Mineral.

Deposita 27, 137-146 (1992)

s ta
9 Springer-Verlag 1992

Lateritic nickel deposits of Brazil

S. M. Barros de Oliveira ~, J. J. Trescases 2 and A. Jos~ Melfi 3

1 Universidade de S~o Paulo, Instituto de Geoci~ncias C.P. 20.899 - S~o Paulo, Brazil
2 Universit6 de Poitiers, Laboratoire de Prtrologie de la Surface, 40 Avenue du Recteur Pineau, 86022 Poitiers, France
3 Universidade de S~o Paulo, Instituto Astron6mico e Geofisico, C.P. 30.627, S~o Paulo, Brazil
Abstract. Many nickel deposits are known in Brazil, accounting for about 350.106 tons of ore with an average
of 1.5% Ni. All are of the lateritic type. These deposits
are scattered throughout the country, being rarer in the
Northeastern Region and in the South, below 25~ latitude. They are mainly associated with mafic-ultramafic
massifs of large dimensions and ultramafic alkaline complexes, and occur in climatic regions of contrasting seasons. The weathering profile developed over the fresh
rock consists, from bottom to top, of the following horizons: altered rock, coarse saprolite, argillaceous saprolite, ferruginous saprolite and lateritic overburden. The
thickness of each horizon varies from one deposit to another, the whole profile generally exceeding 20 m. The
saprolitic horizons with inherited minerals (serpentine,
chlorite) or neoformed minerals (smectites) constitute the
silicated nickel ore and are thicker were climatic conditions are drier; the ferruginous upper horizons made up
of iron oxide-hydroxides are more developed in more
humid regions. In Brazil, the silicated ore generally prevails over the oxidized ore. The main Ni-bearing minerals
are serpentine, smectite, garnierite and goethite. The latcritic nickel deposits of Brazil may be correlated with two
erosion surfaces, corresponding to the Sul Americano
(Lower Tertiary) and Velhas (Upper Tertiary) levelling
cycles. The degree of dismantling of the higher and more
ancient surface and the consequent development of the
Velhas Surface control the position of the nickel accumulation in the landscape. Thus, the deposits may be found
either in the lowlands or in the highlands, where they are
always covered by a silcrete layer. The alteration profiles
in the Brazilian lateritic nickel deposits are broadly similar to those described elsewhere in the world. However,
they present two characteristic features: the silicated ore
prevails over the oxidized ore, and a silicified layer covers
the profies developed on the highlands.

Two kinds of deposits are responsible for the production

of nickel: the magmatic sulfides and the nickeliferous

laterites. World resources total 97.106 tons of contained

nickel; about 50% are located in New Caledonia, the
remaining being mainly in Indonesia, Canada, the USSR,
Cuba and Australia. About 72% of this total is of the
lateritic type (DeYoung Jr. et al. 1985).
Nickel production was about 630000 tons of contained nickel in 1982, 65% coming from magmatic ores.
More than 80% of the production is derived from only
eight countries: the USSR, Canada, Australia, New Caledonia, Indonesia, Cuba, South Africa, and the Philippines (DeYoung Jr. et al. 1985).
Brazil has important resources of nickel adding up to
more than 4.106 tons of contained metal. All this nickel
comes from lateritic deposits. Only two sulfide deposits
are known in Brazil: Americano do Brasil in the State of
Goi/ts, and Fortaleza de Minas in the State of Minas
Gerais, both recently discovered. In 1987 the production
reached 22092 tons of contained nickel (An. Min. Br.
1988).
The lateritic nickel deposits have been known in Brazil
since the last century. The first quotation in literature was
about the Jacupiranga district, in the State of S~o Paulo,
in 1889. Since then other deposits have been mentioned:
Niquelgmdia, in the State of Goifis (1906), Liberdade, in
the State of Minas Gerais (1916), and Morro do Niquel
in the same state (1922). In the second half of this century,
through systematic prospection, many other deposits
have been discovered:
Nickel was exploited on a small scale in Jacupiranga
during the Second World War, and in Liberdade from
1927 to 1975. At the moment two deposits account for the
nickel production in Brazil: Niquel~ndia, which provides
at least 5000 tons of electrolitic nickel per year, and
Morro do Niquel, with a production of about 10000 tons
per year of Fe-Ni alloy. Brazil exports Fe-Ni alloy, but
imports manufactured products of nickel. The importation has decreased meaningfully in the last few years,
since Niquel~ndia mine has been operating (1980).
There are lateritic nickel deposits scattered all over the
country; they are rarer in the Northeastern Region and
absent in the South, due to climatic reasons. In the Area-

138

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cently, Danni and Teixeira (1981) and Nilson (1984) presented two classification proposals at regional and global
levels.
The mafic-ultramafic complexes differ in age and type.
The nickel-bearing massifs can be grouped into three categories:

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zonian Region the small number of known deposits is

probably a consequence of the scarce geologic knowledge
of the area. Figure 1 shows the main deposits of lateritic
nickel in Brazil, grouped in four regions: North, Northeast, Southeast and Central, the latter accounting for the
more important resources.
A lot has been written about nickel in Brazil. The
economic aspects have been discussed by Ferran (1974),
Berbert (1977) and by the Brazilian Mineral Yearbooks.
The inventory of the deposits and their general description is the work of Schobbenhaus et al. (1984). The detailed geochemical and mineralogical characterization of
the mineralized profiles began in the mid 1970s; at the end
of that decade a preliminary synthesis was published by
Melfi et al. (1979, 1980). Since then many papers have
been published about case histories; these will be cited in
this paper.

and climatic

State of Goi~ts following the SW-NE direction: Barro

Alto, Niquelgmdia and Cana Brava. They are about
100 km long and tens of kilometers wide, but their ultramafic zones are much smaller. For Niquel~ndia and
Barro Alto, four unities, metamorphosed in the granulite
facies and dipping to the west, have been identified
(Figueiredo et al. 1975):
a gabbroic basal zone;
an ultramafic serpentinized basal zone;
- a gabbroic central zone;
- a gabbro-anorthositic upper zone.
-

Fig. 1. Lateritic nickel deposits of Brazil

Geologic

Mafic-ultramafic bodies of large dimensions, associated

with granite-gneiss. Three massifs of this type occur in the

setting

The lateritic nickel deposits are formed by weathering

alteration of ultramafic rocks under favorable morphoclimatic conditions.
In Brazil there are a lot of ultramafic massifs scattered
around different climatic zones. In many of them, the
weathering alteration led to the formation of thick blankets enriched in nickel, known as nickeliferous laterites.

The total thickness of these unities is more than 20 km,

only 2 km corresponding to the ultramafic zone. Danni
and Teixeira (1981) and Danni et al. (1981) suggested for
Niquelgmdia the individualization of the upper zone as an
independent body. Whether this interpretation is valid
and can be also applicable for Barro Alto are subjects
under discussion.

Small serpentinized massifs of "alpine" type. These form

the "serpentine belt" (Almeida 1978) and are from 3000
to 600 m.y. old, being associated with several orogenic
cycles. They occur along alignments in the State of GoiAs,
Parfi, Bahia and Minas Gerais. Some of them have nickel
deposits, like Silo Jogo do Piaui, and the small complexes
of the State of Minas Gerais (Angeli and Choudhuri
1985).
These massifs generally contain an associated mafic
zone; their ultramafic zones are derived from dunites and
peridotites and are always strongly serpentinized.
Cretaceous ultramafic-alkaline complexes. These are related to the volcanism which occurred at the time of the
opening of the Atlantic Ocean (Ulbrich and Gomes
1981). They form a belt surrounding the Paranh Basin,
from the State of Rio Grande do Sul up to the State of
Mato Grosso. In general they have a circular shape of
about 10 km diameter; the ultramafic zones are generally
in their cores. Santa F6, ,~gua Branca, Jaupaci, Iponi and
Morro do Engenho, in the State of GoiAs, and Jacupiranga, in the State of $5o Paulo, belong to this category.
Some massifs do not fit into this classification, for
instance Vermelho and Quatipuru, both in the Parer State.
Climatic conditions

Mafic-ultramafic complexes in Brazil

In the last few years, the geological knowledge of the
various types of mafic-ultramafic complexes has increased mainly in the Central and Eastern Regions. Re-

Being a very large country, Brazil shows a great variety of

climates (Fig. 2). The lateritic nickel deposits are found in
four bioclimatic domains associated with four geographic regions:

139

climatic zones. The deposits are associated mainly with

the large massifs and the ultramafic-alkaline massifs and,
to a lower degree, with the "alpine" type massifs. As to
the climate, it is principally in the Central Region, with
contrasting seasons, that the large deposits are concentrated. There are also some important deposits in the
Amazonian Region and in the Southeastern Littoral.
There is just one deposit in the semi-arid zone and none
in the Southern Region beyond 25~ latitude, from where
the climate becomes sub-tropical to temperate.

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Description of the deposits

Central Region deposits

REGION
CLIMATE
Northeast Semi-aridtropical

Central
--~ Southeasl

Tropicalwith contrasting seasons

Sub- worm and sub-humid tropical

North

Worm and humidequatorial

South

Sub- tropical to temperate

Fig. 2. Climatic domains in Brazil (Romaris 1974)

Northern Region warm and humid equatorial climate

with equatorial forest. The precipitation is more than
1800 mm per year and very well distributed. The dry season never exceeds two or three months. The temperature,
constant during the year, is about 26 ~

Central Region warm and humid tropical climate of contrasting seasons with savannah vegetation. The precipitation varies between 1200 and 1800 mm per year and is
concentrated in at least six months. The dry season is not
longer than four months. The average annual temperature ranges from 22 to 25 ~
Northeastern Region tropical semi-arid climate with
"caatinga" vegetation. The average temperatures are between 24 and 26 ~ The average annual precipitation is
less than 800 mm, concentrated in only three or four
months, being completely dry the rest of the year.

Southeastern Region sub-warm and sub-humid tropical

climate with tropical forest. This is a transition region to
sub-tropical climate with an average temperature of
about 20 ~ with great variations according to the altitude. The precipitation is well distributed during the year,
amounting to between 1200 and 1900 ram.
The comparison between Fig. 1 and 2 indicates that
the nickeliferous lateritic deposits are preferentially related to certain types of ultramafic massifs and to certain

The most important Brazilian resources of lateritic nickel

are in the Central Region, adding up to 195.1 9 1 0 6 tons of
ore with 1.1 to 2.1% Ni. In this region, as elsewhere in the
country, the ultramafic massifs are generally in the higher
parts of the landscape, forming elevations capped by a
layer of silicified material (silcrete). The lowlands correspond to the country rock or to the more dissected parts
of the ultramafic massifs. Melfi et al. (1979/1980) suggested that the lowlands belong to the Velhas Erosion
Surface, formed in the Upper Tertiary, and that the silicifled tops can be interpreted as relics of a more ancient
Erosion Surface, Sul Americana, formed in the Lower
Tertiary (King 1956; Braun 1971). The degree of incision
and dismantling of the Sul Americana Surface and the
consequent development of the Velhas Surface can be
different depending on the lithology and on the dimensions of the massifs. Thus, the nickel-enriched profiles
may be found either in the lowlands or in the highlands,
under the silicified layer.
At Niquelrndia (Pecora 1944; Barbosa 1968; Costa
1970; Oliveira and Trescases 1982; Colin etal. 1985;
Girardi et al. 1986), despite the enormous dimensions of
the massif, the ultramassif zone is not well developed,
forming a narrow belt about 40 x 2.5 km. In the southern
zone of this belt, there are serpentinized dunites and peridotites, interlayered with pyroxenites, forming a high undulated plateau related to the Sul Americana Surface.
The dunitic areas capped by silcrete correspond to the
tops and the pyroxenite bands correspond to the valleys
slightly carved in the plateau (Fig. 3). The northern zone
of the ultramafic belt, where there are only serpentinized
dunites, is almost entirely eroded down to the Velhas level
(Fig. 3).
In the dunitic zones, the complete weathering profile,
generally developed in the lowlands, varies in thickness
from 8 to 20 m, and shows two main groups of horizons
(Fig. 4). The first group, developed at the bottom of the
profile, is composed of weathered ultramafic rock which
conserves its original structure (saprolite); upwards
weathering becomes more and more intensive: the weathered hard rock (saprolite 1, about 3 m thick) evolves to a
friable material (saprolite 2 = coarse saprolite), and then
to layers in which a brown to greenish-brown argillaceous matrix contains smaller and smaller rocky fragments (saprolite 3 = argillaceous saprolite). The thickness

140

,,%

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Alteration

Dunite

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Gabbro

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NIQUELJ~NDIANORTH
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Fig. 3. NiquelAndia and Santa 1:6 geologic sections

size of the
portic(es

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bulk
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Fig. 4. Schematic weathering profile in lowlands area on duniteperidotite zone o f Niquel~ndia (Central Region). Saprolite 1 = altered
rock; Saprolite 2 = coarse saprolite; Saprolite 3 = argillaceous saprolite; Laterite 1 = yellow laterite = ferruginous saprolite; Laterite 2 =
red laterite = lateritic overburden

of coarse and argillaceous saprolite is respectively 2 to

4 m, and 2 to 6 m. In these saprolitic layers, bulk density
progressively decreases from 2.5 to 3 at the bottom to 1.1
to 1.3 at the top. The MgO content, and, later, the S i O 2
content decrease as well; in contrast, the Fe, Cr, A1 and
Ni contents increase with increasing weathering. From a
mineralogical point of view, the saprolites are mainly
made up of magnesian to ferro-magnesian silicates: serpentine, chlorites and smectites. Garnierites can occur in

veins, associated with quartz, inside the saprolitic layers,

or just beneath, in the rock cracks. The saprolitic layers
represent the silicated nickel ore (NiO between I and
5%).
The second group of horizons is essentially ferruginous (laterite). From bottom to top, the color varies from
yellow (laterite 1) to red (laterite 2). In the laterite 1 the
original structure is not entirely destroyed; for this reason
it can be considered as a saprolitic ferruginous horizon;
its thickness is about 2 m. The size of particles, first very,
very small (1 gm), increases to the top, with formation of
millimetric pisolitic concretions. In the lateritic layers,
goethite is the predominant mineral, accompanied by hematite at the top of the profile (red laterite, 2 m thick).
When the NiO content is higher than 1% the ferruginous
saprolite constitutes the oxidized or lateritic nickel ore.
The superficial red material is considered a barren latcritic overburden due to its low content of Ni.
On the highlands, instead of the red lateritic overburden, the ferruginous saprolite is capped by an extremely
silicified ferruginous material (silcrete). On the steep
slopes, a thin layer of ferruginous saprolite lies directly
over the slightly altered rock.
The profile developed over pyroxenites, up to 50 m
thick, is essentially of smectitic composition, cut by garnieritic veins. In the upper levels smectite changes into
kaolinite.
In the Niquelfindia massif, the ore is mainly of the
silicated type, associated with the coarse saprolite and the
argillaceous saprolite, even when of pyroxenitic origin. In
this case, the nickel included in the smectites came from
the dunites that are in higher topographic positions: the
nickel content in the fresh pyroxenites is not sufficient to
produce economic concentrations. A less important part
of the ore is of the oxidized type, related to the ferruginous saprolite.
The Barro Alto massif (Melfi 1974; Stache 1974;
Trescases and Oliveira 1981), like Niquelgmdia, has a narrow elongated ultramafic zone (30 x i km), formed by
serpentinized peridotites. The relief of this zone is characterized by plains (Velhas Surface) at the extremities and
by a hilly area in the middle portion. In the hilly area, one
can distinguish remains of a plateau capped by silcrete,
convex slopes and steep foothills. In any case, the
anorthositic zone of the massif is situated in higher topographic positions.
The weathering profile is well developed in the plains
(up to 18 m thick) and in the convex slopes (about 25 m
thick). It is formed by altered rock and coarse saprolite
cut by garnieritic veins, argillaceous saprolite, ferruginous saprolite and a lateritic overburden. On the hill tops
and steep foothills the profile is interrupted at the level of
the slightly altered rock.
The main mineralized level is the argillaceous saprolite
because it is the thickest and the most enriched level (NiO
between 2.2 and 2.7%). The coarse saprolite and the ferruginous saprolite can be considered ores as well. As for
the topographic position, the deposit is situated on the
convex slopes and on the plains.
The ultramafic massif of Santa FO (Barbour 1978;
Oliveira and Trescases 1980) is an oval body of 38 km 2

141

surface, formed by a core of serpentinized unites

(26 km2), surrounded by concentric rings of peridotites,
pyroxenites and alkaline gabbros. The landscape (Fig. 3)
is in an advanced stage of erosion, with an extensive
levelled plain (Veihas Surface) with a few elevations
capped by silcrete, The alteration profile is well developed in the lowlands and in a lower degree on the slopes.
The complete profile consists of four zones, namely, altered rock, coarse saprolite, ferruginous saprolite and, at
the top, lateritic overburden. Here the argillaceous saprolite is absent. The coarse saprolite is about 15 m thick and
the ferruginous saprolite varies from 0 to 2 m. Finally, a
red lateritic material, sometimes pisolitic, 1 to 4 m thick,
covers the profile. On the tops, the slightly altered rock
lies directly under the silcrete. Thus, at Santa Fr, the
deposits is located essentially in the lowlands and the ore
consists of coarse saprolit.e (NiO between 0.4 and 1.6%),
ferruginous saprolite (NiO between 0.2 and 2.1%), when
it occurs, and the lower part of the lateritic overburden
(up to 1% NiO). The pyroxenites alter into a smectitic
material, whose nickel content never exceeds 0.6%.
At the .]gua Branca massif (Justo 1973), the deposit
consists of a level of silicated ore developed under a silcrete larger that caps an extensive plateau (35 km2). At
Morro do Engenho (Chaban and Santos 1973), the massif
corresponds to a tabular hill (5 km); the silicated type of
ore is dominant.
It can be said that the nickeliferous lateritic deposits of
the Central Region of Brazil are mainly of the silicated
type and that they lie either on the higher parts of the
landscape (plateaus, convex slopes, suspended valleys),
where they have a more argillaceous composition, or on
the lowlands, where the more intensive lateritic evolution
has led to the formation of oxidized ore associated with
the ferruginous saprolite.

Northern Region deposits

In the Serra dos Carajfis Region, in the State of Pardi,
between the Araguaia and Xingu rivers, five deposits of
lateritic nickel are mentioned in the geological literature:
Vermelho, Quatipuru, Onqa, Puma and Jacarr, making
up far more than 100.106 tons of ore.
Vermelho deposit (Bernardelli et al. 1983; Alves et al.
1986) is formed by two ultramafic bodies (serpentinized
peridotites), VI (2.5 1.5 km) and V2 (1.5 x 0.5 kin),
which are located in the central zone of a mafic-ultramafic massif. These bodies form hills with tabular tops
emerging from a plain (Velhas Surface). Pyroxenitic
lenses included in the serpentinite are common. In V1, for
instance, a thick pyroxenitic lens crops out in a suspended
valley between two serpentinic crests (Fig. 5).
On the tabular tops, the alteration profile, up to 50 m
thick, is developed under an important layer of silicified
material. It comprises an altered rock layer, a coarse
saprolite horizon (serpentine and chlorite with NiO between 0.5 and 3%) of 20 m thickness, and a ferruginous
saprolite horizon (goethite and quartz with NiO between
0.4 and 5%) from 0 to 30 m thick. All these layers can be
nickel ore. At the bottom of the profile, garnieritic veins

s
m:

45C

400,

4~0
^

^ ~

350

Altereddunite ~

Coarsesapmlite ~

[ ~ $11crete~

Ferruginoussaprolite

Alteredpyrolenite

Fig. 5. Geologic section of Verrnelho deposit (Northern Region)

have not been found. A lateritic overburden (hematite

and goethite) improverished in nickel (less than 1% NiO)
caps the profile. On the gentle slopes, on the northern side
of V1, the alteration profile in not covered by silcrete
(Fig. 5). On the steep slopes, the profile is absent and the
slightly altered rock crops out. In the suspended valley,
developed on pyroxenites, the profile is essentially smectitic, covered by a lateritic level (goethite and kaolinite).
The NiO content never exceeds 0.5%.
From the 40.10 6 tons of ore, about one half is of the
silicated type, the remaining being of the oxidized type. In
the ferruginous silicified saprolite (silcrete), high contents
of nickel occur only locally; this horizon is therefore a
barren overburden. The ferruginous saprolite thickness
is, in Vermelho, much bigger than in the other deposits of
Brazil and its composition is much more oxidized. These
features are probably controlled by the present climate
with equatorial characteristics.
Quatipuru is an ultramafic body (45 x 1 kin) which
forms a ridge in contrast with the surrounding rocks
(Cordeiro and McCandless 1976). The ultramafic is a
serpentinite derived from dunites and harzburgites containing Fe-Ni-Co sulfides. The alteration profile, 6 m
thick, is formed by a coarse saprolite horizon (2 m), that
underlies a ferruginous saprolite horizon and is capped
by a lateritic concretionary soil. The nickel concentrations are in coarse and ferruginous saprolites. The upper
levels of the profile are silicified (S~i 1980).
The lateritic nickel deposits of the Northern Region of
Brazil are related to profiles that show a very silicified
layer on their tops. Their characteristic feature is the importance of the oxidized ore, much greater than in other
Brazilian deposits.

Northeastern Region deposits

In the Northeastern Region, there are two deposits of
lateritic nickel: Serra das Marrecas, in the State of Bahia,
and S~o Jo~o do Piaui, in the State of Piaui. From both,
only the latter represents important resources (20.10 6
tons of ore with 1.6% Ni).
The Sdo Jodo do Piaui deposit (Santos 1974; Trescases
et al. 1986) is developed over the ultramafic zone of a
mafic-ultramafic massif. The mafic zone is levelled at the
same topographic level as the country rock (Velhas Sur-

142

m
ALTITUDE
t460
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on ultramafic rocks is formed only by a strongly silicified

level with some garnierite, directly overlying the fresh
rock (Farina 1969). At Andorinha, in the State of Bahia,
the ultramafic massif is completely eroded, levelled to the
Velhas Surface. The alteration profile, only some decimeters thick, is formed by a silicified smectitic material.

440

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Southeastern Region deposits

Coorso
soproliteArQi}losoprolite
ce~
~5'~ii)
: J....
^: :A'~'~'
J ^"^~:^ ~~~!."~1.':.~:.:,.i~'~:'~'1~1~1~_~
;~:'
:.':'"::'~:~.......
!'g ~:~!~
: ' ??'i~;:!' 57j!

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Fig. 6. Geologic section ofS~_oJofiodo Piauideposit (Northeastern
Region)

face); the ultramafic zone (7 kin2), formed by serpentinites, emerges from this surface as a hill with tabular top
(silcrete) and extensive and gentle slopes (Fig. 6).
The alteration profile can be divided into two layers.
At the bottom, there is a saprolitic horizon made up of
serpentine in the lower part (altered rock and coarse
saprolite with NiO between 0.4 and 2%) and smectite in
the upper part (argillaceous saprolite with NiO between
1 and 1.6%). This horizon is not much silicified or intensively silicified and is about 20 m thick. At the top, there
is a 10 m thick horizon formed by silicified serpentinite
blocks mixed with ferruginous concretions (silcrete).
On the plateau, at the top of the hill, the saprolitic
horizon is thicker and dominated by the argillaceous
level. Toward the lowlands, the argillaceous level is less
important and the saprolitic level, less developed as a
whole, is mainly formed by the coarse saprolite facies. On
the steep slopes, the profile is almost absent (Fig. 6). The
degree of silicification of the saprolites is stronger on the
top and on the upper parts of the slopes, and less intensive toward the plains.
At Silo Jo~.o do Piaui, the evolution is not of a lateritic
type, except in some restricted zones on the plateau,
where a ferruginous material forms the matrix that embodies the silicified blocks.
The ore consists of the coarse and argillaceous saprolite and presents the best grades when these materials are
not very silicified. It can be found only in the lower parts
of the slopes and on the plains; on the plateaus, the saprolitic levels always have nickel contents inferior to 0.6%. A
characteristic feature of this deposit is the absence of
garnierite at the bottom of the profile.
A semi-arid climate like that of the Northeastern Region of Brazil favours erosion instead of chemical alteration. As a result, most of the ultramafic massifs in this
region do not contain nickel deposits. In the State of
Bahia, the small occurrence of lateritic nickel in Serra das
Marrecas (Schobbenhaus 1976) is no more than an
eroded relict of an accumulation, which could have been
similar to that of S~o Joao do Piaui. In the State of
Paraiba, at Catingueira, the alteration profile developed

Despite the existence of several ultramafic massifs in the

Brazilian Southeastern Region, there are only four nickeliferous lateritic deposits: Jacupiranga, in the State of
SaD Paulo, and Liberdade, Ipanema and Morro do
Niquel, in the State of Minas Gerais. Jacupiranga district, at 24~
latitude, is the southernmost known occurrence of lateritic nickel in Brazil. Other ultramafic
massifs situated at more meridional latitudes, like Pien
(State of Paranfi) and Pedras Pretas (State of Rio Grande
do Sul) do not show lateritic alteration profiles.
In the Jacupiranga complex (Oliveira and Trescases
1985; Oliveira et al. 1988), the alkaline ultramafic massif
contains an ultramafic zone formed by serpentinized
dunites (20 km2). The morphology of this zone consists
of a plateau slightly dissected by erosion. Only in the
western part is the plateau more incised, resulting in a set
of round hills separated by narrow valleys. The alteration
profile (Fig. 7) is very thick, but the mineralized zone is
restricted only to the coarse and argillaceous saprolitic
horizons (NiO between 0.4 and 2%). These levels, composed by serpentine, smectite and chlorite, cut at the bottom by garnieritic veins, are capped by a thick layer of
silicified ferruginous saprolite with low nickel contents
(less than 1% NiO) and by a kaolinitic overburden,
whose origin is at least partially allochtonous.
The deposits of Liberdade, Morro do Niquel and
Ipanema are developed over small ultramafic "alpine"
type massifs. In M o r r o do Niquel (Trescases and Oliveira
1978), the deposit consists of a small hill (0.3 kmZ), the
fresh serpentinite cropping out at the bottom. The weathering profile (Fig. 7) is formed by altered rock (serpentine, chlorite and garnieritic veins with NiO between 0.4
and 3.9%) covered by a thick ferruginous silicified level
(NiO between 0.4 to 0.5%). Discontinuous and thin ferruginous layers may occur between these two horizons.
An overburden material derived from the silicified level
caps the profile.
At Ipanema (Angeli et al. 1984), there are several small
mineralized bodies, the most important of them being
Santa Cruz. This is a small hill (0.5 km 2) formed by serpentinized peridotites. The alteration material is a more
or less argillaceous saprolite enriched in nickel (NiO between 1.1 and 3.5%). This level underlies a silicified ferruginous horizon and a thick layer of ferralitic soil
(Fig. 7).
At Liberdade (Esson and Santos 1978 a) the ultramafic
body, a hill of 1.5 km 2 of surface, is formed by serpentinites. The alteration profiles (Fig. 7) is not very thick,
and has at its bottom altered rock and a coarse saprolite
horizon (NiO between 1.1 and 2.9%) with abundant chlorite and garnieritic veins; at the top, there is a silicified

143
Depth
(rn)
O.

Liberdode

Jacugiranga

MorrodoNique~

I m

20.
9

).

40.

60.

Loteriticoverburden
~

Alteredrock

'1 Silcrete ~
~

Argillaceoussaprolite

Coorsesaprolite

Fig. 7. Alteration profiles in the Southeastern Region

ferruginous saprolite horizon and about 0.5 m of ferralitic soil.

In all the four massifs described, the saprolitic level
constitutes the ore and is more or less argillaceous, depending on the content of smectite. At Jacupiranga, this
content is maximum and at Morro do Niquel and Liberdade there are no smectites at all.
The deposits of the Southeastern Region are small
with moderate amounts of nickel. The resources add up
to 9.2.10 6 tons with 1.2 to 1.7% Ni. Their topographic
position is always in the highlands and they are covered
by a thick barren overburden, which makes their exploitation difficult.

Genesis of the lateritic profile

Mineralogical evolution
The nickel lateritic profiles described above are derived
from ultramafic rocks formed essentially by olivine, serpentine and a certain amount of pyroxenes. At the beginning of the alteration process (altered rock), olivine is
gradually hydrolised with a nearly total removal of magnesia and a partial removal of silica. In this oxidizing and
alkaline environment, iron and nickel are insoluble and
precipitate with silica as amorphous or badly crystallized
products in the cavities left by the dissolution of the olivine. If the drainage conditions in the profile are inefficient, Ni-Mg-smectites may be formed. The pyroxenes
alter into Mg or Fe-smectites (Bosio et al. 1975; Brindley
and Souza 1975b; Souza et al. 1978; Oliveira and Melfi
1979; Colin et al. 1985). The serpentine seems stable but,
in reality, part of its octahedral magnesium is replaced by
nickel. The amorphous material derived from olivine can
also fill up the void spaces between the fibres of the serpentine, giving them a yellow color and a higher nickel
content. In the cracks of the altered rock, neoformed minerals precipitate from solutions carrying Si,
Mg and Ni. These minerals are the garnierites: 7A and
10A Mg-Ni-silicates (Brindley 1978). In Brazil, garnier-

ites have been described in detail in Morro do Niquel,

Barro Alto and Liberdade (Esson and Santos 1978b;
Souza et al. 1978). Irregular accumulations of chlorite
and vermiculite of probable hypogeneous origin, slightly
altered and enriched in nickel, have been mentioned in
Sante Fr, Jacupiranga, Morro do Niquel and Barro Alto
(Brindley and Souza 1975a and b; Souza et al. 1978;
Trescases and Oliveira 1981).
Once the olivine is dissolved, the alteration solutions
become more diluted and the porosity of the material
increases. As a result, the Mg-smectites previously
formed change into Fe-smectites with loss of nickel. Now
the alteration of the serpentine begins, resulting in a
Mg-Ni-smectite (Barro Alto, Niquelandia and mainly
S~o Jo~o do Piaui) or, as happens more frequently, it
slowly dissolves, leaving behind a Ni-goethite residue
(Morro do Niquel and Vermelho). The garnierites become unstable, go into solution, leaving in their place, in
the cracks, a mixture of Mn-Ni-Co-Fe oxides and hydroxides (asbolanes). The smectites, either derived from
olivine or from serpentine, change into goethite as well.
All these transformations begin in the fissures where an
argillaceous material embodies the residual blocks of
slightly altered rock (coarse saprolite). As the argillaceous material becomes predominant, the blocks become
smaller, forming the argillaceous saprolite. These horizons, where the silicates are the dominant minerals, constitute the silicated ore with 1 to 4% of Ni.
When the serpentine disappears, it leaves behind a
goethitic material maintaining to a certain degree the
texture of the original rock (ferruginous saprolite).
Nickel is more soluble in this environment and part of it
migrates downwards to the underlying saprolite horizons, making them richer. In general, a small amount of
nickel, about 1%, remains in the ferruginous saprolite
which constitutes the oxidized or lateritic ore.
At the top of alteration profile, the original textures
are no longer preserved; goethite turns into hematite with
loss of nickel. This horizon changes in colour to red tones
and becomes concretionary. In the lowlands or in the
depressed zones of the highlands (Niquel~ndia) the evolution may reach the stage of an indurated ferruginous
crust.

Chemical evolution
The weathering alteration of ultramafic rocks is characterized by preferential leaching of Mg and with a certain
delay of Si. As a result, the more insoluble elements - Fe,
A1 and Cr - are residually concentrated. Ni, Co and Mn,
with an intermediate solubility, behave in a more complex way. Ni, released from hypogeneous minerals, is
retained for a certain period of time by several phases
(garnierites, serpentine, smectites, asbolanes, and
goethite) in the different levels of the alteration profile,
but its preferential horizon of accumulation is the coarse
or the argillaceous saprolite, by vertical leaching from the
upper levels. The stabilization zone for Mn and Co, less
soluble than Ni, is the ferruginous saprolite.
This evolution is similar to that in other nickel deposits of the world (Schellmann 1983; Golightly 1981). A

144

striking characteristic of Brazilian deposits it that the

desilicification is never complete due to the presence of
silicified material in the upper levels of the landscape. The
isovolumetric balances indicate that the high amounts of
nickel in the coarse saprolite are absolute accumulations
for which the upper lateritic levels cannot be entirely
responsible. This excess of nickel can only be explained
by considering the general evolution of the deposits since
the Tertiary, as described below.

General evolution of the deposits since the Tertiary

(MEN" et al. 1979, I980)
The history of the weathering blankets in Brazil began in
the Lower Tertiary with the Sul Americano cycle. At that
time, two different alteration mechanisms prevailed:
intensive silicification at the bottom of the alteration
profiles, under more arid climatic conditions;
lateritisation of the profiles with nickel concentration,
under more humid climatic conditions that followed the
semi-arid episode.
In the Upper Tertiary, a new erosion cycle began (Velhas) which dismantled the Sul Americana Surface and
elaborated at lower altitudes a new surface. The alteration profiles developed on the ancient surface have been
eroded down to the silicified zone. This zone has protected the ultramafic massifs against the general levelling.
Part, of these ancient profiles are found today mixed with
the upper levels of the profiles developed on the Velhas
Surface after mechanical transportation. This hypothesis
can explain why these levels are higher in nickel content
(> 1%), as compared with the overburden material of
lateritic profiles, for instance, in New Caledonia
(Trescases 1975) and Cuba (Vletter 1955). This material,
derived from a previous erosion cycle, has also been the
source for the absolute accumulations found in the saprolite levels.
The alteration continues today both in the highlands,
under the silicified layer (Morro do Niquel, Vermelho,
etc.), or where it does not exist (suspended valleys in
Niquelfindia and convex slopes in Barro Alto), and in the
lowlands (Santa F6, etc.). This alteration of lateritic tendency occurs together with a lateral migration of nickel,
from the highlands, where it has been concentrated since
the Tertiary, towards the lowlands. This migration is
more complete when the Sul Americana Surface is more
eroded, as happens in Santa F6, and is almost absent in
massifs were the Sul Americana Surface is well preserved
(Morro do Niquel, for instance). At S~o Jo~o do Piaui,
the current evolution is not of lateritic tendency, the accumulation of nickel being a result of the preconcentration,
due to the Tertiary lateritisation episode.

Discussion

The investigation of the supergenic nickel deposits of

Brazil, developed from several types of ultramafic rocks
in different climatic conditions, allows the evaluation of

the role of petrographic and morphoclimatic factors in

the genesis of the nickeliferous laterites. The main characteristics of the Brazilian nickeliferous laterites can also be
defined.

Role of the parent rock

The alteration process and the genesis of the ore are controlled by the petrographic nature of the rock and by its
degree of fracturation.
The nature of the hypogeneous minerals is important
for two reasons: their different original nickel content
and their resistance to the alteration processes. Their
nickel content is about 3000 to 4500 ppm for the olivines,
500 to 1000 ppm for the orthopyroxenes, 150 to 600 ppm
for the clinopyroxenes and 2500 and 3500 ppm for the
serpentines. It seems, therefore, evident that the pyroxenes cannot be sources for nickeliferous accumulations.
However, at Niquelfindia, the smectitic horizon developed over pyroxenites behaved as a trap for the nickel
that came by lateral migration from dunites and peridotites. On the other hand, the delay in the alteration of
the pyroxenes compared with the olivines and of the serpentine compared with the two other silicates is responsible for the succession of different saprolitic horizons at
the bottom of the profiles. These horizons are the silicated nickel ore; their nickel content derives from the in
situ alteration of the olivine and from the transformations - silicates ~ goethite ~ hematite - that occurred in
the upper parts of the profiles. If the original mineralogy
had been simpler, as in serpentinites, the several steps of
the evolution would have been superimposed, reducing
the thickness of the silicated ore.
The alteration occurs when the solutions percolate the
minerals through fractures and fissures. Therefore,
weathering proceeds more rapidly in fractured zones and
consequently the release of nickel is more complete. The
circulation of the solutions being easier, the nickel will
migrate downwards and will enrich the inherited minerals
not yet altered (serpentines) or the neoformed secondary
minerals (smectites and garnierites). Such absolute accumulations of nickel have been observed in all Brazilian
deposits.

Role of the climate

A tropical climate, hot and humid, is required for the
release of nickel from its primary sites and to its relative
concentration by leaching of silica and magnesia. When
the climate is characterized by contrasting seasons, the
alteration profile is formed by silicated and oxidized
saprolites, as in the Central Region. Under more aggressive climatic conditions, the relative importance of the
silicated horizons becomes smaller and the oxidized horizon is more completely developed (Northern Region). In
contrast under more arid climates, the alteration can stop
at the smectitic stage (S~.o Jo~o do Piaui), and, in this
case, the leaching of silica is not enough to concentrate
the nickel. Such conditions must have prevailed for the

145
formation o f the silicified horizons in the Lower Tertiary
in Brazil. In more recent times the silicified horizons had
an indirect role in the development o f the deposits, acting
as a protective layer against erosion.

Role of the topographic conditions

The deposits are associated with thick alteration blankets
formed during long periods with the consumption of an
i m p o r t a n t a m o u n t of rock; otherwise the nickel concentrated in the laterites would not be sufficient. These conditions require a low erosion rate, and therefore low gradient surfaces. However in massifs o f large dimensions,
several erosion cycles m a y have produced several surfaces
and the stock of nickel accumulated in the highest surfaces played the role of a preconcentration that fed the
profiles in the lowest topographics level, even if they were
not lateritic, as in S~o Jo~o do Piaui.

General characterization of the Brazilian

nickeliferous laterites 1
The lateritic nickeliferous deposits in Brazil m a y be correlated with two Tertiary erosion cycles. Accordingly, the
deposits can be found either in highlands or in lowlands.
The degree of dismantling of the higher and m o r e ancient
surface controls the preferential situation of the present
nickeliferous accumulations.
The alteration profiles in the Brazilian nickeliferous
deposits are broadly similar to those described elsewhere
in the world with regard to the succession o f horizons,
but there are some important differences. The silicated
horizons are thicker than the oxidized ones as a consequence of the less intensive degree o f lateritisation compared, for instance, with deposits in New Caledonia
(Trescases 1975), Cuba (Vletter 1955) and the Philippines
(Ogura 1977). As a result, in Brazil the silicated ore prevails over the oxidized ore. In the silicated ore, nickel can
be found with silica in the garnierites, in the smectites that
replace pyroxenes and olivines, and associated with serpentines. Although the garnierites are the richest nickel
minerals, their a m o u n t is often very restricted and they
are not therefore important as ore minerals. The main ore
mineral is the enriched serpentine, as happens c o m m o n l y
in other deposits of the world. In m a n y Brazilian deposits, the smectites also play an important role as nickelcontaining minerals (Niquel~ndia).
Finally, the thick silicification level at the tops, witness
of a biphasic evolution, seems to be a characteristic feature o f Brazilian deposits. Similar features, however attenuated, have been described in South Africa (Waal
1971) and in Australia (Zeissink 1969; Elias et al. 1981),
at a b o u t the same latitudes.

1 Detailed data on resources and chemical composition of the

nickel ore are available to interested readers

Acknowledgements. This work is a result of a research programme

of international cooperation between the Instituto de Geocirncias
da Universidade de S~o Paulo and the Institut Frangais de
Recherche Scientifique pour le Drveloppement en Cooprration.
The authors would like to express their acknowledgements to the
organisations which have given financial support as fellowships
(CNPq-Brazil; MRT-France) and funds for research (CNPq,
FAPESP and FINEP in Brazil; OSTROM and CNRS in France).
They are indebted to Rio Doce Geologia e Minera~o S/A, Companha Niquel Tocantins, Morro do Niquel S/A Minera~5o, Indfistria e Comrrcio, and Mineradora Montita Ltda for fieldwork support.

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