Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
More About Coloring Graphs
KU Mini College
June 5, 2013
1 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
2 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
3 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
4 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
5 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
6 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
7 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
8 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
9 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
10 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
11 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
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The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
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The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
14 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
15 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
16 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
17 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
18 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
19 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
20 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
21 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
22 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem
Graphs Coloring Maps
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem History
More About Coloring Graphs
23 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graphs
A graph consists of a collection of vertices connected by edges.
vertices
edges
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graphs
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graphs
A graph consists of a collection of vertices connected by edges.
26 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graphs
A graph consists of a collection of vertices connected by edges.
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graphs
28 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graphs
29 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
(a) 2 (b)
2
3 1 5
5
1
4
4
3
30 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
(a) 2 (b)
2
3 1 5
5
1
4
4
3
Note: crossings (like this) are not vertices.
31 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
(a) 2 (b)
2
3 1 5
5
1
4
4
3
Note: crossings (like this) are not vertices.
Planar Graphs
33 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Planar Graphs
A graph is planar if its vertices and edges can be drawn as points
and line segments with no crossings.
4
4
2 3
1
3 5
(c) Not planar
34 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Planar Graphs
A graph is planar if its vertices and edges can be drawn as points
and line segments with no crossings.
4
4
2 3
1
35 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
37 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
38 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
39 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graph Coloring
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graph Coloring
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graph Coloring
vertices = children
edges = pairs of kids to keep separate
colors = tables
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
χ= 4 χ= 3 χ= 3 χ= 2
χ= 3 χ= 2
χ= 5 χ= 2 χ= 4
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graph Coloring
Consider a graph whose vertices are a 9 × 9 grid of points.
Two vertices are joined by an edge if they are in the same row,
column, or 3 × 3 subregion.
You are given a partial proper coloring and told to extend it to all
vertices. Does this sound familiar?
46 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graph Coloring
Consider a graph whose vertices are a 9 × 9 grid of points.
Two vertices are joined by an edge if they are in the same row,
column, or 3 × 3 subregion.
You are given a partial proper coloring and told to extend it to all
vertices. Does this sound familiar? It’s a Sudoku puzzle!
47 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Graph Coloring
48 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
49 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
v = 13 v=6
e = 19 e = 12
f=8 f=8
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Euler’s Formula
Then,
v − e + f = 2.
51 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
field #3
sea field #6 sea
field #5
field #4
sea
sea
sea
sea
v = 12
e = 16
f =6
sea sea
sea
53 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v = 12
e = 16
f =6
sea sea
sea
54 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v = 12
e = 15
f =5
sea sea
sea
55 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v = 12
e = 14
f =4
sea sea
sea
56 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v = 12
e = 13
f =3
sea sea
sea
57 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v = 12
e = 12
f =2
sea sea
sea
58 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v = 12
e = 11
f =1
sea sea
sea
59 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
Finally, the raging sea has overwhelmed all of the enclosed areas —
the graph has only one face
There are still some dikes left, but they’re now just piers extending
into the sea.
60 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v = 12
e = 11
f =1
sea sea
sea
61 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v = 11
e = 10
f =1
sea sea
sea
62 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v = 10
e=9
f =1
sea sea
sea
63 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v=9
e=8
f =1
sea sea
sea
64 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v=8
e=7
f =1
sea sea
sea
65 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v=7
e=6
f =1
sea sea
sea
66 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v=6
e=5
f =1
sea sea
sea
67 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v=5
e=4
f =1
sea sea
sea
68 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v=4
e=3
f =1
sea sea
sea
69 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v=3
e=2
f =1
sea sea
sea
70 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v=2
e=1
f =1
sea sea
sea
71 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
sea
sea
sea
v=1
e=0
f =1
sea sea
sea
72 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
v = 1, e = 0, f = 1, v − e + f = 2.
73 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
v = 1, e = 0, f = 1, v − e + f = 2.
74 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
v = 1, e = 0, f = 1, v − e + f = 2.
75 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
v = 1, e = 0, f = 1, v − e + f = 2.
76 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
77 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
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The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
2 4
6 8
3 1
blue:
face lengths 3
2
6 3
red:
vertex degrees 4
4
3 2
3
2 4
79 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem Definitions and Examples
Graphs Planar Graphs
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Coloring Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs Euler’s Formula
80 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
Theorem
Every planar graph can be colored with 6 or fewer colors.
Idea: Find the right order in which to color the vertices so that we
will never need more than 6 colors.
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
degree 3
84 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
85 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
degree 2
86 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
87 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
degree 6
88 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
degree 3
89 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
90 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
degree 5
91 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
Et cetera.
93 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
94 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
97 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
98 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
99 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
100 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
102 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
103 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
104 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
106 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
107 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
108 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
10
12
3
8
7
11
Palette
14
2
5
6 13
4
1 9
109 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
Palette
110 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
111 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
112 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
113 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
115 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
(To do this, assign each vertex a “charge”. Let the electrons flow
around G (according to 487 “discharging rules”). If a vertex still
has electrons that it cannot discharge, the reason must be that
there is one of those 1476 configurations nearby.)
116 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
117 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
118 / 141
The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
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The Four-Color Theorem The Six-Color Theorem
Graphs Appel and Haken’s Proof
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem Reactions to Appel and Haken’s Proof
More About Coloring Graphs Recent Developments
Formal Proof
Formal Proof
Gonthier:
The approach that proved successful for this proof was to
turn almost every mathematical concept into a data
structure or a program, thereby converting the entire
enterprise into one of program verification.
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
C(G,2) = 2 C(G,3) = 12
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
G
X Y Z
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
3 3 2
C(G,k) k(k−1)(k−2)(k−3) k(k−1) k(k−1) k(k−1)(k −3k+1)
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
3 3 2
C(G,k) k(k−1)(k−2)(k−3) k(k−1) k(k−1) k(k−1)(k −3k+1)
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
Even though the chromatic polynomial did not help solve the
Four-Color Problem, it has turned out to be of great theoretical
interest!
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
P(k) = k(k−1) 3
3
P(4) = 4 x 3 = 108
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
Perfect Graphs
The chromatic number χ is the fewest colors needed to color G
properly. The clique number ω is the greatest number of mutually
adjacent vertices in G .
χ=3 χ=2
ω=3 ω=2
χ= 4
ω=2
χ=4 χ=3
ω=4 ω=2
Perfect Graphs
A graph G is perfect if χ = ω for any induced subgraph.
(What’s an induced subgraph? Choose some of the vertices of G
and all the edges that connect the vertices you’ve chosen.)
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
Perfect Graphs
A graph G is perfect if χ = ω for any induced subgraph.
(What’s an induced subgraph? Choose some of the vertices of G
and all the edges that connect the vertices you’ve chosen.)
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
Perfect Graphs
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The Four-Color Theorem
Chromatic Polynomials
Graphs
The Chromatic Symmetric Function
The Solution of the Four-Color Problem
Perfect Graphs
More About Coloring Graphs
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