E. Langston and C. H. Lund, Physical Properties of Some Nickel-Base Alloys,
DMIC Report 129, ibid. (1960).
7. Properties of Some Metals and Alloys, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
8. H. J. Stokes, "Apparatus for the measurement of Young's modulus between -200
and 700 C by transverse vibration in a vacuum," J. Sci. Inst. 37, 117 (1960).
9. R. J. Favor, D. A. Roberts, and W. F. Ashbach, Design Information on Nickel-Base
Alloys for Aircraft and Missiles, OTS PB 151090, Battelle Memorial Institute (1960).
10. M. J. Donachie, Jr. and E. F. Bradley, "Jet engine materials for the 1970's," Metal
Progress, March 1969, p. 60.
11. F. R. Schwartzberg, S. H. Osgood, H. D. Keys, and T. F. Kiefer, Cryogenic Materials
Data Handbook, AD609562, The Martin Co. (1964).
12. H. L. Martin and P. C. Miller, Effects ofLow Temperature on the Mechanical Properties
of Structural Materials, NASA SP-5012 (01), 1968.
13. Comparative Properties of Union Carbide High-Temperature Alloys, Union Carbide
Stellite Division (1966).
14. J. A. Van Echo and W. A. Simmons, Mechanical and Physical Properties of MAR-
M280, MAR-M302 and MAR-M322, DMIC Memo 193, Battelle Memorial Institute
(1964).
15. Haynes Alloys No. 7J3C, Union Carbide Stellite Division (1966).
Chapter 6
COPPER-NICKEL ALLOYS
Copper and nickel are soluble in each other in all proportions and many
alloys have been developed which are based on this binary alloy system. In
the high nickel end of the system, the major engineering alloys are the Monel
alloys which were discussed in: Chapter 3.
Alloys containing less than 50 % nickel are generally called copper-
nickel alloys in America now although they were formerly often called cupro-
nickels. Basically, these are binary alloys of copper and nickel but iron is
added to some of them to increase the resistance to corrosion and erosion.
In addition, about 1 %manganese is generally included in the composition to
deoxidize the melt and improve the corrosion resistance.
Practically every combination of copper and nickel up to 50 %nickel has
been made and many proprietary alloys are available in this alloy range.
However, the most important copper-nickel alloys for engineering applica-
tions are those containing from 10 to 30 %nickel, specifically those based on
the 90/10, 80/20, and 70/30 compositions. These have been designated CA
706, CA710, and CA 715, respectively, by the Copper Development Associa-
tion. Nominal compositions are given in Table 6-1.1 Another alloy containing
55 % copper and 45 % nickel could also be included with this group. This
100
Copper-Base Nickel Alloys 101
Composition, %
alloy, however, has quite high electrical resistivity and a low temperature
coefficient of resistance and, as a result of these properties, is generally used
in applications which differ from those of the 90/10 to 70/30 groups. It will
be discussed in Chapter 8.
Alloy CA 706, also called Copper-Nickel, 10 %, is modified by the ad-
dition of iron to the base composition. This alloy is commonly used in the
form of tubing for saltwater service lines and heat exchangers. The iron is
added to improve resistance to impingement attack that may occur in any
tube material carrying water at moderate to high velocity.
Alloy CA 710, also called Copper-Nickel, 20%, is used primarily in tube
form for evaporators and heat exchangers. However, it is also used for tur-
bine applications and in electrical components.
Alloy CA 715, also called Copper-Nickel, 30%, is the,most widely used
of the engineering copper-nickel alloys. With small additions of iron and
manganese, it has outstanding resistance to impingement attack and is widely
used in condenser applications on shipboard and in power stations where
sea water is the cooling medium. Because of its excellent corrosion resistance
to a wide variety of media, this alloy is also used in chemical plant construc-
tion.
All three of these copper-nickel alloys are very ductile, a property that
assures good workability. They can be worked hot or cold and can be readily
joined by brazing or welding.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of CA 706, CA 710, and CA 715 are given in
Table 6-2.1. 2 As indicated in the table, there is a gradual change in many of
the physical properties with increasing nickel content.
The melting range increases progressively and that of CA 715 is much
higher than the melting point of pure copper. Because of its higher melting
range, CA 715 is sometimes used for applications where copper brazing is a
102 Chapter 6
desirable method of joining but the melting point of copper is too low to
permit its use.
The electrical resistivity also increases with increasing nickel content
from 115 ohms/cir mil ft for CA 706 to 225 ohms/cir mil ft for CA 715.
Incidently, resistivity continues to increase with nickel content and at 55 %
copper-45 % nickel reaches a value of 300 ohms/cir mil ft.
As would be expected because of its relationship to the electrical prop-
erties, the thermal conductivity decreases with increase in nickel content.
The coefficient of thermal expansion also decreases as the nickel content
increases. This group of copper-nickel alloys is also practically nonmagnetic.
The modulus of elasticity increases progressively with the nickel content
from 18,000 ksi for CA 706 to 22,000 ksi for CA 715. It is noteworthy that the
modulus continues to increase with nickel content and at 55 % copper-45 %
nickel reaches the highest value that is achieved in copper-base alloys. The
modulus of rigidity, like the modulus of elasticity, also increases with the
nickel content.
Mechanical Properties
CA 706
Strip, annealeda 15 44 40 BlO
Tube, annealeda 16 44 42 B15
Light drawn 57 60 10 B73
CA 710
Strip, annealed a 51 27
Tube, annealeda 14 49 40 B25
Light drawn 75 80 B81
CA 715
Bar, hot rolled 20 55 45 B35
Rod, half hard (20%) 70 75 15 B80
Strip, annealeda 22 60 45 B50
Half hard 68 73 12 B80
Hard 73 80 5 B85
Tube, annealeda 25 60 45 B45
Light drawn 75 B85
nickel content. Using annealed strip, for example, the tensile strength of CA
706 is 44 ksi, that of CA 710 is 51 ksi, and that of CA 715 is 60 ksi. The
elongation, however, does not show a similar trend, Actually CA 715 is more
ductile, as measured by the elongation, than CA 706 and considerably more
ductile than CA 710. In particular, cold work has a significant effect on the
yield strengths of all three alloys. At the same time the elongation is reduced
markedly.
The effect of cold roIling on the tensile properties of a 70/30 copper-
nickel alloy is shown in Fig. 6-1.3 This graph points up the significant in-
crease in yield strength that results from working; the tensile strength in-
creases in a more moderate fashion.
The effect of annealing after cold work on the tensile properties of a
70/30 copper-nickel alloy is shown in Fig. 6-2.3 The alloy had been cold rolled
with a reduction of 78 % before annealing. The data indicate that softening is
complete in material annealed at 1200 F.
100 ---.-----.--.....----,
80
~60
vJ
(/)
(j)
~
(f)
40 40 .~
N
c
o
20 20 B
CJl
c
o
W
o 20 40 60 80
Reduction by Rolling, %
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 .........----.----.----,,.----r--..,....,
80
~60 60
(/)
(/)
(j)
~
(f)
40 40·!::
N
c
o
20 20 :gCJl
C
o
W
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Fig. 6-2. Effect of annealing on the tensile properties of 70/30
copper-nickel, cold rolled 78 % betore annealing. 3
Copper-Base Nickel Alloys 105
CA 715, it ranges from B45 to B50, again depending on the form. The
hardness of CA 715 strip ranges from B50 for the annealed condition to B85
for material cold rolled to the hard condition.
the limits specified for the alloys standardized by the Copper Development
Association. Unless the compositions indicate that the alloys met these specifi-
cations, therefore, they are listed merely as 90/10, 80/20, and 70/30 copper-
nickel alloys.
Grover et al. 6 point out that the fatigue strength of copper-nickel alloys
can be increased by cold work but, in general, the increase is not proportional
to the increase in tensile strength. No tensile data were given for a number of
the alloys included in the table. However, annealed 70/30 copper-nickel alloy
had a fatigue strength of 25 ksi at 10 8 cycles (tensile strength 58.5 ksi) and cold
drawn rod had a fatigue strength of 33 ksi at 10 8 cycles (tensile strength 87.3
ksi) which is in line with Grover's comments.
Listed in the table are tests on wire samples of 90/10, 80/20, and 70/30
copper-nickel alloys. The wires had been drawn with a reduction of 88 %
and had fatigue strengths at 10 8 cycles of 28, 34, and 35 ksi respectively.
Apparently, the increase in nickel content had a moderate effect on the fatigue
strength.
106 Chapter 6
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 r-r----r-~--r---...---........,
"iii
80
.><:
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 r-r-----r-----r---,.----,.--...,....-.
"iii
.><:
Q) 80
........
(f)
0
~
N
60
Q
B,
c
40
~
en
"D 20
Q)
"-;:
70/30 alloys, annealed to approximately the same grain size, indicates that
nickel has a marked effect on the long-time strength.
The data in this table show that the copper-nickel alloys retain good
strength at moderately high temperatures. These alloys are among the strong-
est of the copper-base materials at elevated temperatures.
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
100 I I I I I I
r-'
~
80 R of A 80 g
....
~ ~~
<!
'+-
.iii 0
60 60 -D
--
.::.::. r--
en
<f)
Q) - E ---
Q)
a::
~ 40 - 40 ;
20 -
- YS
- 20
N
c
.g
0
0'
C
0
I I J I I W
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 6-5. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of annealed 90/10
copper-nickel. 5
110 Chapter 6
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
100 ~--"----'r----r---~--r---n 100
'S=-
o
80 80 ~
T. s. '+-
o
~ 60 -- E 60 "D
Q)
If> 0::
If>
Q)
c7) 40 40 c
(\J
______ Y S 02 % c
o
20 20"5
0'
c
o
W
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 6-6. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of annealed 70/30
copper-nickel. 2
Temperature, K
50 100 I~ ~O 2~ ~O
100 I'T----y----y----,r----,...--T"I
.ti) 80
.::£ ...... ......
L .........
"& 60 ............ I
c
...
Q)
------.-
i7i _ ... _ 2 ... _
~ 40 ----------
4
20
-Unnotched
----Notched
"Keyhole notch.
do not have an impact transition temperature. Figure 6-7. 8 indicates the effect
of low temperature on the unnotched and notched tensile strength of annealed
80/20 and 70/30 copper-nickel alloys. The toughness of the 70/30 alloy was
not impaired by notches but that of the 80/20 alloy was reduced.
Notch impact tests indicate that the materials are tough to very low
temperatures. No indications of embrittlement were found in the standard
alloys when tested in the annealed condition at temperatures as low as -423F.
Some data on these alloys are given in Table' 6_7. 2 • 5 • 9 No data were found
on the effect of cold working on the low-temperature impact properties.
zation and contributes fluidity; and silicon at 0.25 %aids in producing tough,
pressure-tight castings.
As a means of producing pressure-tight castings in 70/30 copper-nickel
alloy, Kihlgren II suggests melting under oxidizing conditions, adding man-
ganese and silicon a few minutes before pouring to deoxidize the melt, and
completing the deoxidation by adding magnesium in the ladle. He suggests
pouring at 2500 to 2650 F, depending on the section size of the casting, into
generously gated molds made of a refractory open sand. Details are given in
his paper.
According to Shepherd,13 the use of columbium in connection with
silicon yields an alloy considerably stronger than that achieved with silicon
alone. The ratio of silicon to columbium which is selected depends on the
strength-ductility level required. At 49 ksi yield strength, he suggests that the
silicon and columbium content should each be approximately 0.45 %.
A number of copper-nickel casting alloys have been standardized by the
Copper Development Association. Nominal compositions are given in Table
6_8. 13
Composition, %
aMaximum.
In general, these alloys are used for applications similar to those of the
corresponding wrought alloys. Alloys CA 962, CA 963, and CA 964 are
modifications of the 90/10, 80/20, and 70/30 compositions, respectively.
Alloy 966, however, is a 70/30 alloy modified by the addition of beryllium and
is precipitation harden able. It is used for high strength constructional parts
for service in sea water.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the cast copper-nickel alloys are given in
Table 6_9. 13 With the exception of the precipitation hardenable alloy, CA 966
the properties of the alloys are influenced by the nickel content. The melting
range rises with increase in nickel, the thermal and electrical conductivities
oo
"tI
"tI
CD
7
CD
AI
III
CD
Z
Table 6-9. Properties of Some Cast Copper-Nickel Alloys! 3
~
~
CA 962 CA 963 CA 964 CA 966 ~
0"
Physical properties <III
Melting range, F 2010-2100 2100-2190 2140-2260 2010-2160
Specific heat (68 F), Btujlb;oF 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
Thermal conductivity (68 F), Btujhrjft2;oFjft 26 21 17 18
Coefficient of thermal expansion (68-572 F), per of 9.5 x 10- 6 9.1 X 10- 6 9.0 X 10- 6 9.0 X 10- 6
Electrical conductivity (68 F), % lACS 11 6.5 5 4.3 a
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 18,000 20,000 21,000 22,000
Density,lbjin. 3 0.323 0.323 0.323 0.318
Mechanical properties (as sand cast)
Yield strength (0.5 % extn.), ksi 25 55 32 70 a
Tensile strength, ksi 45 75 60 llQa
Elongation (2 in.), % 20 10 20 7a
Brinell hardness 150b 140b 230a
Note: Tensile properties for CA 762, CA 763, and CA 764 are minimum.
aTypical values for material solution-treated at 1825 F, 1 hr, water quenched, aged 950 F, 3 hr.
'Typical values.
....
....
W
114 Chapter 6
Mechanical Properties
Table 6-9 also gives minimum tensile properties determined on sand
cast test bars of alloys CA 962, CA 963, and CA 964. These alloys do not
show the same progression in strength with increasing nickel content that
was characteristic of the wrought copper-nickel alloys. As measured by the
elongation, the alloys have quite good ductility in the "as cast" condition.
Alloy CA 966 can be precipitation hardened to a tensile strength of 110
ksi, which is almost double the strength of CA 965, the conventional 70/30
alloy. However, the elongation of CA 966 in the precipitation hardened
condition is rather low.
Gross and Schwab 4 included a cast 70/30 copper-nickel alloy in their
investigation of fatigue properties. The tensile strength of the alloy "as cast"
was 79 ksi and the fatigue strength at 10 8 cycles was 13 ksi.
Reed and MikeselP reported the effects of low temperatures on the
notched-bar impact resistance of a cast 70/30 copper-nickel alloy having an
"as cast" Brinell hardness of 65 to 74 as follows:
Temperature, F -320 -195 -100 -50 80
Charpy impact (keyhole notch), ft-Ib 86 61 50 60 50
Composition, %
CDA No. Common name Cu Ni Zn
CA 745 Nickel Silver, 65-10 65 10 25
CA 757 Nickel Silver, 65-12 65 12 23
CA 752 Nickel Silver, 65-18 65 18 17
CA 770 Nickel Silver, 55-18 55 18 27
work hardens to the highest yield strength of the group and is commonly
used for springs; the latter is used for forming, drawing, spinning, and stamp-
ing operations. Alloys CA 745 (65% copper-lO% nickel) and CA 757 (65%
copper-I 2 % nickel) are lower nickel modifications of the 65 % copper alloy.
With the increase in the price of nickel, they can be expected to take over some
of the applications now being served by CA 752.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the four nickel silvers are given in Table
6-11. 1 In the group containing 65 % copper, the melting point (liquidus)
increases with the nickel content. The electrical resistivity also increases in
the same manner, and the thermal conductivity decreases. The variation in
nickel content appears to have little influence on the coefficient of thermal
expansion and on the elastic properties.
The 55 % copper-I 8 % nickel alloy, CA 770, has a higher electrical
resistivity than that of the 65 % copper-I 8 % nickel alloy, CA 752, and a
lower thermal conductivity. Again, however, the variation in composition
seems to have little effect on the coefficient of thermal expansion and on the
elastic properties.
Since th.se alloys are modifications of yellow brass, a comparison can be
made with it. In general, the substitution of nickel for zinc in these materials
results in increasing the density and the modulus of elasticity. The electrical
resistivity of the nickel silvers is markedly higher than that of yellow brass.
These nickel silvers have resistivities ranging from 115 to 189 ohms/cir mil
ft as compared with 38 for yellow brass. The thermal conductivity is also
markedly lower than that of yellow brass.
....
....
Q)
aLiquidus.
o
::r
I»
"C
..,....
Q)
Copper-Base Nickel Alloys 117
Mechanical Properties
Room- Temperature Properties
The nickel silvers, like the copper-nickel alloys, can be hardened only by
cold work. The mechanical properties are determined by the annealing
conditions and by the cold work performed after annealing.
Hardness. Rockwell hardness values for the four alloys are given also
in Table 6-12. The hardness ranges from B22 for alloy CA 745 in the softest
condition to B99 for alloy CA 770 in spring temper, For example, in hard
temper, flat products ranged from B87 for CA 752 to B92 for CA 745.
CA 745
Flat products, 0.040 in.
Annealeda 18-28 49-60 49-36 B22-52
Half hard 60 73 12 B80
Hard 75 86 4 B89
Extra hard 76 95 3 B92
Wire, 0.080 in.
Annealeda 50-63 50-35
Spring temper (84 % reduction) 130 1
CA 757
Flat products, 0.040 in.
Annealeda 18-28 52-61 48-35 B22-55
Half hard 60 73 11 B80
Hard 75 85 4 B89
Extra hard 79 93 2 B92
CA 752
Flat products, 0.040 in.
Annealeda 28 59 36 B50
Half hard ')2 74 8 B83
Hard 74 85 3 B87
Rod, 0.500 in.
Annealeda 25 56 42
Half hard (20 % reduction) 60 70 20 B78
Wire, 0.082 in.
Annealeda 28 59 40
Hard 90 103 3
CA 770
Flat products, 0.040 in.
Annealeda 27 60 40 B55
Hard 85 100 3 B91
Spring temper 115 2.5 B99
Wire, 0.080 in.
Annealeda 60 40
Spring temper 145 2
.iii 60
.::t:
vi
<J) ~
....
Q)
401
ii5 N
c
20 20 ..§
0
0-
C
0
W
0 20 40 60 80
Reduction by Roiling, %
120
100
80
.iii
.::t:
vi
<J) 60 60
....
Q)
(/) ~
~
40 40.~
N
c
0
20 20 '"§
0-
C
0
W
0 20 40 60 80
Reduction by Rolling, %
Fig. 6-9. Effect of cold rolling on the tensile properties
of 55-18 nickel silver. 1
120 Chapter 6
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 n::=::::::::-,i-T-Tl
80 80
..c
0,60 60 ~
c
C1J
.;:: c:
(f) N
..!!! 40 40 ';;'
'Vi Q
c
ory
~
20 20 §
W
strength. Thus, the endurance ratio ranges from 0.20 for extra spring temper
to 0.25 for annealed material. A ratio of 0.35 was reported for cold drawn
65/18 nickel silver.
Elevated- Temperature Properties
Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of a 65/10 nickel
silver, which had been cold worked with a reduction of 20 %, are given in
Fig. 6-11. 1 S The material retained most of its room-temperature strength up
Tensile Fatigue
strength, strength, No. of Endurance
Condition ksi ksi cycles ratio
65-18
Rod, cold drawn 62.5 22 5 x 10 7 0.35
55-18
Strip, annealed 66 16.5 10 8 0.25
Hard 98 20.8 10 8 0.22
Spring temper 112 24.7 10 8 0.22
Extra spring 116 23.2 10 8 0.20
Copper-Base Nickel Alloys 121
Temperature, K
300 400 500 600 700 800
80 r--T--,.--,.--..,.--,.----.,
Vi T.S.
~ 60
..c
"&
c
~ 40
(f)
40~
c
C\J
c
-
E 202
o
CJ"I
c
.2
w
o 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature, F
to about 500 F but above that temperature there was a continuous decrease
in strength with rising temperature. The ductility, as measured by the elonga-
tion, also began to decrease at about 500 F and remained low up to 900 F,
the highest temperature used in the investigation.
Only limited creep data have been reported for the nickel silvers. A 74 %
copper-20% nickel-5 % zinc alloy, which had been cold drawn and annealed
at 1200 F, had the following creep strength at 600 F:!5
Creep rate Stress, ksi
0.00001 %/hr 13.8
0.0001 %/hr 27.8
As a basis of comparison, data in Table 6-6 indicate that CA 706 (90/10
copper-nickel) in the annealed condition had a 0.00001 %/hr creep rate at
600 F under a stress of 6.0 ksi.
Temperature, K
50 100
150 200 250 300
120 ,---,.--r---,---,..--..,...---n
100
0(j)
-'<::80
£
&
c::
~60 60
en
<L>
c::
.............. E 40~
c::
o
20 20°g,
c::
o
W
showed that the alloy mentioned in the preceding paragraph retained its
toughness down to the lowest temperature used in the investigation. 1S The
data obtained were
Temperature, F -290 -180 -80 -40 80
Izod impact, ft-Ib 79 80 83 87 80
Composition, %
CDANo. Cu Ni Sn Pb Zn
CA973 56 12 2 10 20
CA974 59 17 3 5 16
CA976 64 20 4 4 8
CA978 66 25 5 2 2
These alloys are designated CA 973, CA 974, CA 976, and CA 978. In this
series, the copper, nickel, and tin contents increase progressively from CA 973
to CA 978. At the same time, the lead and zinc contents decrease.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the four cast nickel silver alloys are given
in Table 6-15,13 As in the wrought types, the melting temperature increases
with the nickel content. Unlike the wrought types, however, there are no mar-
ked differences in the thermal and electrical conductivities of the four alloys.
The coefficient of thermal expansion increases progressively with the nickel
content.
Mechanical Properties
Typical mechanical properties of these materials "as cast" in sand molds
are included also in Table 6-15. Tensile strength increases progressively with
nickel content from 35 ksi for CA 973 to 55 ksi for CA 978. The effects of
strengthening elements are evident for these cast alloys approach the wrought
nickel silvers in strength. The castings are quite ductile as indicated by the
elongation, only alloy CA 978 falling below 20 % elongation. Hardness in-
creases progressively with the nickel content.
Alloy CA 976 with a fatigue strength of 15.5 ksi at 10 8 cycles compares
favorably with wrought 55% copper-18% nickel in endurance properties.
~
o
:::T
II
"tI
CD
..
0)
Copper-Base Nickel Alloys 125
Nominal composition, %
ASTM MPIF Density,
designation designation gjcm3 eu Ni Pb Zn
Physical properties
Coefficient of thermal expansion, per of 9.2 x 10- 6 9.2 X10- 6 9.5 X 10- 6 9.6 X10- 6
Electrical conductivity, % lACS 5 5 5 5
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 14,700 14,000 13,000 14,000
Mechanical properties
Tensile strength, ksi 34.9 38.4- 32.1 35.7-
Elongation (1 in.), % 14 15- 15 18-
Rockwell hardness H80 H84" H76 H79-
Charpy impact (unnotched), ft-lb 10 13 9 12
Modulus of rupture, ksi 66 77 61 71
Note: Sintered at 1760 F, 30 min in nitrogen after preheat at 1020 F. 30 min in nitrogen.
·Sintered density 7.9 gJcm 3 •
o
:r
III
CD
".....
0)
Copper-Base Nickel Alloys 127
Properties
As shown in the table, there is little difference in the physical properties
of these two series of PjM nickel silver parts resulting from differences in
sintered density. Their coefficients of expansion and their electrical resisti-
vities lie in the same range as those of the cast nickel silvers discussed pre-
viously. On the other hand, their moduli of elasticity are somewhat lower.
However, differences in density have a marked effect on the mechanical
properties. All of these properties increase with increasing density in both
compositions. The 64 % copper-I 8 % nickel alloy P/M parts are somewhat
stronger and more ductile than the PjM parts produced from the 64 % cop-
per-I8 % nickel-I.S % lead composition. The tensile strengths of both com-
positions compare favorably with those of the cast nickel silvers. The duc-
tilities of the P 1M parts, however, are somewhat lower than those of the cast
nickel silvers.
REFERENCES
Nickel-Containing
Stainless Steels
Many years ago, it was discovered that chromium increased the corrosion
resistance of iron alloys. From this discovery, there has developed a large
family of alloys which are termed "stainless steels," a rather inaccurate
designation. In order to confer stainless properties, chromium must be pres-
ent in amounts above 11.5 % but, with this as a primary requirement, the
steels can also contain nickel, manganese, molybdenum, etc. Some of the
steels have been standardized, others are produced on a proprietary basis.
For the purpose of this chapter, the nickel-containing stainless steels will be
divided into three groups: wrought, precipitation hardenable, and cast.
series, the chromium-nickel ratio has been altered to change the forming
characteristics; the carbon content has been reduced to prevent intergranu-
lar corrosion after welding; columbium or titanium have been added to
stabilize the structure; molybdenum has been added to improve the corro-
sion resistance in some environments; or elements such as selenium have been
added to improve the machinability. In the 200 series, the desirable austenitic
structure has been maintained by replacing part of the nickel with manganese,
nitrogen, or copper.
Thus a series of steels has evolved, each having a specific purpose. For
example, the chromium-to-nickel ratio in Type 301 has been adjusted to
obtain a material having a high rate of work hardening and that in Type 305
to achieve a low rate of work hardening. Recent additions to the AISI stand-
ard steels are Types 384 and 385, which have compositions adjusted to work
harden at a lower rate than Type 304.
Types 303 and 303Se are free-machining modifications of Type 302
produced by adding sulfur and selenium respectively. The machinability of
these two types is perhaps 15 % better than Type 302, for example.
If chromium-nickel stainless steels are heated for long periods or cooled
slowly through the temperature range 1450 to 800 F, chromium carbides
tend to deposit at the grain boundaries. This robs the adjacent areas of
chromium and makes these areas less resistant to corrosive attack than the
bulk of the metal. Exposure of the steel in this condition to corrosive environ-
ments can result in intergranular failure, a type which often develops adjacent
to a weldment.
There are two methods of avoiding intergranular attack. First, the car-
bides can be redissolved by heating in the range 1800 to 2050 F and quench-
ing in water. Second, precipitation can be avoided by using modified types of
steels. This is the reason for the development of the extra-low-carbon types,
such as 304L and 316L, and of the stabilized types, 321 and 347. The former
minimize chromium carbide precipitation, the latter avoid it. All four can be
used in the as-welded condition without post-weld heat treatment.
In both Types 309 and 310, the chromium and nickel contents have been
increased considerably over the nominal 18 %chromium-8 %nickel composi-
tion. These materials were developed for service at elevated temperatures
where scaling resistance is important.
Alloys of the 200 series were developed to conserve nickel while at the
same time retaining the properties of the corresponding alloys of the 300
series as closely as possible. For esample, Type 201 can be used as a replace-
ment for Type 301 and Type 216 can replace Type 316. The latest alloy in this
series, Type 211, has a work hardening rate closely matching that of Type 304
and can be used as a replacement for the latter in deep drawing and roll
forming operations. 2
...
W
N
0
:r
III
"C
CD
....
.....
Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels 133
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of representative austenitic stainless steels
are given in Table 7_2.1. 2 • 3 Several of the properties of these steels are almost
identical, for practical purposes, regardless of the composition.
They have densities of about 0.29 lbjin. 3, specific heats of about 0.12
BtujlbtF, and tensile moduli of elasticity of 28,000 to 29,000 ksi. The elec-
trical resistivities reflect the alloy content. The various modifications of 18-8,
i.e., Types 201,216,304,316, and 347, have resistivities which are quite close
together. There is a marked increase in resistivity in Types 309 and 310,
which have higher chromium and nickel contents. The thermal conductivity
shows a similar trend, the lowest conductivity being that of Type 310.
All of these alloys are practically nonmagnetic in the annealed condition.
Cold work affects them to different degrees. Types 304 and 347 become more
magnetic after severe cold work than the other alloys which have been
included in Table 7-2. The stability of the austenitic structure in Types 216,
316, and 310 is indicated by the very slight effect that cold work has on the
permeabilities of Types 216 and 316 and the absence of any effect in Type
310.
Mechanical Properties
Room- Temperature Properties
The austenitic stainless steels can be strengthened only by cold work.
Heat treatment is used to soften the material as an intermediate step in cold
working, to redissolve the carbides after cold working as mentioned previous-
ly, or for stress relieving.
Chromium-nickel steels
Type 301
Sheet and strip
Annealed 40 110 60 B85
Half hard temper 11 ()a 15()a 18a C32
Hard temper 140- 185a 9a C41
Type 304
Sheet and strip
Annealed 42 84 55 B80
Bars
Annealed 35 85 60 70
Cold drawn 60--95 100--125 60--25
Wire
Annealed 35 90--105 60 b 65 B83
Soft temper 60--90 100--125 45 b 65 B95
Hard temper 105-125 140--160 25 b 55 C33
Type 304L
Sheet and Strip
Annealed 39 81 55 B79
Type 305
Sheet and strip
Annealed 38 85 50 B80
Wire
Annealed 47 85 60 b 77 B78
Soft temper 54 100 58 b 74 B82
Types 309 and 309s
Sheet and strip
Annealed 45 90 45 B85
Bars
Annealed 40 95 45 65 B83
Wire
Soft temper 70--80 105-125 35 b 60 B98
Types 310 and 310s
Sheet and strip
Annealed 45 95 45 B85
Bars
Annealed 45 95 50 65 B89
Wire
Soft temper 75-90 105-125 30b 60 B98
Type 384
Wire
Annealed 35 75 55 b 72 B70
Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels 135
Type 385
Wire
Annealed 30 72 55 b 78 B66
Chromium-nickel-manganese steels
Type 201
Sheet and strip
Annealed 55 115 55 B90
Half hard temper 110a 15Qa 15 a C32
Hard temper 14Qa 185 a 8a C41
Type 211
Sheet and strip
Annealed 30 89 64 B74
Cold worked, 60 % 169 188 C43
Type 216
Rod
Annealed 58 107 53 76 B91
7-3, all three of these alloys are markedly more ductile in wire form than Type
304. Type 211 is a chromium-nickel-manganese steel, deVeloped to conserve
nickel, which has a work hardening rate approximating that of Type 304.
Types 309 and 310 are more highly alloyed than the other materials
discussed above and this compositional difference is reflected in their some-
what greater strengths in the annealed condition.
Type 216, the chromium-nickel-manganese alloy developed as a lower
nickel modification of Type 316, is considerably stronger than the latter
which has tensile properties similar to those shown for Type 304 in the table.
Figure 7_1,2,3 indicates the effect of cold work on the yield strengths of
several of the steels mentioned above. It is apparent that Types 201 and 301
work harden at a much higher rate than the other materials shown on the
graph and have characteristics which are quite comparable, over at least a
part of the range. Type 305 has a lower work hardening rate than Type 304
whereas Type 211 shows comparable rates with Type 304 up to about 40 %
reduction, above which it work hardens at a higher rate than the latter.
240
"(j}200
..>c:.
~
Q)
If)
'+-
'+- 160
0
~
N
g 120
..c
0,
c
Q)
~ 80
ifj
"0
Qi
):. 40
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cold Work, %
Fig. 7-1. Effect of cold work on the yield strengths of several
wrought stainless steels. 2, 3
120 ,----r------,--,.....----,---r----r----,
100
E 80
-.J
e
Q)
u
60
::::l
"0
C
W
40
Fig. 7-2. Relationship between the endurance limits and the tensile strengths
of wrought chromium-nickel stainless steels. 3
Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels 137
after cold work varies. Types 201 and 301 harden to a greater degree than Type
304 with the same amount of cold work. Insufficient data are available for
other comparisons.
Tensile Endurance
strength, limit, Endurance
Form and condition ksi ksi ratio Ref.
Type 301
Sheet and strip
Annealed 110 35 0.32
Hard temper 185 a 80
Type 302
Bars
Annealed 85 34 0.40 1
Hard temper 185 a 70-80 3
Type 304
Sheet and strip
Annealed 84 35 0.42
Bars
Annealed 85 34 0.40
Half hard temper 150 a 70 3
Type 310
Annealed 95 32.5 0.33 3
Type 316
Sheet and strip
Annealed 84 39 0.46
Bars
Annealed 80 38 0.48
Cold drawn 90 40 0.44
Type 321
Annealed 85 38 0.45 3
Type 347
Annealed 90 39 0.43 3
Three-quarter hard temper 175 a 88 3
Type 216
Annealed 115 62.5 0.54 2
aMinimum.
138 Chapter 7
materials; the greater spread of the latter arises from the different degrees of
cold work. With the exception of Types 301, 310, and 216, the endurance
ratios of annealed steels range from 0.40 to 0.48. Types 301 and 310 had
endurance ratios of 0.32 and 0.33 respectively, whereas Type 216 had a
ratio of 0.54. The relationship between the tensile strength and the endurance
limit of chromium-nickel stainless steels is indicated in Fig. 7-2.3
Unlike ferritic steels, these austenitic stainless steels are not notch
sensitive. For example, a 60-deg. notch with a 0.010 in. root radius increased
the endurance limit of a Type 304 steel from 36 to 43 ksi. 3
201 76
202 85 a
301 70-120 40 110
302 70-120 68-92 100-
304 100-120 70-97 100a
304L 65
309 90-120
310 90-110 80 89
aMinimum.
but all three methods indicate that these steels are tough materials. Additional
data on impact are included under low-temperature properties.
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
120 ,...,----r----r---,----,.----,-,
100
·in
.Y.
80
..c
Q,
c
Q.l
60
~
if)
~
in
c
40
~
20
to considerably higher temperatures than Type 304 and has practically the
same tensile strength as the more highly alloyed Type 310 in the moderate-
temperature range. Limited data on Type 216, a recent addition to the chro-
mium-nickel-manganese series, indicate that this steel has higher short-time
tensile properties at elevated temperatures than either Type 316 or Type 310.
All of the materials included in this graph lose strength quite rapidly at
temperatures above 1600 F and approach a common value.
Greep and stress-rupture properties of several compositions are given in
Table 7-6. 4 As indicated in the table, the creep properties of Types 316 and
347 are superior to those of Type 304 at moderate temperatures. For example,
the 0.0001 %/hr creep stress of Type 347 at 1200 F is twice that of Type 304.
For moderate exposure time (0.0001 %/hr), Types 347 and 310 have
almost identical creep properties and the creep strength of Type 316 ap-
proaches these values. For longer exposure (0.00001 %/hr), Type 347 is
markedly superior to types 316 and 310 up to about 1200 F but above that
temperature all have approximately the same properties. Above 1500 F,
all of the materials listed in the table have very low resistance to creep. This
is true also of the other wrought chromium-nickel stainless steels of the
140 Chapter 7
304 1000 12 20 47
1200 4 8 23
1500 1 2 7
310 1000 18 33 38
1200 8 15 26
1500 2 3 11
316 1000 17 25
1200 7 12 32
1500 2 3 9
347 1000 28 32 54
1200 10 16 28
1500 1 2 9
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
320
280
If)
.x: 240
.c
0>
~ 200
en
~
.iii
c: 160
~
120
80
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 7-4. Subzero-temperature tensile strengths of some wrought
stainless steels in the annealed condition. S, 6
Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels 141
Low-Temperature Properties
The tensile strengths of the austenitic stainless steels increase as the
temperature is reduced into the subzero range. As shown in Fig. 7_4 5 • 6 , the
strengths of annealed materials at -320 F are more than double their room-
temperature strengths. Type 301, strongest at room temperature, retains its
superiority at low temperatures.
Figure 7_5 5 ,6 shows similar data for full hard materials. Although Types
301 and 304 have practically the same tensile strength at room temperature,
the former is superior at -320 F. The increase in strength of Type 304L is
parallel to that of Type 304, but strength is lower at all temperatures as a
result of the lower carbon content.
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
360 r-----,----,----,,..--,..---,..---T'"I
320
280
.c
"6>240
c
~
en
~ 200
'Vi
cQ)
~ 160
120
Endurance tests indicate that the fatigue strength also increases as the
temperature is reduced below zero, at least to temperatures of the order of
-320 F. However, the fatigue strength of Type 301 sheet in the extra full
hard condition appears to be lower at -423 F than at -320 F. Data on
several steels are given in Table 7-7. s. 7
Data on notched bar· impact tests on a number of stainless steels are
given in Table 7-8. 7 All of the materials are quite tough but there is some
variation in properties. The impact resistance of all of the alloys excepting
Type 304 falls moderately from room temperature to -320 F. On the other
hand, Type 304 in the annealed condition shows an increase in toughness at
subzero temperatures down to -320 F. In the cold worked condition (20%
reduction), the impact resistance of Type 304 is practically the same at room
temperature as it is at -320 F.
Composition, %
AISI
type Name Producer C Mn Cr Ni Mo Other
Martensitic steels
635 Stainless W U. S. Steel 0.07 0.50 17 7 0.70 Ti; 0.20 Al
630 17--4 PH Armco 0.04 0.25 16 4 3.2 Cu; 0.25 Cb-Ta
Semiaustenitic steels
633 AM 350 Allegheny Ludlum 0.10 0.80 16.5 4.3 2.75 0.10 N
634 AM 355 Allegheny Ludlum 0.13 0.95 15.5 4.3 2.75 0.10 N
631 17-7 PH Armco 0.07 0.60 17 7 1.15 Al
632 PH 15-7 Mo Armco 0.07 0.60 15 7 2.2 1.15 Al
Austenitic steels
HNM Crucible 0.30 3.50 18.5 9.5
17-10 P Armco 0.12 0.75 17 10
653 17-14 CuMo Armco 0.12 0.75 16 14 2.5 3 Cu; 0.25 Ti; 0.50 Cb-Ta
660 A-286 Allegheny Ludlum 0.06 1.50 15 26 1.2 1.8 Ti; 0.2 AI; 0.3 V
(')
:T
DI
'0
S'
.....
z(;.
~
~
(")
o
:::J
...
!!.
:::J
5'
cc
Table 7-10. Physical Properties of Some Precipitation Hardenable Stainless Steels 9 • 10 tJl
...
!!.
:::J
Stainless W AM 355 17-7 PH HNM
if
<II
Annealed Aged Condo H SCT Cond A. TH-1050 RH-950 Aged tJl
...
CD
Thermal conductivity, Btu/hr/ft2;oF/ft 10.8 12.1 8.72 9.8 9.8 CD
iii
Coefficient of thermal expansion
(68-932 F), per of 6.3 x 10- 6 9.4 X 10- 6 7.2 X 10- 6 9.6 X 10-6 a 6.6 X 10- 6 a 6.9 X 10-6 a 10.3 X 10-6 b
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft 602 511 457 481 493 499 463
Magnetic permeability (H = 100 Oe) 81 101 1.4-3.5 80-99 75-87 1.003 c
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 26,900 27,800 29,300 29,000 29,000 29,000 29,000
Modulus of rigidity, ksi 11,200 11,600 11,400
Poisson's ratio 0.20 0.20
Density,lb/in. 3 0.28 0.28 0.286 0.281 0.282 0.276 0.276 0.284
....,..
UI
146 Chapter 7
Physical Properties
Physical properties of representative alloys in each of the three groups
are given in Table 7_10. 9 • 10 Data are presented in both the solution annealed
and aged condition for several of the materials. The conditions shown in the
table, such as SeT for example, indicate the heat treatment which has been
performed. These heat treatments are given as footnotes to Table 7-11.
As shown in the table, aging has little effect on most of the physical
properties of the martensitic steels, as represented by Stainless W. The excep-
tion is the electrical resistivity, which is considerably lower in the aged
condition than in the solution-annealed condition. These steels are magnetic
even in the annealed condition.
The semi austenitic steels, represented by AM-355 and 17-7PH, show
definite effects of aging. The coefficients of thermal expansion are much
lower in the aged condition than in the solution-annealed condition and
approach those of the martensitic steels, such as Stainless W. The electrical
resistivities show moderate increases as a result of aging and, in the aged
condition, approach those of the standard steels, Types 309 and 310. However
the most pronounced effects occur in the magnetic properties. In the solu-
tion-annealed condition, these steels are only faintly magnetic but, after
aging, they become quite strongly magnetic.
The austenitic steels, as represented by HNM, do not differ greatly from
steels of the 300 series in their physical properties. The electrical resistivity
is quite close to that of Type 310. Even in the aged condition, alloys of this
type are no more magnetic than the standard chromium-nickel stainless steels
in the annealed condition.
Mechanical Properties
Room- Temperature Properties
The compositions of the precipitation harden able steels are adjusted to
permit hardening by various heat treatments. A comprehensive discussion
of the effects of various thermal theatments on the properties of steels of the
types under discussion is given by Slunder, Hoenie, and Hall. 12
Temperature, K
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
250 ~~--r---~--~--~--~---n
200
en
~
~
0. 150
c:
<I.l
"-
(jj
~
100
"Vi
c:
~
50
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
280
260
240
en
..x:
~- 220
~
en
c
200 20 N
c
o
g,
'';:::
180 10
c
o
160 L..-....L...-_--L.._ _I.-_....1-_~_ ____I 0 W
-400 -300 -200 100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 7-7. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of 17-7PH, con-
dition TH 1050. 11
Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels 151
Quite a number of stainless and heat resisting steels are produced in cast
form. All contain chromium and some also contain nickel. The designations
and compositions of modern American cast chromium-nickel stainless steels
have been standardized by the Alloy Casting Institute, which prefers to call
these materials "High Alloy Castings." The ACI divides the alloys into two
groups: those intended primarily for corrosion resisting applications are
identified by the letter C, those intended for heat resistant service above 1200
F, by the letter H. There are approximately 26 compositions in the two
series which contain nickel in addition to chromium.
The American Society for Testing and Materials uses the ACI designa-
tions in its standards, and some of the compositions of these alloys are given
in Table 7_14.13.14 For reference purposes, the nearest applicable wrought
alloy composition, as designated by the AISI, is also indicated in Table 7-14.
It should be noted that the chemical compositions of the wrought and
cast types differ and, therefore, the alloys are not strictly comparable. How-
ever, the purposes for which modifications of the original 18 % chromium-
8 % nickel composition were made are similar in the cast types to those
mentioned previously for the wrought types. On the other hand, Types HW
152 Chapter 7
Nearest Composition, %
ACI wrought
type type C Mn Si Cr Ni Other
Corrosion·resistant castings
CE·30 0.30 1.5 2 26-30 8-11
CF·3 304L 0.03 1.5 2 17-21 8-12
CF·8 304 0.08 1.5 2 18-21 8-11
CF·20 302 0.20 1.5 2 18-21 8-11
CF·3M 316L 0.03 1.5 1.5 17-21 9-13 2-3 Mo
CF·8M 316 0.08 1.5 1.5 18-21 9-12 2-3 Mo
CF·8C 347 0.08 1.5 2 18-21 9-12 8xCminCb
CF·16F 303 0.16 1.5 2 18-21 9-12 1.5 max Mo;
0.20--0.35 Se;
0.17maxP
CG·8M 317 0.08 1.5 1.5 18-21 9-13 3-4 Mo
CG·12 0.12 1.5 2 20-23 10-13
CH~20 309 0.20 1.5 2 22-26 12-15
CK·20 310 0.20 1.5 2 23-27 19-22
CN·7M 0.07 1.5 1.5 18-22 27-31 1.75-2.5 Mo;
3 minCu
Heat·resistant castings
HE 0.2-0.5 2 2 26-30 8-11
HF 302B 0.2-0.4 2 2 18-23 8-12
HH 309 0.2-0.5 2 2 24--28 11-14
HI 0.2-0.5 2 2 26-30 14--18
HK 310 0.2-0.6 2 2 24--28 18-22
HL 0.2-0.6 2 2 28-32 18-22
HN 0.2-0.6 2 2 19-23 23-27
HT 330 0.35-0.75 2 2.5 13-17 33-37
HU 0.35-0.75 2 2.5 17-21 37-41
HW 0.35-0.75 2 2.5 10-14 58-62
HX 0.35-0.75 2 2.5 15-19 64--68
and HX are actually high nickel alloys rather than stainless steels, and their
properties have been discussed in Chapter 4.
Physical Properties
A number of the physical properties of the cast stainless steels are, for
practical purposes, similar to those of the wrought types. These include the
specific heats, coefficients of expansion, and moduli of elasticity. The elec-
trical resistivities of the cast types, however, are somewhat higher than those
Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels 153
Mechanical Properties
Room- Temperature Properties
The cast stainless steels are generally used in the "as cast" condition or
are solution-annealed at temperatures of the order of 2000 F and water
quenched to improve the corrosion resistance.
Hardness. Brinell hardness values are included also in Table 7-16. The
hardness ranges from a low of 130 for CN-7M in the solution-annealed and
quenched condition to 190 for Type CH-20 in the same condition.
Long-time properties
Tensile properties
Stress (ksi) Stress
Test Yield strength Tensile Elongation for creep (ksi) for
ACI temperature, (0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), rate of rupture in
type F ksi ksi % 0.0001 %/hr l00hr
HF 1200 57 16 13 30
1400 21 35 20 6 14
1600 22 22 3.2 6
HHa 1400 17 33 18 3.0 14
1600 14 18 30 1.7 6.4
1800 6.3 9 45
2000 0.3 1.5
HHb 1400 18 35 12 7.0 14
1600 14 22 16 4.0 7.5
1800 7 II 30
2000 0.8 1.8
HK 1400 6.8 14.5
1600 23 21 4.2 7.8
2000 1.0 2.5
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
200
160
(J)
1. 120
vi
(J) ~
Cl>
en 80
~
"-
80 c
C\J
60 c
0
40 40 '"0'>
5
c
20 0
W
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
CF-8 57 63 67 75
CF-8M 44 50 58 63
CF-8C 19 21 28 38
CH-20 10 14 20 30
CK-20 15 17 24 30
material. After being compacted to the desired density, which depends on the
application, they are sintered, for example, at 2050 F in dry hydrogen or in
dissociated ammonia, with a low dew point of perhaps -40 F.
Stainless steel PjM parts, ranging in density from 6.0 to 6.8 gjcm 3 or
higher, are used for structural applications in which resistance to corrosion
is required in the pharmaceutical, chemical, food processing, and similar
industries, particularly for instrumentation. They are also used in low-
density parts as filters for various corrosive solutions.! 7
The Metal Powder Industries Federation has established standards for
two types of chromium-nickel stainless steels in two ranges of density. They
are:
Properties
Typical properties of P jM parts meeting the requirements of the MPIF
Standards are given in Table 7-19.!8 As would be expected ofPjM parts, the
strength and elongation improve with increasing density. The st~engths and
elongations of the Type 316 parts are somewhat superior to those of the
Type 303 parts. The ductility, as measured by the elongation, however, is
closer to that expected in a cast than in a wrought part.
Porous parts produced from stainless steel powders by compacting to
low densities may have tensile strengths of the order of 20 ksi.
REFERENCES
1. Stainless and Heat Resisting Steels, American Iron and Steel Institute (1953), with
1969 supplement.
2. Private Communication, Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation, Jan. 1970.
3. Mechanical and Physical Properties of Austentic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels,
The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1963).
4. Mechanical and Physical Properties of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels at
Elevated Temperatures, ibid.
5. Mechanical and Physical Properties of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels at
Subzero Temperatures, ibid.
6. "Wrought austenitic stainless steels," Materials in Design Engineering, October 1964,
p.115.
7. F. R. Schwartzberg, S. H. Osgood, R. D. Keys, and T. F. Kiefer Cryogenic Materials
Data Handbook, AD609562, The Martin Co. (1964).
8. S. J. Rosenberg, Nickel and Its Alloys, Monograph 106, National Bureau of Standards
(1968).
9. High-Temperature High-Strength Alloys, American Iron and Steel Institute (1963).
10. Precipitation Hardenable Stainless Steels, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1963).
11. R. M. McClintock and H. P. Gibbons, Mechanical Properties of Selected Materials at
Low Temperatures, Monograph 13, National Bureau of Standards (1960).
12. C. J. Slunder, A. F. Hoenie, and A. M. Hall, Thermal and Mechanical Treatments for
Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels, AD668900, Battelle Memorial Institute, n.d.
13. "Corrosion resistant iron~hromium and iron~hromium-nickel alloy castings for
general applications," Designation A 296 ASTM Standards, Part 2, 1969.
14. "Heat resistant iron~hromium and iron~hromium-nickel alloy castings for general
applications," Designation A 297 ASTM Standards, Part 2,1969.
15. Cast Stainless Steels, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1963).
16. "Heat resistant alloys-cast," Materials in Design Engineering, Mid-October 1966,
p.91.
17. J. L. Everhart, "Designing for metal powder structural parts," Materials in Design
Engineering, April 1959, p. 113.
18. PjM Materials Standards and Specifications, Metal Powder Industries Federation
(1969).
Chapter 8
Electrical Resistance
and Thermocouple Alloys
Nominal composition, %
Alloy Type Ni Si Cu Cr Fe Al
Physical Properties
The physical properties of the resistance alloys mentioned above are
given in Table 8_2. 1 ,3,4,5 The electrical resistivity ranges from a low of 138
ohms/cir mil ft for the nickel-silicon alloy to a high of 800 ohms/cir mil ft
for the nickel-chromium-copper-aluminum alloy. It should be noted that
the resistivity given for the latter alloy is developed by heat treatment at
elevated temperatures; the fully annealed alloy has a resistivity of 730 ohms/
cir mil f1. 6
In instrumentation, it is advantageous to have a temperature coefficient
of resistance as close to zero as possible in order that variations in the ambi-
ent temperature will not significantly change the overall resistance of the
system. In the materials under consideration, the temperature coefficient of
resistance ranges from a low of 3 microhmsfohmtF for the nickel-chromium-
copper-aluminum alloy, again achieved by heat treatment, to a high of 1330
for the nickel-silicon alloy. Incidently, the coefficient of annealed nickel-
chromium-copper-aluminum is 28 microhms/ohmtF.
The 55 % copper-45 % nickel alloy maintains its low temperature coef-
ficient of resistance over the range -70 to 225 F. It has the highest electrical
resistivity and the lowest coefficient of resistance of the copper-nickel alloy
system. 2 In addition to having the highest electrical resistivity of the alloys
under consideration, the nickel-chromium-copper-aluminum alloy main-
...
en
II.)
Table 8-2. Physical Properties of Some Electrical Resistance All oys l,3,4,5
n
::r
III
CD
"......
co
Electrical Resistance and Thermocouple Alloys 163
tains its minimum coefficient of resistance over a wider range than that cov-
ered by the 55 % copper-45 % nickel alloy.
The three alloys of group 5 have resistivities ranging from 610 to 675
ohms/cir mil ft and their temperature coefficients of resistance increase with
decreasing nickel content. In each of these alloys, the specific electrical resist-
ance increases with rising temperature. The greatest increase occurs in the
35 % nickel-20 % chromium-balance iron composition and the least in the
80 % nickel-20 % chromium composition. Fabricating procedure influences
the resistance. After cold working, if annealing is followed by slow cooling,
the resistance will be near the maximum, but rapid cooling will lower the
resistance. An indication of the effect of temperature on the resistance of these
three alloys is given in Fig. 8-1.7
In instrumentation, the resistance elements are often connected to cop-
per leads and It is advantageous to have a low thermal emf versus copper.
For the materials under discussion, the thermal emf versus copper ranges
from -23.5 to 2.1 microvoltsrF.
The coefficients of thermal expansion of the alloys in Table 8-2 range
from 7.0 X 10- 6 to 8.8 X 10- 6 per OF over the range 32 to 212 F, and are
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
24
20
~
a.l
u
c
16
0
1i'i
"V;
OJ
0:: 12
!;
OJ
8
If)
...
0
OJ
u
.s
4
Table 8-3. Nominal Tensile Properties and Hardness Values of Some Electrical
Resistance All oys 3,s
aYield point.
o
::T
I»
'tI
CD
.....
00
Electrical Resistance and Thermocouple Alloys 165
relatively close to that of commercial nickel over the same range. In the
alloys of Group 5, the coefficient increases with decreasing nickel content.
Since the 80 % nickel-20 % chromium is used at high temperatures, its coef-
ficient over a broader temperature range may be of interest; it is 9.6 X 10- 6
over the range 68 to 1832 F.
The 55 % copper-45 % nickel alloy has the highest modulus of elasticity
of the copper-base alloys. The moduli of the three alloys in Group 5 decrease
with decreasing nickel content from 31,000 ksi for the 80% nickel-20%
chromium alloy to 27,000 ksi for the 35% nickel-20% chromium-balance
iron alloy.
Mechanical Properties
Room- Temperature Properties
One of the essential requirements of electrical resistance alloys is that
they be readily fabricated into strip and wire since these are the forms most
widely used. All of the materials under discussion meet this requirement
although some are more readily worked than others.
Fatigue Properties. Fatigue strengths for two resistance alloys are given
in Table 8-4. They indicate good resistance to fatigue. The endurance ratio
of the 55 % copper-45 % nickel alloy is 0.39 for annealed, 0.50 for hot rolled,
and 0.41 for cold rolled material. That of the 80% nickel-20% chromium
alloy is 0.30 in the annealed condition.
The copper-nickel alloy has excellent resistance to corrosion by sea
166 Chapter 8
240
"-
Q)
.D
E200
:::J
z
U1
U1
Q)
c
160
"D
"-
0
I
"D
120
E
0
"-
~ 80
"D
C
0
E 40
0
6
55Cu-45Ni
Rod, 1 in., hot rolled 70.5 37 36 35 10
Bar
Annealed 69.4 34 30 28 8
Cold rolled 103.3 50 43 8
Cold drawn, stress-relieved 38 32 31 11
80Ni-20Cr
Annealed 112 33.6 5
water. Ellinghausen I I reported that the fatigue strength of this alloy after
10 8 cycles (390 days) in sea water was 18 ksi as compared with 31 ksi in air.
Temperature, K
120 300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100
80
60
~
40 40 C
0
'"6
0>
20 c
20 0
W
passes through a minimum in the range 500 to 700 F and rises with increasing
temperatures.
Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of the 80 % nickel-
20 % chromium alloy are given in Fig. 8-4. S There is little loss of strength
up to about 800 F but above that temperature strength falls rapidly. As
indicated in the graph, the ductility passes through a minimum in the range
800 to 1100 F, rises to a maximum at about 1400 F, and then decreases at
higher temperatures. This alloy is used to some extent as a material of con-
struction for high-temperature service. It is, however, subject to plastic flow
at relatively light loads and thus its usefulness is limited. 2
Stress-rupture properties of the three alloys of Group 5 are given in
Table 8-5.7,12 These materials have rather low rupture strengths in the range
for which properties were obtained, 1500 to 1900 F. Since the 80% nickel-
20 % chromium is the base from which quite a number of the superalloys
were developed, it may be interesting to make a comparison. At 1800 F, for
example, this alloy has a 100 hour rupture stress that is only about two-
thirds that of Inconel alloy X-750 and only one-eighth that of Nimonic
115.
168 Chapter 8
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
120
100
80
(f)
x
en 60
(f) 60
....
(j)
~
ifi
40 40 C-
o
E ."§
CJl
c
20 20 w .Q
Low-Temperature Properties
Limited data on the low-temperature properties of two of the resistance
alloys are given in Table 8_6. s ,8 As indicated in the table, the strength of the
55 % copper-45 % nickel alloy increases with falling temperatures, the tensile
strength at -292 F being about 1.5 times that at room temperature. The
elongation also increases but there is a slight drop in the reduction of area.
In addition, the toughness as measured by a notched-bar test remains high.
Electrical Resistance and Thermocouple Alloys 169
55Cu-45Ni
Annealed Room 20 60 49 77 80
-292 54 90 60 74 88
80Ni-20Cr
Annealed at 1850 F Room 103 133 28 a 52
-423 139 188 34a 50
"In 10 diameters.
The tensile strength of the 80% nickel-20% chromium alloy also in-
creases at low temperatures; tensile strength at -423 F is 188 ksi compared
with 133 ksi at room temperature. The elongation also increases and, in this
alloy, the reduction of area shows only a very slight decrease.
THERMOCOUPLE ALLOYS
*This is the original combination-there are various proprietary alloys which now fit into
this classification. This is true also for alternates for Chromel P in the Type E thermo-
couple.
170 Chapter 8
The copper-constantan couple has been used for many years. Its elec-
tromotive force-temperature coefficient is more linear than that of tho
iron-constantan couple, particularly below 400 F. It is the best available
base-metal couple for service from -300 to 200 F.13
According to Caldwell,13 the Chromel-Alumel and other Type K
couples are probably the most widely used base-metal couples in industrial
applications.
The Chromel-constantan couple has excellent thermocouple properties
and has the advantage that both elements are resistant to corrosion. It is
sometimes used as a replacement for Type K couples in industrial appli-
cations.
Representative values of the electromotive force developed by these
thermocouples at a series of temperatures are given in Table 8-7. These data
were extracted from the complete tables published by the National Bureau
of Standards. I S
The table indicates the considerable differences in electromotive force
developed by the various couples. Thus, the Chromel-constantan couple
produces much higher emf at any temperature than the other couples, the
next highest being the iron-constantan couple. The table also indicates the
highest temperature at which the various couples should be used, as discussed
in the following paragraph.
There are limitations on the temperatures at which these couples should
be used and they are indicated in Table 8_8. 14 Propected couples can be used
at considerably higher temperatures than bare couples and wire size must be
considered in selecting an operating temperature. The maximum service
temperature decreases as the wire diameter is reduced. The copper-constan-
tan couple should be used only up to 700 F, the iron-constantan couple to
1400 F, and the Chromel-constantan couple to 1600 F. The Chrome1-
Alumel couple can be used to 2300 F if it is protected from the atmosphere.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of Chromel P and Alumel are given in
Table 8-9.13 Data on constantan (55 % copper-45 % nickel) were included in
Table 8-2.
Alumel*
(Ni 95, Al 2, Chromel-P*
Nominal composition, % Mn 2, Si 1) (Ni 90, Cr 10)
*See appendix.
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 ,.....,..----r------r--r---~--r-.
~ 80
(l)
u
c
o
Vi 60
Ui
(l)
0:::
c 40
(l)
<f)
o
~
~ 20
o UE~~ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ ~_ _ _ _ ~ _ _~
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 r-r------r----,--,....--..,..--..,.......,
80
60
(j)
(j)
~ c
i7i 40 40Q
c
.Q
20 20 -0
0>
C
o
W
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Temperature, F
Mechanical Properties
Only limited data were found on mechanical properties. According to
Caldwell,13 Chromel P has a tensile strength of 95 ksi in the annealed condi-
tion and can be work hardened to a strength of 165 ksi. Alumel has an
annealed tensile strength of 85 ksi and this can be increased to 170 ksi by
cold work.
Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of Alumel in the form
of 18 gage annealed wire are given in Fig. 8-6. 16 The tensile strength falls
regularly from 85 ksi at room temperature to 9 ksi at 2000 F. The elongation
has a minimum at about 1000 F. Chromel P has similar properties, although
it is slightly stronger over the entire range and its elongation is somewhat
lower.
REFERENCES
3. Properties of Some Metals and Alloys, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
4. "Drawn or rolled nickel---chromium and nickel---chromium-iron alloys for electrical
heating elements," Designation B 344, ASTM Standards, Part 8,1969.
5. J. L. Everhart, W. E. Lindlief, J. Kenegis, P. G. Weissler, and F. Siegel, Mechanical
Properties of Metals and Alloys, Circular C447, National Bureau of Standards (1943).
6. C. D. Starr, "Properties of wires for resistors," Materials Research and Standards 6,
435 (1966).
7. Nickel Alloys for Resistance Heating Elements, The International Nickel Co. Inc.
(1969).
8. R. P. Reed and R. P. Mikesell, Low-Temperature Mechanical Properties of Copper and
Selected Copper Alloys, Monograph 101, National Bureau of Standards (1967).
9. J. F. Potts and D. L. McElroy, "The effects of cold working, heat treatment, and
oxidation on the thermal emf of nickel-base thermoelements," Temperature-Its
Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Part 2, 1962, p. 243.
10. H. J. Grover, S. A. Gordon, and L. R. Jackson, Fatigue of Metals and Structures,
NAVWEPS 00-25-534, Department of the Navy (1960).
11. R. C. Ellinghausen, Endurance and Stressless Corrosion Fatigue Tests of Ni-Cu Alloys
and Tobin Bronze in Sea Water, PB 168687, U. S. Naval Exp. Station, Annapolis
(1967).
12. R. Widmer and N. J. Grant, "The creep rupture properties of 80Ni-2OCr alloys,"
Trans. ASME J. Basic Engineering 82, 829 (1960).
13. F. R. Caldwell, Thermocouple Materials, Monograph 40, National Bureau of Stand-
ards (1962).
14. "Calibrating and checking thermocouples in plant and laboratory," Metal Treating
17, 3 (Feb.-Mar. 1966).
15. H. Shenker, J.1. Lauritzen, Jr., R. J. Corruccini, and S. T. Louberger, Reference Tables
for Thermocouples, Circular 561, National Bureau of Standards (1955).
16. Private Communication from Hoskins Manufacturing Company, May 28, 1970.
Chapter 9
Controlled-Expansion and
Controlled-Modulus Alloys
LOW-EXPANSION ALLOYS
In the late 19th century, discovery of deviations from the expected values
of the coefficients of expansion in the nickel-iron system led to a study of the
system by Guillaume. He found that the minimum coefficient of expansion
occurred in the alloy containing approximately 36 % nickel and called the
alloy "Invar." He found also that the addition of 12 %chromium produced an
alloy having an invariable modulus of elasticity over a considerable tempera-
ture range and called this alloy "Elinvar." Both of these alloys are atill in
use. Elinvar will be discussed later.
In a sense, Invar is a misnomer because the low value of coefficient of
expansion occurs only over a limited temperature range. It is often regarded
as resulting from a combination of a normal dilatational effect and an in-
crease in volume on cooling caused by magnetic effects (magnetostriction).
In the nonmagnetic state above the Curie point, the alloy has a normal coef-
ficient of expansion, similar to that of iron or nickel. As the alloy cools, and
passes the Curie point, a range is entered where the coefficient is low, but on
additional reduction of temperature the coefficient again increases. These
phenomena are characteristic also of iron-nickel alloys ranging from about 30
to 70% nickel, although the abnormality becomes less marked with increas-
ing nickel content. 1
The coefficient of expansion ofInvar is influenced by a number offactors.
Impurities generally increase the minimum. Annealing tends to increase the
expansion coefficient and quenching has the opposite effect. Cold work also
has a tendency to lower the value and, in a pure 36 % nickel alloy, can cause
the alloy to have a negative expansion coefficient.
175
176 Chapter 9
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the three alloys are given in Table 9-1.4
As indicated in the table, a number of the properties show a progressive
Controlled-Expansion and Controlled-Modulus Alloys 177
increase with increasing nickel content. These include the thermal conduc-
tivity, the density, the elastic constants, and the Curie temperature. The
electrical resistivity decreases with increasing nickel content.
The most important property of these materials for their practical
application is, of course, the coefficient of thermal expansion. As mentioned
previously, it is influenced by impurity content, heat treatment, and cold
work. According to McCain and Maringer,4 even dropping a sample of
quenched and annealed Invar on a hard surface may change its dimensions
by as much as 100 microns per meter, which is more than would be expected
for a temperature change of 122 F.
The alloys can be stabilized by suitable heat treatments. The following,
for example, has been suggested for the 36 % nickel alloy: heat to 1500 F
for ~ hour per inch of thickness, water quench, reheat to 600 F for 1 hour,
air cool. S
Because of these variables, it is necessary to use the data given in Table
9-1 for the coefficients of thermal expansion with care. However, they can be
used to compare the characteristics of the three alloys. As indicated in the
table, both the 42 % and 49 % alloys expand at greater rates than the 36 %
alloy but their rates are more uniform at the higher temperatures. This effect
178 Chapter 9
Temperature, K
300 400 500 600 700 800
7
u
c
~ 6
~
o
-£
Q) 5
0.
c -
o
g;
o
3
0.
x
W
02
<5
I-
is indicated more clearly by the data included in Table 9-2 which gives the
expansion characteristics over progressively higher 200 F temperature
ranges.
The total expansion of the three alloys is compared with that of carbon
steel in Fig. 9-1. 1 This graph shows that the total expansion of the 36 %
alloy reaches that of the 42 % alloy at about 560 F and exceeds it above that
temperature. Also indicated is that the total expansion of the 36 % alloy and
the 48 % alloy are equal at about 800 F. Although all three alloys expand at
a lower rate than low-carbon steel at moderately low temperatures, the 36 %
nickel alloy expands at approximately the same rate as the steel at tempera-
tures above 400 F.
Mechanical Properties
doubled the yield strength of the 36 % nickel alloy and increased the tensile
strength from 71 to 106 ksi. Under the same conditions, the elongation
was reduced from 41 to 8 % but the reduction of area dropped only from 71
to 59%.
400 r----r-----r----,.----,
350
w300
.0
E
~
z
(,/)250
(,/)
(1)
c
"0
~200
~
(1)
.><:
.~ 150
>
50 L - - _ - I . - _ - - - ' -_ _. . l - _ - J
o 20 40 60 80
Fig. 9-2. Effect of cold work on the
hardness of stainless steel, Invar, and
Cold Reduction, % mild steel. 4
Controlled-Expansion and Controlled-Modulus Alloys 181
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100
100 r-r----r----r----r--~
80
]1 60
IJ)
IJ)
(l)
~ 40 80 ~
E
60 §
20
~ 40
20
g,c
L3
o 400 800 1200 1600
Temperature, F
Fig. 9-3. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile
properties of annealed 36 % Ni-Fe. 4
400r---~--~----~--~--~
to
'0
~ 300
c
...
"0
(j) 200
Q.
c:.>
...
(l) 25 ksi
u 100
o
;§ 15 ksi
160
'Vi
x 120
ul
Ul
(l)
'-
en 80 80 ~
-
E Ann. e0
40 - LlO '0
0'
~ E Cw.
c
0
w
-400 -300 -200 100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 9-5. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of 36% Ni-Fe in the
annealed and 12-15 % cold worked conditions. 4 • 7
Controlled-Expansion and Controlled-Modulus Alloys 183
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
100
80
,-
.D
---
U
60
0
a.
E
>.
40
a.
'-
0
-
.c
U 20
HIGH-EXPANSION ALLOYS
Physical properties
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70-1000 F), per of ................ 10.5 X 10- 6
Modulus of elasticity, ksi ........................................ 25,000
Mechanical properties
Yield strength Tensile Elongation
(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), Brinell
Condition ksi ksi % hardness
Soln.-annealeda 35 80 30 140
Soln.-annealed and agedb 95 150 20 305
Cold reduced, 50 % 120 140 4 250
Cold reduced, 50 %, agedb 130 180 8 370
01700 to 1850 F, water quenched.
"Aged 1100--1350 F, 3-24 hr depending on condition and prior cold work.
Physical Properties
Limited physical properties of Ni-Span Hi are given in Table 9_4. 10
The alloy has a coefficient of expansion that is among the highest that can
be achieved in an iron-base alloy. The mean coefficient is about 10.5 X 10- 6
per OF between room temperature and 1000 F but it is not constant in this
range. At the lower end, it is about 10.0 X 10- 6 per OF and at the high end of
the range may reach 11 X 10- 6 •
Mechanical Properties
As mentioned previously, the alloy is precipitation hardenable. Heat
treatment consists of solution annealing at 1700 to 1850 F, water quenching,
and aging at 1100 to 1350 F for periods ranging from 3 to 24 hr depending on
such factors as the amount of cold work performed.
The tensile properties and hardness values of Ni-Span Hi in various
conditions are given also in Table 9-4. The strength can be almost doubled
by age hardening from the solution-annealed condition and the elongation
is reduced only moderately by this treatment.
Cold working has almost as much strengthening effect as aging from the
solution-annealed condition but has the disadvantage of drastically reducing
Controlled-Expansion and Controlled-Modulus Alloys 185
the ductility as measured by the elongation. Aging after cold working results
in a marked improvement in tensile strength accompanied by some improve-
ment in the elongation.
The Brinell hardness ranges from 140 for material in the solution-
annealed condition to 370 for material that has been cold worked and aged.
CONSTANT-MODULUS ALLOYS
Composition, %
Alloy Ni Cr Ti Mo Fe Other
Elinvara 36 12 Bal.
Iso-Elastic 36 8 0.5 Bal.
Ni-Span C 42 5.2 2.4 Bal. 0.5 AI; 0.06 C max
"Original composition, now varies over the following ranges: 33-35% Ni, 61-53% Fe, 21-5 % Cr, 1-3 % W,
0.5-2 % Mn, 0.5-2 % Si, 0.5-2 % C.
186 Chapter 9
Physical Properties
Temperature, K
50 100
150 200 250 300
30,000 r---r---,.---,.----,----,.--M
Mod E
25,000
~ 20,000
vJ
~
:5
15 15,000
~
Mod R
10,000
2.
CD
9-
m
><
'C
III
j
III
o·
j
Table 9-6. Physical Properties of Some Annealed Constant-Modulus All oys 4
III
j
Co
Elinvar Iso-Elastic Ni-Span C
o
oj
Melting range, F 2650-2700 0+
Specific heat, Btu/lb;oF 0.12 2.
Thermal conductivity (32-212 F), Btu/hr/ft 2 ;oF/ft 7.5 CD
Coefficient of thermal expansion (-50 to 150 F), per of 3.3 X 10- 6 4 X 10- 6 4.5 x 10- 6 9-
Electrical resistivity (68 F), ohms/cir mil ft 528· 738
s:
o
Co
Temperature coefficient of resistance, per of 0.00025 c
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 26,000 24,000 C
III
Temperature coefficient of modulus of elasticity, per OF -36 X 10- 6 -20 to +15 x 10- 6 -35 to -15 x 10- 6 ~
Modulus of rigidity, ksi 9,200 9,400 o
Temperature coefficient of modulus of rigidity, per OF -40 X 10- 6 ~
Density,lb/in. 3 0.292 0.294
01)
......,
188 Chapter 9
to about -150 F but below that temperature there is a gradual decrease. The
modulus of rigidity, also shown in this graph, appears to be less affected by
low temperatures than the modulus of elasticity.
All three materials have low coefficients of thermal expansion over the
temperature range in which they are normally used. The electrical resistivity
of Ni-Span C is considerably higher than the resistivities of the nickel-
iron alloys previously discussed but its temperature coefficient of resistance
approaches that of the 36 % nickel-iron alloy.
Mechanical Properties
Room- Temperature Properties
Elinvar and Iso-Elastic are austenitic alloys and are hardenable only by
cold work. Ni-Span C is precipitation hardenable.
Iso-Elastic
Annealed 35 85 30 135
Cold worked 135 155 10 305
Ni-Span C
Solution-annealed 35 90 40 125 B70
. Soln.-annealed, aged 1250 F 115 180 18 305 C33
Cold worked, 50 % 130 135 6 270 C28
Cold worked, 50 %, aged
1250 F 180 200 7 395 C42
Tubing
Cold reduced, 10% 113 18 C26
Cold reduced, 25 % 128 7 C30
Controlled-Expansion and Controlled-Modulus Alloys 189
Temperature, K
200 300 400 500 600
220 r-..,.---r---,----r-----r---.,
200
180
"iii
~
en 160
30
-
<II ~
....
Q)
U5 c
(l5
140 20 ~
c
0
+=
0
Ol
120 10 c
0
[jJ
100 0
-200 0 200 400 600 800
Temperature, F
Fig. 9-8. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of
Ni-Span C wire. 4
190 Chapter 9
240
200
'ifi
oX 160
(/)-
(/)
Q)
'-
(j) 120 60
~
80 40 C
E o
40 - 20 §
"§
CJl
GJ
~~--~----~--~----~--~O
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 9-9. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of Ni-Span C bar,
solution treated and aged at 1200 F, 5 hr. 12
Controlled-Expansion and Controlled-Modulus Alloys 191
REFERENCES
1. The Physical Properties of the Nickel-Iron Alloys, The Mond Nickel Co., Ltd., n.d.
2. J. W. Sands, "Invar, Elinvar, and related iron-nickel alloys," Metals and Alloys, June
1932, p. 131.
3. S. J. Rosenberg, Nickel and Its Alloys, Monograph 106, National Bureau of Standards
(1968).
4. W. J. McCain and R. E. Maringer, Mechanical and Physical Properties of Invar and
Invar-Type Alloys, DMIC Memo 207, Battelle Memorial Institute (1965).
5. Carpenter Invar "36", Carpenter Steel Company (1966).
6. R. E. Maringer, Review of Dimensional Instability in Metals, DMIC Memo 213,
Battelle Memorial Institute (1966).
7. K. A. Warren and R. P. Reed, Tensile and Impact Properties of Selected Materials
from 20 to 300 K, Monograph 13, National Bureau of Standards (1963).
8. D. T. Eash, Tensile Properties of Invar at Low Temperatures, Report LA-3192-MS
AEC, Los Alamos Scientific Lab. (1965).
9. Invar . .. 36% Nickel Alloy for Low-Temperature Service, The International Nickel
Co., Inc. (1967).
10. W. A. Mudge and A. M. Talbot, "Ni-Span," Iron Age, 157, 66 (April 1946).
11. M. E. Fine and W. C. Ellis, "Young's modulus and its temperature dependence in 36
to 50 percent nickel-iron alloys," Trans. AI ME 188, 1120 (1950).
12. F. R. Schwartzberg, S. H. Osgood, R. D. Keys, and T. F. Kiefer, Cryogenic Materials
Data Handbook, AD609562 The Martin Co. (1964).
13. Properties of Some Metals and Alloys, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
14. T. A. Duff, M. W. Keenan, L. E. Smith, and R. H. Moeller, "Elastic and fatigue prop-
erties of vacuum remelted versus air melted Ni-Span C alloy 902," Trans. ASME J.
Basic Engineering 89, 561 (1967).
15. D. N. Gideon, R. J. Favor, H. J. Grover, and G. M. McClure, '''The fatigue behavior
of certain alloys in the temperature range from room temperature to - 423 F," Advances
in Cryogenic Engineering 7, 503 (1961).
Chapter 10
Magnetic Materials
+8
+H
-8
Fig. 10-1. Hysteresis loop.!
The most important soft magnetic materials are iron, nickel, and cobalt
and alloys of iron and silicon, iron and nickel, and iron and cobalt. Only
the nickel-iron alloys will be considered in this chapter. The desired prop-
erties of soft magnetic materials are high initial permeability, high maximum
induction, low coercive force, low residual induction, and low hysteresis and
eddy current losses. 2
Many years ago it was discovered that nickel-iron alloys containing
from 78 to 80 % nickel and those containing from 45 to 50 %nickel developed
excellent magnetic properties if they were subjected to suitable heat treatments.
194 Chapter 10
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the three soft magnetic materials men-
tioned above are given in Table 10_1.3,4,5 It should be noted that the 49%
nickel alloy was also included in the discussion of controlled-expansion alloys
-68 to 212 F.
"Hydrogen heat treatment, properties vary with heat treatment.
Magnetic Materials 195
Mechanical Properties
Typical tensile properties and hardness values for the three alloys are
given in Table 10_2.4,5 The tensile strength of the 79Ni-4Mo alloy ranges
from 79 ksi in the hydrogen-annealed condition to 97 ksi after cold drawing,
and the cold drawn material retains good ductility. Mu-Metal has con-
siderably lower strength in the hydrogen-annealed condition than 79Ni-
4Mo and the ductility is also somewhat lower. The 49Ni alloy has tensile
196 Chapter 10
79Ni--4Mo
Bar
Hydrogen annealed
at 2050 F 22 79 64 70 B62
Cold drawn 69 97 37 71 B97
Mu-Metal
Strip
Mill annealed 38 90 35
Hydrogen annealed 38 64 27 B60
49Ni
Bar
Hydrogen annealed
at 2050 F 22 70 45 68 B62
Cold drawn 80 95 25 62 B98
strained lattice, a fine grain structure, high hardness, and high alloy content.
For optimum properties, the hysteresis loop must be large and the material
requires high values of residual induction and coercive force.
Referring to Fig. 10-1, only that portion of the hysteresis loop which lies
in the upper left quadrant is of interest. This is the demagnetization curve.
The product of B X H along the demagnetization curve is plotted against
B and this value is designated BdHa. The subscript d (for demagnetization)
indicates a fixed point on the demagnetization curve. The maximum value of
this product is designated (BdHd)max and represents the maximum magnetic
energy that a unit volume of the material can produce in an air gap. Maxi-
mum efficiency is achieved by employing a magnet at a flux density corre-
sponding to (BaHd)max-
Maynard 8 noted that the relative efficiency of a permanent magnet,
based on the volume of material required, is indicated by the maximum en-
ergy product (BdHd)max. According to him, this point indicates the energy that
a unit volume of the magnetic material will produce in a magnet designed to
take advantage of its optimum characteristics. He notes that if this condition
can be achieved, residual induction and coercive force are of little real benefit
to the designer of the magnet.
Barta 9 notes that the permeance coefficient (also called the slope line,
shear line, or air-gap line) is the ratio of the total external permeance to the
permeance of the space occupied by the magnet. The slope of this line is
determined by the geometry of the magnetic circuit which includes the pole
pieces, air gaps, and magnet dimensions. The point of intersection with the
demagnetization curve gives thc operating point, a very important point in
setting magnet specifications.
There are quite a number of metallic and nonmetallic permanent magnet
materials. However, those of interest here are the Alnico series and several
copper-base materials.
The Alnicos are a series of dispersion harden able alloys based on alu-
minum, nickel, and iron. Many of them also contain cobalt, copper, and/or
titanium. These alloys are hard and brittle and are not machinable. They
are fabricated by casting and grinding or by the use of powder metallurgy
techniques. The latter procedure is particularly applicable to small magnets.
Within the limits of the process, intricate shapes can be produced as P/M
parts.
The Alnico alloys must be heat treated to develop their magnetic prop-
erties and the treatment has a very significant influence on the properties
which are developed. Certain of these materials are isotropic, others are
anisotropic. The isotropic materials can be heat treated, for example, by
heating in the 2100-2200 F range, air cooling, and tempering at 1000-1200 F.
The anisotropic alloys are cooled from a high temperature in a magnetic
field to temperatures of the order of 1500-1550 F and are tempered at
198 Chapter 10
Composition, %
Alloy Al Ni Co Cu Ti Fe Remarks
drawing, which consisted of heating the wire to 1130 F for 1 hour and slow
cooling to room temperature.
Physical Properties
Nominal physical properties of a number of representative permanent
magnet materials are given in Table 10_4. 5 ,11 It should be noted that the
magnetic properties are influenced by such factors as the rate of cooling from
the heat treatment temperatures, etc.
The maximum energy product ranges from 800,000 gauss-Oe for Cunico
to 5,500,000 gauss-Oe for Alnico VIII. The residual induction ranges from
3400 gauss for Cunico to 12,500 for Alnico V and the coercive force from
500 Oe for Cunife to 2000 for Alnico VIII. The permeance ratio ranges
from 3.5 for Alnico VIII to 20 for Alnico V. These alloys, therefore, offer a
considerable range of magnetic properties.
The magnetic properties of a single composition can be varied by
different methods of preparation. According to Fabian, 11 Alnico V produced
by powder metallurgy techniques has a residual induction of 10,500 gauss,
a coercive force of 600 Oe, and a maximum energy product of 3,500,000
gauss-Oe as contrasted with 12,500 gauss, 600 Oe, and 5,250,000 gauss-Oe,
respectively, for cast Alnico V.
Casting methods can also influence the magnetic properties. Alnico V
has a directionally oriented structure and a high maximum energy product.
Casting against a chill plate produces a structure having partially columnar
grains. This product, caIIed Alnico V-DG, has a maximum energy product
approximately 20 % higher than that of Alnico V. Going a step further, and
casting to produce a product having a fully columnar structure yields a
product, called Alnico V-7, which has the highest maximum energy product
obtainable in the Alnico V composition. Cooling from a high temperature in
a magnetic field is required to develop the optimum magnetic properties in
these modified alloys, just as it is for Alnico V.
The electrical resistivities of the Alnico alloys are much higher than
those of the copper-base alloy permanent magnets. Values range from 108
ohms/cir mil ft for Cunife to 450 for Alnico IV. The coefficients of expansion
of the Alnicos are quite close to those of many of the other nickel alloys.
Roberts 15 investigated the performance of Alnico V and Alnico VI
at elevated temperatures. He concluded that both materials could be used
up to temperatures of 900 F with no detriment to their magnetic prop-
erties.
Clegg 16 investigated the effects of low temperatures on the stability of
Alnico II, using magnets which were ellipsoids of revolution. He found that
N
8
Table 10-4. Physical Properties of Some Permanent Magnet All oys S,ll
(")
::T
10
"C
~
...
...o
Magnetic Materials 201
Mechanical Properties
Limited mechanical properties of some permanent magnet materials
are given in Table 10_5. 5 ,11 Although the hardness values of the cast and
sintered powder metallurgy materials are quite close together, the tensile
strengths and transverse rupture strengths differ markedly. For example, the
tensile strength of sintered Alnico V is about ] 0 times that of the cast
product although they differ by only 6 points on the Rockwell C hardness
scale.
The copper alloys have excellent strength in the cold worked condition
and they are much softer than the Alnicos.
Transverse
Tensile modulus of
strength, rupture, Rockwell
Form and condition ksi ksi hardness
Alnico IV
Cast, annealed 9.1 24 C45
Sintered 60 85 C42
Alnico V
Cast, annealed 5.5 10.5 C50
Sintered 50 C44
Alnico VI
Cast, annealed 23 45 C56
Sintered C44
Alnico VIII
Cast C57
Cunife I
Cold worked 100 B95
Cunico I
Cold worked 85 B73
202 Chapter 10
REFERENCES
The materials included in this chapter do not appear to fit logically into any
of the groups discussed in the preceding chapters. They consist of several
age hardenable nickel alloys, an intermetallic compound, and a PjM prod-
uct.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the three alloys are given in Table 11_1. 1 ,2,3
Some of the physical properties of Permanickel alloy 300 are similar
to those of commercial nickel but others, which are more sensitive to impurity
content, are markedly different. Those approximating the properties of com-
mercial nickel are the specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, Curie
temperature, and the elastic properties. Reflecting the higher alloy content,
the electrical resistivity is considerably higher and the thermal conductivity
lower than those of commercial nickel. Precipitation of the constituents
which age harden the alloy results in some reduction in the resistivity of this
and the other two alloys under discussion, although the sources from which
the data in Table 11-1 were obtained did not indicate whether the resistivities
were given for annealed or aged material.
Duranickel alloy 301 has an electrical resistivity almost three times that
of alloy 300 and a correspondingly low thermal conductivity. The age
hardening of a solution-annealed specimen reduced the resistivity from 273
to 259 ohms/cir mil ft.4 This alloy also has a Curie temperature in the room-
temperature range as contrasted with 600 F for alloy 300. The other physical
properties are approximately the same as those of alloy 300.
Bery1co Nickel 440 has an electrical resistivity somewhat higher than
that of alloy 300 but much lower than that of alloy 301. Similarly, the ther-
"Annealed.
Other Nickel Alloys 205
mal conductivity lies between those ofthe other two alloys. Limited additional
data on the physical properties indicate that the coefficient of thermal expan-
sion and the elastic properties are close to those of the other two alloys.
Mechanical Properties
Room-Temperature Properties
All three of the alloys can be aged hardened either from the annealed or
cold worked condition.
240
220
200
'in
.::.c.
180
£
CJl
c
CI>
.....
(/j 160
~
in
c 140
~
120
100
80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cold Reduction, %
Fig. 11-1. Effect of cold work and age hardening of the tensile
strength of alloy 301. 4
Hardness. Hardness values for the three alloys are included also in
Table 11-2. In Permanickel alloy 300, the Brinell hardness ranges from 140
in the hot finished condition to 360 after aging from that condition. Aging
Table 11-2. Tensile Properties and Hardness Values of Some Age-Hardenable Nickel Alloys\,2,4 0
::r
CD
....
Yield strength Tensile Elongation Hardness
(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), z
Cj'
Form and condition ksi ksi Brinell Rockwell ;I<'
% !!.
Permanickel alloy 300 ~
Hot finished 35-65 90-120 40-25 140-230 0'
<1/1
Hot finished, age hardened 120-150 160-200 20-10 285-360
Cold drawn 50-130 90-150 35-15 185-300
Cold drawn, age hardened 120-150 150-190 20-10 300-380
Duranickel alloy 301
Rod and bar
Hot finished 35-90 90-130 55-30 140-240 B75-C22
Hot finished, age hardened 115-150 160-200 30-15 300-375 C32-42
Cold drawn 60-130 110-150 35-15 185-300 B9O-C40
Cold drawn, age hardened 125-175 170-210 25-15 300-380 C32-42
Strip
Annealed 35-60 90-120 50-30 B90 max.
Annealed, age hardened 160-190 25-10 C30-40
Half hard 130-155 15-3 C25-34
Half hard, age hardened 170-210 20-7 C33-42
Spring temper 155-190 10-2 C30-40
Spring temper, age hardened 180-230 15-5 C36-46
Berylco Nickel 440
Solution-annealed (cond. A) 40-70 95-130 30 min. B70-95
Solution-annealed, age hardened (AT)a 150 min. 215 min. 12 min. C47 min.
Half hard (lH) 115--170 130-175 4 min. C22-32
Half hard, age hardened (~HT)a 200 min. 245 min. 9 min. C49min.
Hard (H) 150-190 155-195 1 min. C30-40
Hard, age hardened (HT)b 230 min. 270 min. 8 min. C51 min. N
C)
....
"Age hardened 1.5 hr at 950.F. bAge hardened 1.5 hr at 925 F.
208 Chapter 11
Fatigue Properties. Limited fatigue properties for two of the alloys are
given in Table 11_3. 2 ,4 The endurance ratio of Duranickel alloy 301 is con-
siderably lower in the age hardened condition than in the unaged condition,
regardless of whether the material was aged after hot rolling or after cold
drawing. No data were available for Berylco Nickel 440 in the unaged con-
dition. The ratios for both alloys are in line with those of other nickel-base
alloys.
Elevated- Temperature Properties
Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of Duranickel alloy
301 and Berylco Nickel 440 are given in Fig. 11-2 and 11_3. 2 ,4 Both alloys
retain much of their room-temperature strength up to temperatures of about
800 F but above that temperature strength decreases rapidly. In both alloys,
the elongation decreases initially to a minimum at about 900 F for alloy 301
and at about 1100 F for alloy 440. Above these temperatures there is a sharp
increase within a relatively short temperature range.
The fatigue strength of Berylco Nickel 440 is reported to be .65 ksi at 10 7
cycles at 800 F compared with 95 ksi at room temperature. 2
All three of these alloys are used extensively as spring materials for
Other Nickel Alloys 209
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100
200 r-r----r----r----r-~
160
'U5 120
-""
If)
If)
Q)
c::
~ 80 80N
40 E
200
160 Y.S.
'U5
-""
~
lil20
Q)
60
...... ~
(iJ c::
N
80 40 c::
.Q
"0
40 20 go
W
o 0
o 400 800 1200 1600
Temperature, F
Fig. 11-3. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile
properties of Nickel 440 strip in the annealed and aged
(AT) condition. 2
210 Chapter 11
250 300
360
320
-
·Vi
.:£
£ T. S. (A T)
0.
c::: 280
a.>
"-
(j)
- 60
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c:::-
0
a.> 240 40 +-
0
0'
Vi c:::
c::: 0
a.>
-
200 E (AT) w
I-'- 20
~ E(1/2HT)
160 L...-.l.-_-!......_-I...._-I..._--'-_---' 0
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 11-4. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of Nickel 440.7
Other Nickel Alloys 211
Temperature, K
120 50 100 150 200
100
.c- 80
u
"0
c
2: 60
ti
o
0..
1; 40
>.
0..
o"-
<5 20
O'----J.....----'---I...-_-'-_.....J
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 11-5. Subzero-temperature impact properties of
nickel 440 plate (overaged, 1300 F, 8 hr; aged 950 F,
1.5 hr).2
annealed (A) or annealed and age hardened (AT) condition. Material in the
Icold worked (-~H) and cold worked and age hardened (~HT) conditions also
showed similar strengthening effects. There was no significant change in the
elongation at temperatures down to -400 F in these materials regardless of
condition.
The limited data available on the low-temperature impact properties
indicate that Berylco Nickel 440 shows no change from ductile to brittle
behavior at temperatures as low as -300 F even in the age hardened condi-
tion. Figure 11-5 gives the expected range of Charpy V-notch impact values
for this material as aged for maximum strength (condition AT, tensile strength
225 ksi) and as overaged to attain the maximum impact properties. 2 In the
latter condition, the tensile strength is 151 ksi.
characteristics and can be poured into sand or permanent molds, but the most
effective method is investment casting. 8
Castings can be produced to close tolerances and machined by con-
ventional techniques. In the solution-annealed condition, the 2.3 % beryl-
lium alloy has a machinability rating of 65 (that of cast iron is 100).
According to Wikle,8 beryllium-nickel alloys can be melted in induc-
tion, indirect arc, and gas-fired furnaces using magnesia or zirconia as the
refractory. Pouring temperatures range from 2500 to 2600 F, depending on
the size of the casting, the detail, and the mold temperature. Details of a
recommended casting procedure are included in Wikle's article.
The alloys are used as hot work tool materials in such applications as
compression molds for plastics and glass mold components.
There are a number of beryllium-nickel casting alloys but two will be
used to indicate the properties to be expected. These are Type 220C contain-
ing 2.0 to 2.3 % beryllium-balance nickel and Type 260C, with 2.55 to 2.8 %
beryllium-balance nickel.
Physical Properties
Limited physical properties of the two alloys are given in Table 11_4. 8,9
The thermal conductivities and coefficients of thermal expansion are quite
close to those of the wrought beryllium-nickel alloy discussed previously.
Mechanical Properties
The alloys are hardened by solution annealing at 1950 F and aging at
950 F. Properties of the two beryllium-nickel alloys in the age hardened
condition are given also in Table 11-4. The effect of increasing the beryllium
content on the tensile properties is apparent. Type 260C has a tensile strength
of 242 ksi compared with 180 ksi for Type 220C. These properties are rela-
tively close to those of the wrought alloy after aging from the solution-
annealed condition. The ductility, as measured by the elongation, however,
is much lower in the castings than in the wrought products. The hardness
achieved by aging the castings is practically the same as that of the wrought
alloy after aging from the solution-annealed condition.
NITINOL
1650 F. Subsequent rolling to strip and wire drawing can be carried out at
about 750 F.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of Nitinol below the transformation tempera-
ture for all properties except thermal expansion are given in Table 11_5. 10 ,13
Some interesting comparisons can be made with more familiar materials.
Thus, the elastic properties are similar to those of aluminum alloys whereas
the coefficient of thermal expansion is about 60 % of that of the 80 % nickel-
20 % chromium alloy over the same range. The electrical resistivity is quite
close to that of the 36% nickel-balance iron alloy.
Mechanical Properties
Some room temperature mechanical properties of Nitinol are given in
Table 11_6. 10 ,12 The form of the material was not stated and no indication
of whether the materials were in the low- or high-temperature modification
was included. Since transformation occurs close to room temperature, these
data are merely indicative of the properties that can be expected of this
compound.
The data indicate, however, that Nitinol has good strength properties
and fair ductility as measured by the elongation. The type of impact test was
not specified. The fatigue strength appears to be very good in relation to
the tensile properties.
Other Nickel Alloys 215
~
.iii
..:<: c-
vl 0
en
(j)
~
'"6
Ol
(f) C
0
W
o 1600
Temperature, F
Fig. 11-6. Short-time elevated temperature tensile
properties of Nitinol. l 3
216 Chapter 11
Temperature,K
50 100 150 200 250 300
160
140
120
100
Ul
.¥.
80 80
ul
Ul
~
(jj E
60 60
~
c~
0
40 40 B
0>
C
0
20 20 w
0 0
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 11-7. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of Ni-
tinol. 13
Physical Properties
Limited physical properties of severa' Heavy .rvH~tal compositions are
given in Table 11_7.16,17,18,19 With densities of the order of 17 g/cm3, these
alloys have almost twice the density of nickel. They can be produced in
a range of densities by modification of the processing variables. They have
low coefficients of expansion and the modulus of elasticity is much higher
218 Chapter 11
than those of the other nickel alloys discussed previously. Their electrical
conductivities are quite low.
Mechanical Properties
Tensile properties and hardness values for these materials are included
also in Table 11-7. They are quite strong and hard but the ductility is rather
low.
According to Green et al. 16 one of the disadvantages of the tungsten-
nickel-copper system is its sensitivity to cooling rate. They note that the 90 %
tungsten-7.5% nickel-2.5% copper alloy after slow cooling has a tensile
strength of 56 ksi and an elongation of less than I %, whereas rapid cooling
yields a tensile strength of 90 ksi with an elongation of 1 to 2 %. They mention
that the purpose of modifying the alloy by replacing part of the nickel and
copper by other elements is to overcome this sensitivity to cooling rate. The
90 % tungsten-7 % nickel-3 % iron alloy which they developed has a tensile
strength of 59 ksi with an elongation of 19 % after slow cooling and a tensile
strength of 54 ksi with an elongation of 7 % after rapid cooling.
REFERENCES
Trademarks
Trademark Owner
Alumel Hoskins Manufacturing Company
AM 350 Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation
AM 355 Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation
Chromel Hoskins Manufacturing Company
Duranickel The International Nickel Company, Inc
Hastelloy Union Carbide Corporation
HNM Carpenter Steel Company
Illium Stainless Foundry and Engineering, Inc.
Incoloy The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Inconel The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Invar Soc. Anon. de Commentry-Fourchambault et Decaziville
(Acieries d'Imphy)
Iso-Elastic John Chatillon & Sons
Mar-M200 The Martin Company
MAR-M246 The Martin Company
Monel The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Nimonic The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Ni-Span C The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Ni-Span Hi The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Permanickel The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Rene 41 Allvac Metals Corporation (Division of Teledyne)
PHI5-7Mo Armco Steel Corporation
17-4PH Armco Steel Corporation
221
222 Appendix I
Conversion Factors
Multiply by to obtain
Specific heat
BtujlbtF caljgtK
Thermal conductivity
Btujhrjft2tFjft 0.00413 caljsecjcm 2 tKjcm
Btujhrjft2tFjft 0.0173 wattsjcmtK
Btujhrjft2tFjft 1.73 wattsjmtK*
223
224 Appendix II
Thermal expansion
Coefficient per of 1.8 coefficienWK
Electrical resistivity
ohms/cir mil ft 0.16624 microhm-cm
Density
Ib/in. 3 27.68
Stress units
ksi 6.8948 MN/mZ*
ksi 0.7031 kgf/mm2t
Temperature Conversion
Fahrenheit to Kelvin IK = (IF + 459.67)/1.8
Fahrenheit to Celsius te = (tF - 32)/1.8
Symbols
The following symbols have been used in the graphs:
Ann. Annealed
C.D. Cold drawn
C.W. Cold worked
E Elongation
H.R. Hot rolled
Mod E Modulus of elasticity
ModR Modulus of rigidity
RofA Reduction of area
T.S. Tensile strength
Y.S. Yield strength (unspecified)
Y.S.O.2% Yield strength (0.2 % offset)
Y.S.O.5% Yield strength (0.5 % extension under load)
* SI unit.
t SI unit. To distinguish between mass and force or load, the former is designated kg
(for example) and the latter kgf in the SI system.
Index