Assignment of One Year MBA

Semester-2

INSTITUTE: NIBM ENROLMENTNO:MBA1/FEB19N/237591549712272F

ASSIGNMENT NO: 2nd SEMESTER NAME: RUPESH KUMAR RAY

ELECTIVES : BANKING MANAGEMENT ADDRESS: S/O DEVENDRA RAY

ROLL NO: 112532 NEAR KALI ROLLER FLOUR MILLS SHIVPURI

PURNEA(DIST) BIHAR- 854301

 INTERNATIONAL LAW

1. What are the principles of international law. Explain.

Ans- General principles relevant to international law

Upon becoming parties to a human rights treaty, states must comply with the obligations
enshrined therein. Moreover, when applying human rights treaties, it is important to take into
account the existence of general principles which are embedded in international human rights
law and which guide their application.

It is relevant to attempt to define a general principle by distinguishing it from a human right. In

1986 the UN Commission on Human Rights put forth a definition (Resolution 41/120, December
1986), stating that a human right must:

a) Be consistent with the existing body of international human rights law;

b) Be of fundamental character and derive from the inherent dignity and worth of the human
person;

c) Be sufficiently precise to give rise to identifiable and practicable rights and obligations;

d) Provide, where appropriate, realistic and effective implementation machinery, including

reporting systems; and

e) Attract broad international support.

General principles are not human rights but there is a degree of overlap as some general principles, such
as the principle of non-discrimination and non bis in idem have gradually evolved into substantive
human rights by being sufficiently precise and fulfilling the conditions described above.

There is no consensus on general principles, but it is proposed that, to qualify as such, a principle must
be:

a) Universally or in a specific jurisdiction, generally accepted;

 b) Distinct from human rights to the effect that they are insufficiently precise to give rise to
legally identifiable and practicable rights and obligations;

c) Considered either to limit the margin of appreciation of a state or to guide it when examining
or evaluating the human right(s) of an individual; and

d) Relevant for the individual enjoyment of human rights.

General principles form, as such, a substratum of law, which helps in interpreting human rights law and
international law in general. On the one hand, the principles provide guidelines for judges in deciding
individual cases; on the other, they limit the discretionary power of judges and the executive power in
deciding individual cases. As such, general principles have an important place in the application of
human rights.

A. The rule of law

The rule of law is a cornerstone of the concept of human rights and democracy. There is, however, no
international consensus on its meaning. Different traditions in the Anglo-Saxon world (rule of law) and in
Continental Europe (l’Etat de droit, Rechtsstaat, Stato del diritto) attach slightly different interpretations
to the term. In official documents the concept is not always explicitly defined. A strong consensus does,
however, exist on the rule of law as a fundamental principle.
The rule of law implies that rights must be protected by law, independently of the will of the ruler.
Individual rights and freedoms are to be protected against any manifestation of arbitrary power by
public authorities. The principle of the ‘rule of law’ is contained in the Preamble to the Charter of the
United Nations, which states its objective:

[T]o save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human
rights [?] in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish
conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from international law can be
maintained.

The International Commission of Jurists has proposed the following definition: ‘The rule of law is more
than the formal use of legal instruments, it is also the Rule of Justice and of Protection for all members
of society against excessive governmental power.’ In sum, the rule of law means that law shall condition
a government’s exercise of power and that subjects or citizens are not to be exposed to the arbitrary will
of their leaders.

1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

As the rule of law is an old concept, we must go back to its origins in Medieval England to understand its
development. After defeating the last Anglo-Saxon King Harold II (1066), William the Conqueror
established a central administration. Two factors were characteristic of the political institutions in
England at the time: the undisputed supremacy of the central government throughout the
country, and the rule or supremacy of the law. The supremacy of the central government was embodied
in the power of the King. He was the source of all legislation, while the administration of justice and the
jurisdiction were his privileges. Yet, this did not mean that the King stood above the law; according to a
widely held belief in England - and other countries - in the Middle Ages, the world was governed by rules
deriving either from what was considered divine right or from what was popularly considered to be
right. Thus, the King was subject to the law, because it was the law that had first made him King (quia lex
facit regem). This is what was originally meant by the rule of law.

Partly because of the feeling among the English people that some sort of ‘higher’ law existed and the
early development of parliament, and partly because of the efforts of the nobility to secure its ancient
rights against the King, attempts to establish absolute authority failed. The common law courts and
parliament, which became increasingly powerful, not only preserved the existing order of justice but
also succeeded in giving it a meaning. This reflected the changes taking place in society and the people’s
value systems. This development marked the beginning of the rule of law, which could be reconciled
with the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy (originated in the seventeenth century dispute with the
Crown).

A similar development took place on the European continent where, since the time of the Frankish
Kingdom (around 500 A.D.) the principles of l’Etat de Droit (Rechtsstaat in German) were developed. The
principle implied that the government could only enact a law or binding regulation on the basis of what
is considered right and just. In a substantive sense, the principle implied that the standards and acts of
the government must be directed towards the realisation of justice. This principle required not only
legislation based on the best possible balance of interests, but also the recognition of freedoms and the
existence of an independent judiciary fit to check governmental powers.

2. DYNAMIC CONCEPT

The meaning of the rule of law, since its rise in the early Middle Ages, has gone through a process of
change, which runs roughly parallel to evolving views on the role and objectives of a national
government. It is a dynamic concept not only in this respect. The rule of law does not stand for an
abstract, unchanging set of unambiguous rules but rather for a range of principles which have to be
applied and developed on a case-by- case basis. The rule of law should thus be seen as a whole set of
legal standards by which governments and subjects are bound. The exact content of these standards is
determined by several factors, including public opinion, political consciousness and the prevailing sense
of justice.

The fact that the rule of law is constantly changing does not mean that guidelines cannot be distilled
from it. On the contrary, it is, to some extent, possible to identify the rules and principles that follow
from the rule of law at a certain point in time. Basically, some principles have been part of the rule of
law from its origin. These are principles of a universal nature, which have defied change. Some
important ones, which have in time developed into substantive rights, are the following:

 No one may be punished except for a distinct breach of an existing law established in the
ordinary legal manner before the ordinary courts of the country (nullum crimen, nulla poena
sine praevia lege). This principle is enshrined in several national constitutions, and a number
 of international instruments. See, e.g., Article 7(1) ECHR and Articles 22 and 23 Rome
Statute of the International Criminal Court.
 All individuals are ‘innocent until proven otherwise’ (presumption of innocence). This
principle was included already in Article 9 Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme et du Citoyen
and it is included in several human rights instruments, such as Article 6(1) ECHR.
 Every human being should be treated equally by the same courts and should have the same
rights. This equality is not absolute since certain professional groups, such as the military,
lawyers and civil servants, are sometimes judged in their professional quality by special
courts. This practice is not contrary to the rule of law; within these groups, equality before
the law applies to the full.
Generally speaking, the view on the rule of law has gradually shifted from a source of rights for
the individual to a means of protection against excessive governmental power. Other rules and
principles derived from the rule of law are:

 No arbitrary power. This principle includes the separation of powers. It does not only apply
in relations between the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. As the state regulates
national life in many ways, discretionary authority is inevitable. Yet, this does not mean pure
arbitrary power, i.e., power exercised by agents responsible to no one and subject to no
control. The way power and authority are delegated to lower state institutions has to be
controlled and the way in which those institutions use their power has to be accounted for.
Clearly, a ‘carte blanche’ delegation goes against the rule of law.
 Independence of the judiciary. The independence of the judiciary is closely linked to the
principle above. Independence of the judiciary implies the control of legislation and
administration by an independent judiciary, and the independence of the legal profession.
Fundamental rights and freedoms can best be guaranteed in a society where the judiciary
and the legal profession enjoy freedom from interference and pressure, and where every
person is entitled to a fair and public hearing by a competent, independent and impartial
tribunal.

The rule of law has come to be regarded as the mark of a truly free society. Although its precise meaning
differs from country to country, and from one epoch to another, it is always identified with the liberty of
the individual. The rule of law aims to maintain a delicate balance between the opposite notions of
individual liberty and public order. Every state has to face the challenge of reconciling human rights with
the requirements of public interest. This can only be accomplished through independent courts, charged
with guarding the balance of power between the citizen and the state.

The most powerful entity in any community, and hence the greatest potential violator of human rights,
is the state itself through its public authorities, its officials and agents. Any democratic society needs
laws to protect the rights and freedoms of individuals, as laid down in constitutions and treaties or
institutionalised as commonlaw. There should be laws enabling individuals to obtain a remedy for any
violation, and there should be a legal system that ensures that those remedies will be enforced,
especially against the state itself.

In recent years new standards have been developed to strengthen the role of the rule of law, in addition
to those already incorporated in international conventions (e.g., Article 14 ICCPR and Article 6(1) ECHR).
The International Commission of Jurists has played a significant role in the promotion of these
standards. Under the framework of the UN, important standards include the UN Basic Principles on the
Independence of the Judiciary; the Procedures for the Effective Implementation of the Basic Principles
on the Independence of the Judiciary; and the UN Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers.

Under the framework of the OSCE, an important document on the rule of law is the document of the
Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference of the Human Dimension of the CSCE (1990). This document
sets out that states are determined to support and advance those principles that form the rule of law
and that the Rule of Law does not mean ‘merely a formal legality [?] but justice based on the recognition
of the acceptance of the supreme value of the human personality’ and ‘reaffirm[s] that democracy is an
inherent element of the Rule of Law.’

B. The principle of equality and non-discrimination in the enjoyment of human rights

The principle of non-discrimination is of the utmost importance in international law. Various

formulations of prohibition of discrimination are contained in, for example, the UN Charter (Articles
1(3), 13(1)(b), 55(c) and 76), the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Articles 2 and 7), the ICCPR
(Articles 2(1) and 26) and the CRC (Article 2). Some instruments are expressly aimed at addressing
specific prohibited grounds for discrimination, such as the International Convention on the Elimination
of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) and the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Other instruments aim at addressing the prohibition of
discrimination in the exercise of one or several rights, such as ILO 111, which refers to discrimination in
the exercise of the right to work (employment and occupation), and the UNESCO Convention against
Discrimination in Education.

A definition of discrimination is included in Article 1(1) CERD, Article 1 CEDAW, Article 1(1) ILO 111,
Article 1 CRPD and Article 1(1) Convention against Discrimination in Education. From these different
definitions it is possible to conclude that ‘discrimination’ refers to any distinction, exclusion or
preference, be it in law or in administrative practices or in practical relationships, between persons or
groups of persons, made on the basis of race, disability, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, nationality
or social origin, which have the effect of nullifying or impairing the equal enjoyment of any human
rights. Other grounds of prohibited discrimination, which are recognised to an increasing degree, are
age, sexual orientation and gender identity. In general, human rights instruments require states to
respect human rights and ensure that all persons within their territory, and subject to their jurisdiction,
enjoy the guaranteed rights without distinction of any kind. It should be noted that in exceptional
circumstances the state may derogate from some human rights provisions; such measures may,
however, never be discriminatory.

It is well established in international human rights law that not all differences in treatment constitute
discrimination. This is summed up by the axiom, ‘persons who are equal should be treated equally and
those who are different should be treated differently’ (‘in proportion to the inequality’). As indicated by
the Human Rights Committee, ‘the enjoyment of rights and freedoms on an equal footing [?] does not
mean identical treatment in every instance.’ Hence, there may be situations in which different
treatment is justified. Although not all differences in treatment are discriminatory, international law has
established criteria for determining when a distinction amounts to discrimination. In a nutshell, a
distinction is compatible with the principle of equality when it has an objective and reasonable
justification, pursues a legitimate aim and there is a reasonable relationship of proportionality between
the means employed and the aim sought. These requirements have been stressed by some of the major
human rights supervisory bodies. For example, in the words of the Human Rights Committee:

Not every differentiation of treatment will constitute discrimination, if the criteria for such
differentiation are reasonable and objective and if the aim is to achieve a purpose which is legitimate
under the Covenant. (General Comment 18).

As the European Court of Human Rights has stated:

According to the Court’s established case-law, a distinction is discriminatory if it ‘has no objective and
reasonable justification’, that is, if it does not pursue a ‘legitimate aim’ or if there is not a ‘reasonable
relationship of proportionality’ between the means employed and the aim sought to be realised (Marckx
v. Belgium).

In the same vein, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has held that:

Accordingly, no discrimination exists if the difference in treatment has a legitimate purpose and if it does
not lead to situations which are contrary to justice, to reason or to the nature of things. It follows that
there would be no discrimination in differences in treatment of individuals by a state when
the classifications selected are based on substantial factual differences and there exists a
reasonable relationship of proportionality between these differences and the aims of the legal rule
under review. These aims may not be unjust or unreasonable, that is, they may not be arbitrary,
capricious, despotic or in conflict with the essential oneness and dignity of humankind (Advisory Opinion
No. 4, ‘Proposed amendments to the naturalisation provisions of the Constitution of Costa Rica’, OC-
4/84 of 19 January 1984, para. 57).

Thus, differences in treatment (distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference) that comply with the
criteria mentioned above are not discriminatory and do not infringe the principle of equality and non-
discrimination. Furthermore, certain preferential treatment, such as the special treatment aimed at
protecting pregnant women or disabled persons, is not considered discrimination as the purpose of the
preferential treatment is to remedy inherent inequalities. Similarly, affirmative action, defined as
measures necessary ‘to diminish or eliminate conditions which cause or help to perpetuate
discrimination’ aimed to benefit historically disadvantaged groups within society, must not be
considered ‘discrimination’

1. DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCRIMINATION

Any discrimination with the ‘purpose’ or the ‘effect’ of nullifying or impairing the equal enjoyment or
exercise of rights is prohibited under the non-discrimination provisions. In other words, the principle of
non-discrimination prohibits ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ forms of discrimination.

The concept of ‘indirect’ discrimination refers to an apparently ‘neutral’ law, practice or criterion, which
has been applied equally to everyone but the result of which favours one group over a more
disadvantaged group. In determining the existence of indirect discrimination, it is not relevant whether
or not there was intent to discriminate on any of the prohibited grounds. Rather, it is the consequence
or effect of a law or action which determines whether it is discriminatory or not.

2. VULNERABLE GROUPS AND NON-DISCRIMINATION

The principle of non-discrimination demands that particular attention be given to vulnerable groups and
individuals from such groups. In fact, the victims of discrimination tend to be the most disadvantaged
groups of society, such as women, minorities, indigenous peoples, refugees and disabled persons.
States should identify the persons or groups of persons who are most vulnerable and disadvantaged
with regard to full enjoyment of all human rights and take measures to prevent any adverse affects on
them. (For an analysis on vulnerable groups see Part IV).

3.AFFIRMATIVE ACTION OR PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR THE MOST VULNERABLE GROUPS

In some circumstances the principle of non-discrimination requires states to take affirmative action or
protective measures to prevent or compensate for structural disadvantages. These measures entail
special preferences, which should not be considered discriminatory because they are aimed at
addressing structural disadvantages or protecting particularly vulnerable groups, or to encourage equal
participation.

Through its General Comments, the Human Rights Committee often refers to the required affirmative
action and has adopted a definition in General Comment 18, para. 10, which reads as follows:

The Committee also wishes to point out that the principle of equality sometimes requires states parties
to take affirmative action in order to diminish or eliminate conditions which cause or help to perpetuate
discrimination prohibited by the Covenant. For example, in a state where the general conditions of a
certain part of the population prevent or impair their enjoyment of human rights, the state should take
specific action to correct those conditions. Such action may involve granting for a time to the part of the
population concerned certain preferential treatment in specific matters as compared with the rest of
the population. However, as long as such action is needed to correct discrimination in fact, it is a case of
legitimate differentiation under the Covenant.

Affirmative action aims to remove obstacles to the advancement of vulnerable groups. It is important to
stress that affirmative action is of a temporary nature; it should not continue after its objectives have
been achieved.

4. EDUCATION TO COMBAT DISCRIMINATION

Education plays a pivotal role in the struggle against discrimination. Educational campaigns are of key
importance for combating stereotypes and promoting tolerance. As disadvantaged groups are often
ignorant of the law and fear retaliation or intimidation, education and awareness of their rights and the
mechanisms for redress enhance their protection.
 IN SUPPORT OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION MEASURES

The mechanism of ‘affirmative action’ is a vital tool within human rights law in tackling some of the
historical grievances that underpin inequality in modern societies. The principle can be understood as an
elevator mechanism designed to raise a particular segment of the population that is at level zero (in
terms of quantifiable indicators, such as access to services, employment within the private and public
sector, political participation, level of education and access to education, and other civil, political,
economic, social and cultural rights) to the level that the rest of the population enjoys (level one). The
causes for this difference between the target group and the rest of the population, i.e. ‘the gap’, is often
the result of persistent historical discrimination. However, rather than a revision of history, which is
undesirable, an elevator mechanism accepts the need for the focusing of specific measures aimed at the
alleviation of a
Particular disadvantage faced by a specific group. Crucially, however, the mechanism
can only be effective if it raises the population to level one, and not to a level higher
than the rest of the population, for it would then discriminate unjustly against that
portion of the population.
The concept of affirmative action has been defined as ‘a coherent package of measures, of a temporary
character, aimed specifically at correcting the position of members of a target group in one or more
aspects of their social life, in order to obtain effective equality’ (Bossuyt, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/
2001/15).
In determining when a particular segment of population is entitled to a package of special measures, it is
important to stress empirical grounds. The test to examine the claim for affirmative action should be
determined by at least two factors: i) the existence of determinable and persistent status of inequality;
and ii) effective articulation of the legal right to special measures by representatives - though the latter
argument is subservient to the former. In addition, groups, orindividuals belonging to such groups that
choose to assimilate should be enabled a waiver of this right.
Of course there are numerous other issues that are relevant to the determination of affirmative action,
including the fact that such measures often create new disadvantaged groups. Besides, beneficiaries of
such action often express the sentiment that the perception of availing of special measures often
belittles their own achievements. Instead, they are reduced in public perception to being no more than
token beneficiaries of policy rather than grants on meritorious bases.
The justification for special measures however outweighs these considerations. First and foremost, it
remains an admittedly imperfect legal guarantee through which historical power relationships within a
system are sought to be balanced. Second, such measures attempt to remedy social and structural
discrimination. Thus, while not necessarily tackling existing prejudice, they seek to create mechanisms
combating structural and institutional imbalances. Third, it attempts the creation of diversity or
proportional group representation, by fostering new aspirations and expectations within groups with a
view towards fuller participation in all aspects of public life.
A fourth argument in favour of affirmative action is the social utility argument stressing that society, as a
whole, is better off with all its components participating in processes that affect them. Related to this is
the idea that a level of interaction between different groups in a society can calm potential future social
unrest by enabling means other than violence for discussions about grievances. Finally, if the public
affairs of the state are more inclusive there is a greater likelihood that it will develop a pluralistic
attitude that enables greater harmony and equality between groups.
 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT

2. Describe the key issues which a management address to achieve successful, substantial

and lasting changes in an organization.

Ans . There are five key issues which a management address to achieve successful, substantial and

lasting Changes in an organization are:

1. How thoroughly does everyone affected by or involved in carrying out the strategy
understand:
 The need of their customers?
 What is to be achieved, and why?
 How is the strategy to he accomplished, and to what timetable?
 What resources will be applied? And
 What specific changes in behavior are required of each person involved?

2. How strong is the commitment (initial and ongoing, of relevant managers and employees to
implementing the strategy successfully?
 How credible do they find the objective and strategy?
 To what extent do they ‘own’ the objectives and strategy?
 To what extent have they participated directly in analyzing options and formulating the
strategy?
 How can commitment be sustained throughout the implementation period?

3. How completely have the resources required to implement the strategy been identified and
provided (including funds, tools, skills and time)?

4. How systematic a process has been instituted for tracking implementation progress and for
making mid-course corrections?

 What gains are projected and how will these be measured, monitored and communicated?
 How will actual experience be matched against forecasted results and how will timely
revisions be made in the implementation plan to reflect developing experience?

5. How consistent and credible a climate of accountability is maintained throughout the

implementation period?
 How clearly do those who have made commitments believe they must make good on their
promises?
 What are the consequences when groups and individuals succeed or tail; how congruent are
rewards with success and failure?
 How visible and consistent is leadership behavior?
If management is to address these five keys effectively , it must begin doing so at the
very outset of the planning process both in developing the business strategy , and
immediately following in formulating more detailed operating plans.
 BUSINESS ENGLISH

3. Explain the factors responsible for a speech situation for the existence of communication.

Ans- Speech situation requires certain factors for its existence. The factors are:

1) Participants 2) Contact 3) Context 4) Common code 5) form of message

6) Goal of communication

1. Participants
There are always two parties in a communication situation: the sender and the receiver. The
sender sends the message to the receiver and the receiver interprets the messages and act
accordingly. The communication is a goal-oriented activity. The sender has some goal or
intention towards the receiver: persuading the receiver , making him to do something etc. The
receiver must respond to make it clear that he has received the message. There are different
ways of doing this. What the receiver does to indicate that he has received the messages is
called “feedback”> This feedback may be verbal or non-verbal. Unless the sender receives the
feedback in some form, the communication process remains incomplete.
The sender is both the sender of the messages and the receiver of the feedback. And the
receiver is both the receiver of the messages and the sender of the feedback.
The sender and the receiver are not necessarily present at the same time and place. If
the communication is through written media, generally the sender and the receiver are
distanced, that is, they are not present at the same time and place.

2. Contacts

For successful communication contact must be established between the participants. The

Sender must make the receiver to give attention to his messages . In order to attract attention

he uses short calls. The contact is later maintained by physical testing of the channel. The

sender ask the receiver ‘Can you hear me?’ . The sender must also establish rapport with the
 receiver. The sender sometime does it by talking about weather, health praise, encouragement

etc. These are the small talks but they matter in communication. The contact is established not

only physically but also psychologically by asking question like- Do you get me? The sender also

uses many linguistic techniques to maintain the contact and for helping the receiver by using the

linguistic expression like ‘ My next point is……’first of all…’, ‘secondly…..’,Thirdly….’. These are

explanatory techniques, establishing and maintaining contact between the sender and the

receiver is very crucial as it accelerates the process of communication.

3 . Context

Communication cannot take place in a vacuum. It requires a physical and temporal setting. In

Other words, it takes place at a particular place and time. However , the topic of communication

Is more important in communication situation. It is the background knowledge which is shared

between the sender and the receiver. It helps the receiver to interpret the message. It helps the

receiver the receiver to predict what the sender is going to say. This prediction is very important

in understanding the message. Besides, it is also important in planning the message that the

sender sends to the receiver. Thus the setting and the topic form the context of communication.

4 . Common Code

A code is a set of conventions used for communication. Both the sender and the receiver must

be in possession of some common code. The code must be shared by both the participants. This

common code may be linguistic, paralinguistic or non-verbal.

5 . Form of Message

The message which is transmitted from the senderto the reciver must have the same form.

This form depends upon the situation. If the setting of the situation is noisy the form is loud.
 If the setting is short-timed, the form is brief. The form may also be formal or informal, polite or

Impolite. The form depends upon the roles of the participants and the goal of communication.

There are number of ways to send the same message.

6 . Goal of Communication

Communication is a goal oriented activity . communication must have some goal. In fact the goal

are not the same every where. The goal changes according to the focus of communication. It is

in fact the function of language used in communication. The goal may be speaker-oriented . It is

the personal function of language. Here, the language is used to express the speaker’s attitudes,

personality and emotions. It is used to indicate whether the speaker is sad, happy, angry, upset,

dissatisfied etc. The goal may be receiver- oriented. It is the directive function of the language.

It is aimed at controlling the behavior of the hearer by influencing, persuading etc. Commands,

Requests, warning and other functions like these are hearer-oriented. The goal may be contact

Oriented. Here the language carries out the function of establishing contact. This is also called

phatic function of the language. The language is used to establish and maintain relations and to

Promote the feeling of goodwill. There are also set formulaic or ritualistic linguistic expression

to carry out this function like ‘byebye’,’hello’. In order to establish contact, there are certain

formulaic or rituals activities like greeting, leave-taking, talking about weather and health of

making inquiries. This phatic is also carried out by using gestures and facial expressions.

The goal may be topic oriented. This is referential function of language. Here, the language is
used for expressing thought-content by making statement for putting forth proposition.

The goal may be code oriented. This is metalinguistic function of language. Hence, the

Reference is to some set of rules and conventions. Its aim is to test mutual under-standing of

the rules and conventions.

Finally, the goal may be message-oriented. This is imaginative function of language. The
Sound, rhythm and tune are used in such a way as to give pleasure to the hearer and help comp-

rehension. Even in written communication this goal may be achieved by using different graphics.

This is also called aesthetic function of language. These process of communication takes place in

the communication situation.

 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

4. What are the different approaches used to explain the component of MIS? Explain?

Ans- MIS can be defined as an integrated man-machine systems that provides information to support
planning and control function of managers in the organization.

The basic composition of MIS can be explained in terms of different approaches:

1) Physical components
2) Information system functions
3) Decision support
4) Management hierarchy
5) Organizational functions

Physical Components

Physical components of MIS can be explained to a person interested in understanding structure of

MIS in the organization. The Physical components are;

Hardware Refers to physical computer equipment and associated devices such as CPU,monitor,

Keyboard,printer,discs,tapes and CD’s.

Software It is a broad word assigned to the instructions that direct the operations of the hardwa-

re . This can be further classified as a system software and application software.

Data Base This consists of all data used by the applications software and stored in files.

Procedure Regular operating procedures like manuals also form a part of physical structure.

Operating - Personal like computer operator programmer, system analyst, system manager are -

-Technician users of information system.

MIS helps to assess internal sources , market research, government rules, publications,
advertisement, external data and special analysis of information needed.
Information system functions

The information system could be explained in terms of its processing functions.

a) Transaction: Information system process transactions. Transaction may be defined as an

activity taking place in an organization. It may be internal or external. For example- purchase
or sale of products in an organization.
b) To produce reports: Many reports are produced on a regular basis which are termed as
schedule reports. It may be adhoc or special reports.
c) To process inquiries: Data base information system is utilized for processing inquiry. They
may be regular with a pre-defined format or adhoc inquiries.
d) To process interactive support applications:various types of models are used for processing
applications to designed to support planning , analysis and decision making. The mode of
operation is interactive with the user responding to question and request for data yielding
immediate results.
e) To maintain master files: Information system is used to create and maintain master files of
an organization. For example-
1) Processing of pay slips
2) Wages
3) Employee’s rate of pay
4) Deduction etc.

Decision support

The basic structure of the MIS can be differentiated on the basis of its support in decision
making in an organization. The decision can be highly structured or unstructured. A structured decision
is programmable and they are routine in nature. The information system support will differ for two
types of decision and so also information system. Some decision will fit easily into this classification, but
some decision are more or less structured and have some elements that are programmable and some
that are not, such decision are called semi-structured decisions.

Management Hierarchy
 MIS supports management activities in terms of hierarchy and they can be classified int three
levels.

1) Strategic planning deals with long term considerations such as choice of business, market
strategy , product mix, etc.
2) Management control level has a medium term planning horizon including acquisition and
organization of funds, programming work schedule, training personnel etc.

3) Operational control is generally short-term decision. Immediate operations like production level

Pricing, inventory are as a result of operational control.

Therefore information system will be different for all the three levels of management hierarchy
even though the management activities and information processing for the 3 levels are inter related.

Eg: Inventory functions at all levels.

Organisational Functions

MIS essentially a federation of information systems that are designed to support the functions
of a sub-system of an organization.

There is no set classification of functions but a designed group of functions are necessary in any
manufacturing organization which include production , sales, finance and accounting, materials,
personnel, marketing and information systems. Each of the above functions has a unique information
needs and requires specific information support.