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SUMMARY
Background: Nail disorders can arise at any age. About
T he nail primordia at the ends of the fingers and
toes come into being from the 8th and 9th weeks
of gestation onward; in the 13th week, the nail field
half of all nail disorders are of infectious origin, 15% are and the nail matrix are formed. The latter gives rise to
due to inflammatory or metabolic conditions, and 5% are
the nail plate from the 14th week onward. By the 20th
due to malignancies and pigment disturbances. The
week, the nail plate already covers the entire nail bed.
differential diagnosis of nail disorders is often an area of
At birth, the nail plate extends beyond the tips of
uncertainty.
the fingers and toes (cf. eTable for an overview of
Methods: This review is based on publications and guide- mutations with relevance to nail organ development).
lines retrieved by a selective search in PubMed, including The mature nail organ comprises the nail matrix,
Cochrane reviews, meta-analyses, and AWMF guidelines. the nail bed, the nail plate, and the nail fold. The
Results: Nail disorders are a common reason for derma- proximal portion of the nail matrix is immediately
tologic consultation. They are assessed by clinical inspec- adjacent to the distal interphalangeal joint and the in-
tion, dermatoscopy, diagnostic imaging, microbiological sertion of the extensor tendon. The latter gives rise to
(including mycological) testing, and histopathological a dense superficial connective-tissue lamina
examination. Some 10% of the overall population suffers enveloping the nail matrix (e1). The distal portion of
from onychomycosis, with a point prevalence of around the nail matrix is attached to the nail bed. The nail
15%. Bacterial infections of the nails are rarer than fungal plate covers the distal matrix and nail bed and ends
colonization. High-risk groups for nail disorders include in the free edge of the nail plate. The nail plate is
diabetics, dialysis patients, transplant recipients, and covered proximally by the cuticle; it is held within
cancer patients. Malignant tumors of the nails are often the nail fold both proximally and laterally. The
not correctly diagnosed at first. For subungual melanoma, epithelium that directly covers the nail plate proxi-
the mean time from the initial symptom to the correct mal to the cuticle is the eponychium. The horns of
diagnosis is approximately 2 years; this delay is partly the nail plate, which lie under the lateral proximal
responsible for the low 10-year survival rate of only 43%. nail fold, are connected to the bony distal phalanx.
Conclusion: Evaluation of the nail organ is an important The nail bed is distally delimited by the nail isthmus,
diagnostic instrument. Aside from onychomycosis, which which is continuous with the hyponychium lying
is a common nail disorder, important differential diagnoses under the free edge of the nail plate. The most
such as malignant diseases, drug side effects, and distally located structure is the distal groove (1). The
bacterial infections must be considered. isthmus of the nail is completely covered in congeni-
tal pterygium inversum unguis (2).
►Cite this as:
The nail plate consists mainly of parallel keratin
Wollina U, Nenoff P, Haroske G, Haenssle HA: The diag-
filaments, which give it mechanical stability. Aside
nosis and treatment of nail disorders. Dtsch Arztebl Int
from minerals and cholesterol, about 7% of the
2016; 113: 509–18. DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2016.0509
content of the nail is water. The nail bed is essential
for horizontal nail growth. The nail plate is 1000
times more permeable to water than the intact skin
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TABLE 2
Manifestations Diseases
Beau-Reil lines (transverse grooves) Raynaud syndrome, pemphigus, infectious diseases, intoxications
Dolichonychia (long, narrow nails) Marfan syndrome
Yellow nails Lymphedema, chronic lung disease, chronic cough, pleural effusion
Mees lines (transverse leukonychia) Chronic renal disease, chronic ischemic heart disease, severe infectious diseases,
intoxications (arsenic, thallium, carbon monoxide, other)
Muehrcke lines (transverse double bands) Chronic renal disease, liver cirrhosis, malnutrition
Koilonychia (spoon nails) Iron-deficiency anemia, hemochromatosis
Lindsay nails (white proximally, pink-reddish- Chronic renal disease with azotemia
brown distally, no blanching)
Quincke’s pulse (alternating flushing and Severe, chronic aortic insufficiency
pallor of the nail beds)
Acquired raquet nails Hyperparathyroidism
Splinter hemorrhages Subacute bacterial endocarditis, rheumatoid arthritis, Terry nails (whitish, opaque nail
bed without lunule),liver cirrhosis, chronic ischemic heart disease, diabetes mellitus,
hyperthyroidism
Triangular lunule and nail dystrophy Nephrotic syndrome due to LMX1B mutation
Clubbing of the fingers Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, asbestosis, chronic bronchitis,
congenital heart disease, endocarditis, chronic inflammatory bowel disease
Hourglass nails Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy (lung cancer, bronchiectasis)—
associated with clubbing
Mycological cultures were negative. A nail bed biopsy optical technique, is useful for the differential diagnosis
revealed nonspecific inflammatory changes. of nail pigmentation. It reveals individual pigment lines
Onychodystrophy with destruction of the nail plate in of varying color and intensity (Figure 2b, c–f). The ad-
the absence of fungal infection aroused the suspicion of a ditional information provided by dermatoscopy enables
malignant tumor of the nail organ. A second biopsy per- early detection of disease (23).
formed some time later yielded the diagnosis of an acro- The Hutchinson sign is often absent in in situ or early
lentiginous melanoma. The definitive treatment was a invasive melanoma (Figure 2a) (24). Advanced melanoma
3D-guided partial amputation of the distal phalanx of the is associated with ulcerations, hemorrhages, loss of
thumb. parallelism of the bands, multiple colors, blurry borders,
Subungual melanoma accounts for 2% of all mela- and marked invasion into the neighboring skin. Thicker
nomas in persons of European ancestry and up to 20% in tumors are more likely to infiltrate the bone as well (21).
persons of Asian ancestry (21). Timely nail biopsy enables Subungual melanomas can also be amelanotic, in which
the definitive diagnosis. Subungual melanoma cannot be case they are harder to recognize clinically. A biopsy to
reliably distinguished from longitudinal melanonychia by rule out melanoma is necessary for any patient with nail
inspection alone. dystrophy, subungual hyperpigmentation, or persistent
Pigmentation of the cuticle and proximal nail fold (the “hematomas” of unknown cause. Unfortunately, the mean
Hutchinson sign) is typical of melanoma, though it is not delay from the onset of symptoms to surgery is 2.2 years.
seen in all cases (Figure 2a, c) (22, 23). Dermatoscopy, an The prognosis of subungual melanoma is, therefore, much
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TABLE 3
worse than that of cutaneous melanoma, with a disease- Rarely isolated organisms include Epidermophyton flocco-
specific 10-year survival rate of only 43% (25, 26). It is sum and T. tonsurans. These are anthropophilic dermato-
treated with micrographically guided surgery (21, 22). phytes, i.e., they cause disease only in humans.
Yeasts are emerging pathogens of onychomycosis
Infectious diseases of the nails that are now being more commonly diagnosed as the cau-
Onychomycosis is an infection of the nail apparatus by sative organisms of onychomycosis. Candida parapsilosis
dermatophytes, yeasts, or molds. Tinea unguium (this is is the most common one, followed by C. guilliermondii. C.
the plural form; if only one nail is affected, tinea unguis) is albicans causes chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis,
caused exclusively by dermatophytes. Fungal infections of which involves the entire nail apparatus (e11).
the nails are stigmatizing for the patient, causing difficul- Molds, also called non-dermatophyte molds (NDM),
ties in both personal and professional life (27). are also being increasingly diagnosed as the causative
Onychomycoses are found all over the world (28). In organisms of onychomycosis (31). Scopulariopsis
Europe and the USA, their population-based prevalence is brevicaulis causes onychomycosis of the big toenails.
4.3%; hospital-based studies reveal a prevalence of 8.9% Fusarium spp. is considered an emerging pathogen (28).
(29). The prevalence increases with age and is highest in Further mold pathogens include Onychocola canadensis
persons over age 65. Men are more commonly affected (e12), Aspergillus fumigatus, Acremonium spp., Chryso-
than women, children markedly less so. sporium pannorum, Neoscytalidium dimidiatum (earlier
The pathogen most commonly causing onychomycosis name: Hendersonula toruloidea), Arthrographis kalrae,
is Trichophyton rubrum, accounting for about 65% of Chaetomium globosum as well as T. interdigitale, and
cases. Molds are found in 13.3% of cases, yeasts in 21.1% Chaetomium globosum (31, 32, e13).
(29). In the authors’ own retrospective study, the These infections can be transmitted within the family,
pathogens were dermatophytes in 68% of cases, yeasts in e.g., in the home bathtub, either horizontally (from one
29%, molds in 3%, and mixed flora in 5–15% (30). spouse to the other) or vertically (across generations).
Of all the dermatophytes isolated from patients with Further sources of infection include swimming pools, bath-
onychomycosis, T. rubrum is the most common species houses, saunas, sporting facilities, etc. Predisposing factors
(ca. 91%), followed by T. interdigitale (earlier name: include prior nail trauma, advanced age (slower nail
T. mentagrophytes var. interdigitale) (ca. 7.7%) (30). growth, poorer limb circulation), vascular diseases, lymph
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TABLE 4
The treatment of onychomycosis (usual duration: 6 weeks for fingernail involvement, 12 weeks for toenail involvement)*
Treatment Indication Active agent Dosing schedule and cure rate Level of
(culture) evidence
Atraumatic nail extraction Prior to specific treatment 20–40% urea with occlusion Daily III
Cure rate unknown
Antifungal nail varnish Monotherapy only if <50% of the Ciclopiroxolamine Daily for 48 weeks, 58.3% Ia
nail surface is affected and no
more than 3 nails are affected, Amorolfin 1 × / week for 48 weeks, 26.7% Ia
without matrix involvement
Systemic antifungal treatment Involvement of >50% of the Terbinafin 250 mg qd for 6–12 weeks, 76% Ia
nail surface or of >3 nails, or
if there is proximal subungual Itraconazole 200 mg bid for 1 week, then Ia
onychomycosis pause for 3 weeks and repeat
6–12 weeks (pulse therapy), Ia
63%
200 mg qd for 6–12 weeks Ia
(continuous treatment), 69%
Fluconazole 150–300 mg 1 ×/ week for Ia
3–12 months, 48%
Laser therapy Currently debated Various kinds of laser – IV
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Please answer the following questions to participate in our certified Continuing Medical Education
program. Only one answer is possible per question. Please select the answer that is most appro-
priate.
Question 1 Question 6
The end product of the nail organ is the nail plate. What structure is Dermatoscopy, an optical technique, is particularly useful in
essential for horizontal nail growth? the differential diagnosis of what type of nail abnormality?
a) the nail root a) nail pigmentation
b) the lateral nail fold b) onychorrhexis
c) the nail bed c) speckling
d) the hyponychium d) trachyonychia
e) the horns of the nail plate e) tender nail plate
Question 2 Question 7
What manifestation is of greatest help in the differential diagnosis What type of fungus is the most common cause of onycho-
of rheumatoid arthritis from psoriatic arthritis? mycosis in Germany and elsewhere in Europe?
a) the combination of distal arthritis with nail changes a) Trichophyton rubrum
b) the combination of nail plate discoloration with nail fragility b) Trichophyton interdigitale
c) the combination of scalp dandruff with onycholysis c) Epidermophyton floccosum
d) the combination of melanonychia with pterygium inversum d) Candida albicans
unguis e) Trichophyton tonsurans
e) the combination of work with damp hands and brittle nails
Question 8
Question 3 What diagnostic method is most likely to yield a false positive
Hypoalbuminemia should be ruled out if which of the following diagnosis of onychomycosis?
manifestations is present? a) a potassium hydroxide preparation
a) splinter hemorrhages of the nail plate b) fungal culture
b) Muehrcke lines c) nail histology
c) Beau-Reil lines d) visual inspection
d) brittle nails e) dermatoscopy
e) hourglass nails
Question 9
What nail change is a sign of chronic renal disease with
Question 4 azotemia?
What kind of cancer is common among persons with nail a) Lindsay’s nails
disorders? b) Beau-Reil lines
a) fibrokeratoma c) Muehrcke lines
b) Koenen tumor d) yellow nails
c) squamous cell carcinoma e) hourglass nails
d) granuloma teleangiectaticum
e) hyperkeratosis
Question 10
What nail change is due to excessive vitamin A intake?
Question 5 a) distal onycholysis
What change causes hourglass nails? b) dystrophy
a) shortening of the distal phalanx c) subungual abscesses
b) a disturbance of the nail matrix d) melanonychia
c) hypertrophy of the distal phalanx or of the subcutaneous soft tissue e) paronychia
d) thinning of the nail plate
e) onychomycosis
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eTABLE
Mutation Consequence
Frizzled6 Nail dystrophy
Frizzled agonist Anonychia
R-spondin 4 (RSPO4)
FZD6 Severe isolated autosomal recessive nail dysplasia
Keratin 16 and keratin 6a Pachyonychia congenita type 1
Keratin 17 and keratin 6b Pachyonychia congenita type 2
KRT74, KRT85, or Pure ectodermal hair and nail dysplasia (PHNED)
HOXC13 (nails: koilonychia, micronychia, distal onycholysis)
LMX1B Nail-patella syndrome
MSX1 Witkop syndrome (hypodontia-nail dysplasia syndrome
with koilonychia or anonychia)
MSX2-noggin Polydactyly
TP63 Acrodermato-ungual-lacrimal-tooth (ADULT) syndrome;
ankyloblepharon-ectodermal dysplasia-clefting syndrome
(AEC or Hay-Wells syndrome)
WNT10A Odonto-onychodermal dysplasia (OODD)
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