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DRILLING FLUIDS
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DRILLING FLUIDS FL-i
CHAPTER
FL
DRILLING FLUIDS
he IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by volunteer drilling-industry professionals with
T expertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge in developing
the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient drilling operations, training, and equipment mainte-
nance and repair.
The contents of this manual should not replace or take precedence over manufacturer, operator or individual drilling company
recommendations, policies or procedures. In jurisdictions where the contents of the IADC Drilling Manual may conflict with
regional, state or national statute or regulation, IADC strongly advises adhering to local rules.
While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is responsible for his own
reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that technology and practice advance
quickly, and the subject matter discussed herein may quickly become surpassed. If professional engineering expertise is re-
quired, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought. Neither IADC nor the contributors to this chapter warrant
or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described in this book will lead to the result desired by
the reader.
Principal Authors
Paul Scott, ConocoPhillips
Paul Broussard, Repsol
Mike Freeman, Schlumberger/M-I Swaco
Fred Growcock, Oxy
Ron Bland, Baker Hughes
Reviewers
Tom Carter, Chevron
Ben Bloys, Chevron
Malcolm Ellice, Halliburton
Joe Hurt, IADC
Alan Spackman, IADC
Paul Breaux, IADC
FL–ii DRILLING FLUIDS
ISBN: 978-0-9915095-4-6
CHAPTER FL
DRILLING FLUIDS/CIRCULATING
SYSTEM/DRILLING AND COMPLETIONS Contents
Introduction......................................................................FL-1 high-pressure (HTHP) and ultra-HTHP
Drilling fluid function and performance...................FL-1 systems........................................................... FL-11
Physical operating principles...............................FL-2 Non-aqueous-based mud
Testing drilling fluid properties...................................FL-2 systems (oil-based)............................................. FL-11
Purpose of testing...................................................FL-2 Invert emulsions........................................... FL-11
Density or mud weight..........................................FL-2 Calcium soap systems................................ FL-12
Viscosity....................................................................FL-2 Surfactant emulsifier systems.................. FL-12
Gel strengths........................................................... FL-4 Low-clay, flat rheology systems.............. FL-12
Filtration or fluid loss............................................ FL-4 Relaxed fluid-loss systems........................ FL-12
Sand content............................................................FL-5 All oil systems............................................... FL-12
Solids, oil and water content...............................FL-5 Special application fluids................................... FL-12
Chemical content....................................................FL-5 Completion brines........................................ FL-12
Importance of the drilling fluid...................................FL-5 Drill-in fluids.................................................. FL-12
General rig personnel involved...................................FL-5 Other special application fluids............... FL-12
Categories of drilling fluids..........................................FL-5 Additives................................................................. FL-12
Pneumatic drilling fluids........................................FL-7 Weight materials.......................................... FL-13
Dry gas...............................................................FL-7 Viscosifiers..................................................... FL-13
Mist.................................................................... FL-8 .Filtration control additives (fluid-loss control
Foam.................................................................. FL-8 additives)........................................................ FL-13
Aerated fluids.................................................. FL-8 Thinners (deflocculants)............................ FL-13
Water-based fluids (aqueous fluids)................ FL-8 pH/alkalinity control chemicals............... FL-13
Water or brine................................................. FL-8 Calcium removers........................................ FL-13
Spud mud......................................................... FL-8 Surfactants and emulsifiers...................... FL-13
Native muds..................................................... FL-8 Shale inhibitors............................................. FL-14
Low-solids systems........................................ FL-9 Corrosion inhibitors/scavengers/
Low-solids/non-dispersed system............ FL-9 biocides........................................................... FL-14
Polymer muds................................................. FL-9 Lubricants....................................................... FL-14
Lightly treated muds..................................... FL-9 Defoamers...................................................... FL-14
Flocculated bentonite systems................... FL-9 Flocculants..................................................... FL-14
Dispersed muds.............................................. FL-9 Temperature stability agents.................... FL-15
Seawater or brackish water......................... FL-9 Foaming agents............................................. FL-15
Saturated salt.................................................. FL-9 Hydrate supperssants................................. FL-15
Inhibitive drilling fluid systems................. FL-10 LCM/bridging agents.................................. FL-15
Potassium chloride (KCl) polymer.......... FL-10 Location on a rig site................................................... FL-15
KCl polyglycol................................................ FL-10 Installation............................................................. FL-16
Polyamine systems...................................... FL-10 Safety and handling..................................................... FL-16
Calcium systems.......................................... FL-10 Proper handling for safety................................. FL16-
Silicate systems............................................ FL-10 Fire hazards and zones............................... FL-16
Encapsulating polymer systems.............. FL-10 Chemical hazards.........................................FL-17
High-performance water-based muds Hydrogen sulfide (H2S).......................FL-17
(HPWBM)...................................................... FL-10 Carbon dioxide (CO2)..........................FL-17
High-temperature (HT), high-temperature/ Carbon monoxide (CO)........................FL-17
Sand content fluid is held jointly between the fluids supplier, the drilling
Sand content refers to the volume percent of whole mud that contractor and the operator.
are “sand sized” particles, meaning they are larger than 74
microns and do not pass through a 200 mesh screen. These
may be actual quartz sand or may be the coarse-sized bar- General rig personnel involved
ite particles, sized bridging solids, LCM, drilled solids or any The general rig personnel involved with monitoring, oper-
other particles larger than 74 microns. Sand content is mea- ating and maintaining the drilling fluid are the drilling fluids
sured using a sand content graduated glass tube, funnel and technician (called the mud engineer) and one or more of the
200 mesh sieve. It is monitored to gauge the effectiveness drilling crew. The drilling fluids technician is normally em-
of solids control equipment, the shale shaker screen condi- ployed by the drilling fluids supplier or may be a consultant
tion and the potential for increased abrasion to mud pumps working for the operator or drilling contractor. The mud en-
and other equipment in the circulating system including drill gineer performs periodic testing of the drilling fluid proper-
string and downhole equipment. ties and recommends the treatments to be made. The der-
rickman is most often the rigsite worker who monitors mud
Solids, oil and water content weight and funnel viscosity, adds chemicals and controls the
Solids, oil and water content are measured using a distilla- fluid processing equipment. The driller controls flow of the
tion report. With this information and other data from the drilling fluid to the wellbore with the mud pumps. On more
chemical analysis, a complete breakdown of the composi- complicated operations such as deepwater and offshore op-
tion of the drilling fluid can be made, often called a solids erations, the drilling fluid responsibilities described above
analysis. This will include oil content, water or brine content, for the derrickman may be performed by additional rig crew.
low-gravity solids (mainly drill solids) and high-gravity sol- This is usually someone assigned to monitor the shale shak-
ids (normally barite). Solids content affects drilling rate, flow ers, mud pits and/or mixing operations.
properties, gel strengths and the overall stability of the mud.
Often, the frequency of dilution and chemical treatments
are based on the results from this analysis. Optimum solids Categories of drilling fluids
content and good solids control is essential for overall supe- There are three broad categories of drilling fluids:
rior mud performance. • Pneumatic fluids, which use compressed air or gas,
foam and aerated muds;
Chemical content • WBMs, which use water or brine as the base fluids; and
Chemical tests are carried out on the whole mud and filtrate • NAFs, which use oil or other non-aqueous base fluids
to monitor specifications and to identify contamination. De- called OBMs or SBMs.
pending on the type of drilling fluid being used, these tests
may include: pH, various measures of alkalinity (PM, PF, and Within each of these three broad categories, there are nu-
MF for WBM and POM for NAF), lime content, chloride (or merous variations in fluid properties and products that may
salt), calcium (or total hardness), carbonate/bicarbonate, be used dependent on the practices in an area and the drill-
sulfate, methylene blue test (MBT), H2S, electrical stability, ing fluids supplier. Numerous common names, acronyms,
water activity and others. A description of these chemical abbreviations and trade names can describe the particular
tests is outside the scope of this document, although the sig- system being used.
nificance of some of these tests is shown in the section en-
titled System Maintenance and Contamination Treatments. The selection of the drilling fluid system for a particular well
is based on numerous factors including: local practices; op-
erator preferences; supplier’s range of systems and prod-
Importance of the drilling fluid ucts; density required to control subsurface pressures; hole
The performance of the drilling fluid is critical to everyone size; characteristics of the formations to be drilled (including
involved with the operation and to all aspects of the drill- wellbore stability); anticipated temperature and pressure;
ing operation. The drilling fluid is the primary means to keep completion type; common regional drilling problems; logis-
the well from blowing out and it is responsible for keeping tics; cost and quality; and health, safety and environmental
the hole in good condition such that drilling operations can (HSE) considerations.
continue to the desired depth. Drilling and completion fluids
are one of the most important parts of the well construction Wells are spudded with simple low-density drilling fluids
process and ultimately the performance of the fluid will de- and altered with each interval to address the conditions
termine the success or failure of the operation. The respon- of the particular interval being drilled. Generally, the den-
sibility of the proper selection and application of the drilling sity and complexity of the drilling fluid system being used
increases with depth due to increased pressures and tem-
Completion Fluids
Dry Gas Water or Brine 100% or All Oil (Clear Brines)
(air, N2 or field gas)
Drill-In Fluids
Emulsions
Spud Muds
Mist
Other (milling,
packers, spacers,
pills, spotting fluids
Native Muds
Foam
Low Solids; low-
solids/ non-dispersed,
polymer, lightly-
treated
Aerated liquids
Dispersed
Inhibitive; potassium,
calcium, silicate,
Polymer
encapsulating
High Performance
WBM
peratures. The categories of products used in drilling fluids Dry gas and mist drilling use a blooie line to contain the flow
by functionality are: base fluid; weight material; viscosifiers; and direct it to a cuttings pit which is a sufficient distance
fluid loss control additives; pH or alkalinity control; viscosity from the rig. Air, mist and foam drilling are open-ended cir-
thinners; surfactants or emulsifiers; shale inhibitors; corro- culating systems where the fluids are not recirculated.
sion inhibitors; lubricants; bridging agents; and LCMs.
Mist
The required density is one of the primary considerations Mist drilling is similar to dry air drilling except it uses a small
when selecting a drilling fluid. Table FL-1 gives the approx- volume of injected surfactant and water. This prevents
imate minimum and maximum density values for drilling
Table FL-1: Density of drilling fluids.
fluids while Table FL-2 provides the approximate minimum
and maximum density values for completion brines which Minimum Density Maximum Density
are sometimes used as the base fluid for drilling muds. The Drilling Fluids
listed minimum densities are the lowest densities that make lb/gal g/ml lb/gal g/ml
economic sense for a particular salt. Air Gas Mist 0.0 0.00 0.5 0.06
Fresh Water/
Drilling with pneumatic fluids is covered extensively in the 8.3 1.00 8.6 1.03
Seawater
Managed Pressure, Underbalanced and Air/Gas/Mist/
Native/
Foam Drilling Chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th Unweighted 8.3 1.00 10.5 1.26
edition. Mud
downhole fluid intrusions from aggregating drill cuttings Some of the common water-based systems are:
and dust into an annular plug called a mud ring. Mist injec- • Water or brine;
tion fluid formulations can include inhibitors and additives to • Spud muds;
minimize problems related to water-reactive shales. Dry gas • Native muds;
and mist drilling allows productive formations to be evaluat- • Low solids; low-solids/non-dispersed, polymer, &
ed as the drilling progresses. lightly treated
• Dispersed;
Foam • Seawater;
Foam drilling uses a lower volume of compressed gas and in- • Saturated salt water;
jects a higher volume of surfactant and water than mist drill- • Inhibitive; and
ing. Foam is generated at the surface and circulates through • High-performance WBMs.
the well. Compared to mist drilling, foam drilling provides
a higher hydrostatic pressure, better hole cleaning and can Water or brine
tolerate higher water or oil intrusions. It is used when a high- Freshwater, seawater or field brine can be used in many lo-
er density is needed to control downhole water or oil flows cations to effectively drill where higher mud weight is not
or for better wellbore stability. Foam is also applicable to needed. When this can be done with minimal drilling prob-
larger diameter sections or for workover operations when lems, straight water usually produces the highest rates of
cleaning out sand or other debris from the wellbore. Foam penetration and delivers a well at the lowest possible cost.
formulations can include clays and polymers for increased On land, large horseshoe circulating pits are sometimes
carrying capacity and stability as well as inhibitors to mini- used to settle drill solids. Large volume-inclined plate sepa-
mize problems related to water-reactive shales. rators can also be used to remove drill solids so that drilling
can continue with basically just water.
Aerated fluids
Aerated drilling is used for intermediate density applications Spud mud
where the density required is less than water but more than Spud muds are high-viscosity fluids used to spud the larg-
can be achieved with foam. Aerated mud drilling involves er diameter and shallow first interval of each well. They
using mud pumps to pump a normal liquid drilling mud at a are prepared from whatever water source is available and
reduced rate and injecting compressed gas at the standpipe whatever clay or polymer will yield sufficient viscosity in this
such that the wellbore is circulated with two-phase aerated water. For freshwater or drill water, bentonite (called gel)
flow. The ratio of injected gas to the liquid flowrate deter- is most often used. 20 to 50 lb/bbl of bentonite is pre-hy-
mines the downhole density and the propensity for surging drated in freshwater four to six hours. It is then usually floc-
in the annulus. Surging is where the two-phase flow is un- culated with lime or seawater to increase viscosity prior
stable and flow from the well is intermittent. Aerated muds to spudding to carry large cuttings or gravel from the well.
offer many of the advantages of drilling with mud in that the Bentonite does not fully yield in salty or hard waters (above
mud properties can be adjusted and the liquid is recirculat- about 1,500 mg/l chlorides or 320 mg/l total hardness). For
ed through the mud pits. Aerated drilling is also done with locations without access to fresh or drill water, attapulgite,
straight water, brine or oil. guar gum, xanthan gum or other products are required to
generate viscosity in salty or hard waters.
Water-based fluids (aqueous fluids)
Water-based fluids, or water-based muds (WBMs), are the Native muds
most widely used type of drilling fluid systems and are al- Native muds are simply water or spud mud that incorporate
most always used to spud the well. They range from simply native clays and drill solids to form a low quality but often
drilling with water to formulated water-based systems with effective drilling fluid. Native muds have: increased viscosity
targeted property specifications and concentrations for var- for better hole cleaning; slightly higher mud weights (limit-
ious additives that are used to achieve the desired proper- ed to about 10.5 ppg); the ability to bridge solids to seal off
ties. The type of system to be used on a particular well is de- high-permeability zones and form a filter cake; and a lim-
pendent on the type of water locally available, the required ited degree of filtration control. All of these depend on the
mud weight, local drilling practices and potential problems formations being drilled and the characteristics of the water
that may be encountered. being used. Native muds often suffer from being unstable
and having high fluid loss and thick filter cakes that can lead
WBMs comprise a mixture of water and reactive solids, in- to stuck pipe. Once chemical treatments are used to achieve
ert solids, functional chemicals and sometimes non-aque- target viscosity and fluid loss properties (called “mudding
ous liquids. Most WBM systems can be formulated from up”), these systems would be more appropriately called
freshwater or seawater. lightly treated systems.
»» Potassium chloride (KCl) polymer contamination from contaminants like drilling salt or anhy-
Potassium is an inhibitor that can base-exchange with sodi- drite. They are, however, prone to gelation which may lead to
um in water-sensitive smectite-containing shales. It is used solidification at high temperatures unless the MBT is kept low
at concentrations between 3 and 12% weight for most appli- and the concentration of other additives properly maintained
cations. Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide polymer (PHPA)
is a long chain polymer that will “encapsulate” reactive drill »» Silicate systems
cuttings and keep them from dispersing. These systems nor- Sodium and potassium silicate (K2SiO3) are high pH chemi-
mally use xanthan gum for viscosity and PAC polymer for fluid cals that precipitate on the surface of reactive drill cuttings
loss control with minimal amounts of added bentonite. These and formations as they are exposed to calcium, magnesium or
products are the basis for many KCl polymer systems. Oth- low pH environments. They form a glass-like coating on these
er encapsulating and fluid loss polymers such as PAC, sodi- water-reactive shales and prevent swelling and dispersion.
um polyacrylate (SPA) or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) may also Silicate systems do not tolerate calcium, magnesium and oth-
be used. These systems can use freshwater or seawater as er multivalent cations. Silicate systems may need a special
the base fluid. Other sources of potassium are also used to silicate-compatible lubricant for deviated wells.
formulate chlorides-free potassium-inhibitive mud. These
include potassium acetate (KC2H3O2), potassium sulfate »» Encapsulating polymer systems
(K 2SO4), potassium formate (KCOOH) and potassium hy- PHPA, PAC/SPA, or cationic polymer systems with sufficient
droxide (KOH) neutralized products. concentrations of polymers will “encapsulate” reactive drill
cuttings and keep them from dispersing. Encapsulation cou-
»» KCl polyglycol pled with low fluid loss provides a fluid with good inhibition
This is an improvement on the KCl polymer system that utilizes for water-sensitive shales. KCl polymer and polyamine poly-
a polyglycol selected to be water insoluble at the salinity and mer systems are more inhibitive versions of encapsulating
temperature of the formation (called cloud point). The poly- polymer systems.
glycol is thought to: displace water adsorbed on the surface of
drill cuttings or reactive formations preventing swelling and Any number of other inhibitive systems are available. No-
dispersion; form insoluble blocking of shale pores preventing table examples include diammonium phosphate or calci-
water entry and pressure transmission into shale pores; and um-ammonium nitrate and methylglycoside.
improve lubricity. These systems typically use much higher
concentrations of KCl, often 12 to over 20% weight. »» High-performance water-based muds (HPWBM)
These complex WBM systems come closest to providing
»» Polyamine systems the drilling performance and wellbore stability given by oil-
Amine, polyamine and quaternary amine chemicals are wide- based systems. They typically contain a shale inhibitor (salt
ly used as shale inhibitors. They are most often used in poly- or polyamine), encapsulating polymer, anti-balling additive
mer systems and high-performance WBMs such as those or ROP enhancer, lubricant, fluid loss control additives and
discussed below. These amine-based products can range viscosifying polymers. HPWBMs have higher cost, require
from simple low molecular weight additives to medium mo- more intensive wellsite engineering and require higher
lecular weight polyamines as substitutes for KCl maintenance treatments than other WBMs.
Calcium systems are usually polymer systems based on spe- These systems are also specially formulated to be stable un-
cial polymers that perform in high calcium levels. Many poly- der hostile conditions where conventional systems are not
mers used in other systems are not effective in calcium-treat- stable or economical to maintain. An in-depth discussion of
ed systems. Calcium-treated muds are less susceptible to these systems is outside the scope of this manual. The main
differences between these and conventional systems is that In addition, natural gas and other gasses are highly soluble in
all the products used must be stable at these elevated tem- NAFs at higher pressures, such that influxes may be difficult
peratures. Conventional viscosifiers, like bentonite or xan- to detect. After an influx, the solubilized gas does not ex-
than gum for WBM or amine-treated bentonite for NAFs, pand as in a WBM. The fluid is circulated up the annulus to
are not stable and alternative products must be used. For a fairly shallow depth where the pressure is low enough that
WBMs, this may be a product like sepiolite clay or a HT-sta- the gas comes out of the solution and begins to expand rap-
ble synthetic polymer. For NAFs, it may be wet-processed idly. For this reason, it is important to be able to detect small
amine-treated hectorite. For filtration control, products like volume influxes when drilling with NAFs and to be cautious
PAC for WBMs and gilsonite for NAFs would need to be re- when circulating influxes from the well. It is also important
placed with a HT-stable synthetic polymer. The same holds to understand that NAFs expand more than WBMs with
true for thinners (deflocculants) for WBMs and emulsifiers/ increases in temperature such that the density is lower (as
wetting agents for NAFs. Conventional products like ligno- volume expands) at high temperatures. For this reason, the
sulfonate, lignite and tannin in WBMs are not effective and influence of temperature on density and wellbore volumes
would need to be replaced with anionic synthetic polymer needs to be understood and considered for critical opera-
deflocculants or other HT stable additives. tions.
Non-aqueous-based mud systems (oil-based) The base fluids used to formulate NAFs include No.2 diesel,
Non-aqueous drilling fluids (NAFs) are formulated with a mineral oils, white oils and synthetic oils (i.e. olefins, esters,
non-aqueous base fluid (oil) as the main liquid phase. The ethers, acetals and paraffins). While NAFs were once for-
NAFs are insoluble in water, oil-wet drill cuttings and ex- mulated with crude oil, this practice is rare today due to the
posed formations. This prevents them from hydrating by low flash point and HSE considerations of using crude oil.
contact with water. Non-aqueous based systems are also
referred to as NAFs, OBMs, invert emulsions or just inverts. The two broad divisions of oil-based systems are invert
NAFs formulated from synthetic oils are often called SBMs. emulsions and all-oil systems.
Shales that swell, disperse, ball and become unstable when Invert emulsions
drilled with WBMs do not exhibit these problems when Invert emulsions are the most common category of NAFs.
drilled with OBMs. In general, NAFs: They have oil as the external phase and a lesser volume of
emulsified calcium chloride (or other) brine as the internal
• Tolerate higher concentrations of drill solids; phase. Typical ratios of oil to water are 70/30 to 90/10.
• Are less susceptible to chemical contamination; The emulsified brine is emulsified as micron-sized droplets
• Can be used to drill salt formations; which are trapped in the filter cake with other solids. This
• Are generally more temperature stable; results in invert emulsions having very low fluid loss and a
• Provide better lubricity; thin filter cake as compared to WBMs.
• Have lower fluid loss;
• Reduce the risk of stuck pipe; While there are a number of invert emulsion systems in the
• Produce higher rates of penetration; market, the broad types can be differentiated by the type
• Cause less wellbore enlargement; of emulsifier used and special features the system provides.
• Limit corrosion;
• Reduce the risk and consequence of gas hydrates; Invert emulsion NAF types are:
• Cause less formation damage; and
• Provide improved wellbore stability. »» Calcium soap systems
These systems use an emulsifier based on calcium soap
For these reasons, NAFs result in fewer drilling problems chemistry, formed by the reaction of oxidized tall oil (derived
and are widely used throughout the industry. from pine trees) and large additions of calcium hydroxide or
Ca(OH)2 (lime). This system is the most common and eco-
The disadvantages of using NAFs (oil-based muds) are the nomical type of NAF system.
higher cost, extra handling and disposal controls for both
mud and drill cuttings due to HSE considerations, more dif- »» Surfactant emulsifier systems
ficult supply logistics of base oil, and have the potential for These systems use amine or amide-type fatty acid emulsifi-
water contamination and water-wet solids. NAFs have more ers such as polyamine, polyamidoamine, polyaminated fatty
problems with lost circulation and remedying lost circula- acid or imidazoline. These systems may not require as much
tion with these systems is more difficult. lime and use lower concentrations of chemicals to form a
stable emulsion.
»» Low clay, flat rheology systems when coring permeable formations to minimize contamina-
These NAF systems contain little or no amine-treated clay tion and displacement of native formation fluids (usually oil)
for viscosity and use emulsifiers, viscosifiers and other addi- and preserve certain properties of the recovered rock. They
tives which produce rheology properties that do not change can be water-based or oil-based and typically use benign
much with changes in temperature. These systems have YP, products which do not change the wettability of the forma-
gel strength and low-shear rate viscosity values that change tion and have high concentrations of ultrafine-sized calcium
less than about 25% between 40°F and 150°F. carbonate for bridging.
(below about 5 microns) and called micronized so that they pH/alkalinity control chemicals
do not sag in highly directional wells. These refer to chemicals that increase or decrease pH or
alkalinity (relative acidity or alkalinity). Products which in-
For non-damaging drill-in fluids and other light-weight drill- crease pH include lime (calcium hydroxide), caustic soda
ing fluids, calcium carbonate is often used as the weight ma- (sodium hydroxide), soda ash (sodium carbonate) and mag
terial and can be used to formulate fluids up to about 12 lb/ ox (magnesium oxide). Products which reduce pH include
gal. Heavy-weight brines such as sodium chloride, potassi- bicarb (sodium bicarbonate), SAPP, citric acid and acetic
um chloride, calcium chloride, sodium formate (NaCOOH) acid. These pH reducing products are most often used to
and potassium formate (KCOOH) are also used for density reduce pH when drilling cement.
in special fluids like drill-in fluids.
Calcium removers
Viscosifiers Calcium is detrimental to the yield of clays and the per-
Bentonite (called “gel”) and xanthan gum polymer are used formance of many drilling fluid additives. For this reason,
to increase viscosity for fresh WBMs. Seawater and saturat- calcium is often precipitated from high calcium make-up
ed WBMs use attapulgite clay, guar or xanthan gum or other waters and from drilling fluids which incorporate calcium
natural or synthetic high-molecular weight polymer prod- from drilling anhydrite formations (calcium sulfate) or after
ucts for viscosity. NAFs use amine-treated bentonite (called drilling cement. Depending on the situation, soda ash, caus-
organophilic clay) as the primary viscosifer. Other NAF vis- tic soda, bicarbonate of soda, Ethylene-diamine-tetra acetic
cosifiers include dimer-trimer fatty acids and co-polymer acid (EDTA) or a polyphosphate (SAPP or sodium tetrap-
filtration control additives. The quantity of emulsified brine hosphate) may be used for this purpose.
and other products in a formulation will also contribute to
viscosity. Chemical flocculants like lime or soda ash plus any Surfactants and emulsifiers
number of polymers may be used to increase viscosity by Surfactants and emulsifiers are used in all NAFs and in some
flocculation in clay-based WBMs. These are discussed be- WBMs. For NAFs, they are used to form the brine-in-water
low under flocculants. emulsion and to oil-wet solids. The emulsifiers and wetting
agents used for NAFs include tall oil-based chemicals (de-
Filtration control additives (fluid loss control rived from pine trees), amine or amide-type fatty acids such
additives) as polyamine, polyamidoamine, polyaminated fatty acid
Filtration control additives reduce the filtrate that will in- and imidazoline. Surfactants reduce the surface tension
vade a permeable formation and limit the filter cake thick- between two incompatible liquids and two contacting solid
ness. For WBMs, these products range from bentonite clay surfaces. Dish washing detergent is a common household
used in fresh water and starch (used in salt water) to lig- example of a water-wetting surfactant.
nite, polyanionic cellulose (PAC) or carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC), sodium polyacrylate (SPA), carboxymethyl starch In WBMs, soaps or detergents are surfactants that are used
(CM starch), blown asphalt, sulfonated phenolic resins, as- to prevent bit and bottomhole assembly (BHA) balling when
phalt, gilsonite and any number of other medium-molecu- drilling reactive clays and shales (called “gumbo”) and to
lar weight polymers. For NAFs, gilsonite (natural asphalt), water-wet certain oil-wet additives (like the so called “cou-
asphalt, amine-treated lignite and methyl styrene acrylate pler” used to water wet gilsonite or asphalt to keep it from
co-polymers are the primary filtration control additives coating out or being removed at the shale shaker). Foaming
used. agents are discussed briefly below and are used when air
or foam drilling. Many additives have some secondary func-
tionality as emulsifiers and surfactants; for example, ligno-
Thinners (deflocculants) sulfonates, lignite, tannins and humates.
Thinners are products that reduce the viscosity of a fluid by
chemical actions to maintain its “pumpability”. For WBMs, De-emulsifiers are surfactants that prevent an emulsion
the thinning action is caused by deflocculation of clays and from forming. They are occasionally used in completion flu-
reactive drill solids with anionic chemicals which neutralize ids and drill-in fluids to prevent an emulsion from forming in
the cationic-charged clay edges. These products include a producing formation and causing formation damage.
lignosulfonate, lignite, tannins (quebracho), various poly-
phosphates such as sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) and Shale inhibitors
sodium tetraphosphate and low molecular weight polymers. Shale inhibitors are products used in WBMs to prevent clays
For NAFs, thinning is achieved by adding surfactants (emul- and shales from hydrating and becoming unstable or from
sifiers and wetting agents) that neutralize the tendency of having excessive wellbore enlargement. Some shale inhibi-
the emulsified brine and organo clays to coalesce. tors are used as the basis for formulating inhibitive systems
like gypsum or lime, potassium compounds, sodium or po- Biocides range from simple inorganic chemicals like bleach
tassium silicate, various brines, polyglycols and amine/poly- (hypochlorite) and swimming pool chlorine products to
amine/quaternary amines. Many polymers are also cited as those which increase pH such as soda ash, caustic soda
shale inhibitors as they slow the reaction of WBFs with re- and lime. More complex organic industrial biocides include
active shales. products such as glutaraldehyde, isothiazolone, triazine,
carbamates and bronopol.
Polymers may tie up the water, limiting invasion and filtration
and/or “encapsulate” or “coat” the reactive solids. Examples Lubricants
of these high or medium molecular weight polymers include Lubricants are products used to reduce the coefficient of
PHPA, SPA, PVA, PAC, and CMC. Often plating agents such friction of the drilling fluid to reduce torque and drag be-
as asphalt, gilsonite and sulfonated asphalt are added to tween the drill string and casing or open hole. Lubricants
improve wellbore stability. Other shale inhibitors that have are most often used in WBMs and include: straight oils such
been used are diammonium phosphate, calcium-ammoni- as diesel, mineral and synthetic oils (olefins and esters) and
um nitrate, and methyl glycoside vegetable oils; blends of oils and oil-based materials; graph-
ite; polyglycols; glycerin; fatty acid blends; asphalt; gilsonite;
Corrosion inhibitors/scavengers/biocides and sulfonated asphalt. Solid lubricants such as glass and
Corrosion inhibitors are products used to prevent or lim- copolymer beads are also used as “ball bearing type” friction
it corrosion rates. They are most often used in WBMs and reducers.
completion brines. Scavengers are products that precipitate
a certain undesirable chemical that causes excessive corro- Defoamers
sion. For drilling applications, these include oxygen scaven- These are products designed to control foam and foaming
gers and hydrogen sulfide scavengers. Biocides (also called action in WBMs, particularly that which occurs in brackish,
bactericides) are used to prevent fermentation or biodegra- seawater or saturated salt systems. Defoamers include:
dation of certain additives (most notably organic materials octyl alcohol and other fatty alcohols; aluminum stearate
like starch, xanthan gum and LCMs). which is mixed onsite in diesel oil or delivered as a liquid sus-
pension; polyglycols; butyl phosphate; and silicone based
Common corrosion inhibitors are amine-based additives that products.
coat steel surfaces or products like organophosphate-based
additives that “passivate” sites where corrosion may occur. Flocculants
Flocculants refer to high molecular weight polyacrylamide
Oxygen scavengers are usually sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) or polymers that can be used to flocculate and aggregate re-
ammonium bisulfite-based additives, frequently catalyzed active drill solids so that they can be removed at the shale
with heavy metals such as nickel or cobalt. Oxygen scaven- shaker or with a centrifuge and products used to flocculate
gers react with dissolved oxygen in the water phase and re- bentonite-based muds for improved hole cleaning. Similar
move it through this chemical reaction. Oxygen scavengers polymer products are added in small quantities to dry ben-
should be injected into the suction line of the mud pump tonite or bentonite slurries to increase viscosity. Inorganic
and not added directly to the suction pit. H2S scavengers are chemicals can also be used to flocculate slurries including
iron or zinc chemicals, which under proper conditions, can many chemicals that are a source of soluble calcium or other
chemically precipitate or neutralize H2S. Zinc oxide (ZnO) multivalent ions like aluminum or iron or products that are
and zinc carbonate (ZnCO3) are two common H2S scaven- a source of chlorides or carbonates such as sodium chloride
gers. Although not a true scavenger, it is recommended to or soda ash. Lime, gypsum, soda ash or even seawater are
add caustic soda and/or lime to raise and maintain the pH of commonly used to flocculate.
the mud to >11.0 in WBMs, or add lime to maintain >5lb/bbl in
NAFs if H2S is detected. Temperature stability agents
These are products used to improve the temperature sta-
Biocides are chemicals that either kill or inhibit bacterial and bility (rheology and filtration) of a fluid formulation and/or
possibly fungal growth in drilling and completion fluids. Bac- individual product above its normal range. For some appli-
terial growth is often first indicated by a foul odor that can cations, these are the base fluids chosen for the formulation
smell like yeast (fermenting beer) or rotten eggs (sulfate- re- such as saturated brines or fluids with anti-oxidant char-
ducing bacteria) and possibly foaming or frothing in the pits. acteristics like formate brines. In other applications, these
Biocides are industrial strength products and special care products are additives like pH buffers, alcohols, glycols,
should be taken in selecting and using these products. As amines, synthetic polymers and organic chemicals.
is the case when using any drilling fluid chemical, the proper
PPE should be used to prevent exposure.
bentonite are stored in silos and pneumatically transferred natural gas and light hydrocarbons can be released. The risk
to a mixing hopper. Drill water, base oil or brine is stored in of fire can be greatly reduced by eliminating sources of ig-
large tanks and pumped to the mud pits. nition from those areas. Rig areas are classified into three
zones based on the potential for explosive mixtures to be
present (Table FL-3):
Safety and handling
Drilling fluids and general rig operations use a number of dif- • Zone 0 includes production-related equipment or
ferent chemicals for various operations. Each chemical has internal tanks and piping used for drilling fluids that
unique chemical and physical properties which need to be have a high frequency of containing gas
considered for safe handling. Information about chemicals • Zone 1 includes the bell nipple, exposed areas of the
and hazards is provided by the supplier in several forms. flowline, shale shakers and other areas where gas is
These include the: safety data sheets or SDS (previously re- often present. If gas has been picked up while drilling, it
ferred to as the MSDS or material safety data sheets); prod- comes out of the solution as it passes through the
uct labels; transportation labels; National Fire Protection screens. Even without formation hydrocarbons, OBM
Association (NFPA) labels or other labels used in transpor- may release flammable vapors if it arrives at the shaker
tation; and hazardous materials information system (HMIS) at temperatures above its flashpoint. Enclosure and
labels. ventilation of the shaker area can significantly reduce
vapor concentrations and risk of fire.
The United Nations (UN) has sponsored a global standard • Zone 2 consists of the rest of the drilling area which is
for the classification and labeling of chemicals called the made up of the derrick, drilling floor, degassers and
globally harmonized system (GHS). This system has stan- Blowout Preventer (BOP) area. This may also include
dard formats for SDS and product labels. GHS addresses active mud in open gutters (troughs) before final
the hazards related to physical, health, and environmental degassing, the vent from the degasser system and
dangers. Information on the SDS and product labels should racked drill pipe if it is coated with drilling mud.
be used to determine safe handling procedures and the PPE
required. See the Appendix for information on GHS safety In Zones 1 and 2, sources of ignition (such as lighting fix-
data sheets and product labels, plus information on NFPA tures, motors and switches) are tightly controlled to elimi-
and HMIS labels. nate propagation of a flame. Cell phones, electronic camer-
as and other electrified equipment cannot be used in these
Proper handling for safety areas.
Fire hazards and zones Oily rags saturated with diesel fuel, mineral oil or formation
When drilling wells to collect hydrocarbons, it is possible fluids represent a significant risk of spontaneous combus-
for hydrocarbons to be returned with the circulating fluids. tion. These rags can be accumulated in large numbers be-
Wherever the returning fluid is open to the air, flammable cause rags are conveniently used to wipe mud balances and
other pieces of drilling equipment. The oil adsorbed onto the
Table FL-3: DNV fire hazard zones. fabric presents a high-surface area, allowing the normal-
Hazardous areas are divided into zones depending upon the grade ly slow oxidation by air to proceed much faster than when
(frequency and duration) of release*: stored as a liquid. When stored as an open pile, the resulting
Zone 0: Explosive gas atmosphere is continuously present or present for heat can result in spontaneous combustion and fire. All oily
long periods (typical for continuous grade source present for more than rags and similar materials must be stored in proper, air-re-
1000 hours a year or that occurs frequently for short periods).
stricting containers.
Zone 1: Explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation
(typical for primary grade source present between 10 and 1000 hours
a year). Chemical hazards
Zone 2: Explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal It is impossible to list all the chemicals used in drilling op-
operation and if it does occur, is likely to do so infrequently and will exist erations or to predict what products may be used in the fu-
for a short period only (typical for secondary grade source present for
less than 10 hours per year and for short periods only).
ture. The hazards of storing and handling each product must
be evaluated on both an individual basis and in conjunction
Non-hazardous areas are areas, which are not hazardous according to
the definitions above. with the other products already present. Chemical handling
hazard recognition posters and similar guides can be useful
Guidance note: Note that conditions of ventilation may change the zone
definition for each grade of release. The likelihood of detecting the leak in reminding the crew of the need to properly classify, han-
may also influence the zone. dle and store materials.
* VERITAS, Det Norske, OFFSHORE STANDARD DNV-OS-A101 and
DNV-OS-A101.
Products that can react with each other should be stored
separately; for example, acids like citric acid should be degradation of drilling and completion fluid products. Col-
stored in a separate area from caustics (bases) like caus- orless and odorless, it acts as an intoxicant at low concen-
tic soda. The best guide to the safe handling and storage of trations (2 to 3%) and an asphyxiant at high concentrations
drilling fluid products is the SDS that accompanies it. It may (>10%). Proper ventilation and control of confined space
be called a product data safety sheet or MSDS depending entry, especially of pits and other areas where gases can
on the jurisdiction. Recommendations for storage appear in collect, is required for protection.
Section 7 of the SDS.
»» Carbon monoxide (CO)
Even non-reactive chemical products must be protected Carbon monoxide is also a common component of diesel
from rainwater and wash water. Wet sacks can fail, exposing exhaust but is rarely found in drilling fluids. Unlike carbon
the contents to personnel and the drilling environment. A dioxide, carbon monoxide is poisonous and can cause head-
spill of bentonite clay, for example, becomes slippery when aches and nausea at low concentrations (<400 ppm) and
wet. Big bags of barite and other fine solids can become al- death at high concentrations (800 ppm and above). Carbon
most solid blocks of paste if rainwater is allowed to enter monoxide can be produced as a byproduct of the firing of
them. certain perforating charges and appears in returned fluids.
Proper ventilation is required for protection.
Some chemical hazards include hydrogen sulfide (H2S), car-
bon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), lime, caustics »» Lime
and OBM surfactants. There are two products used in drilling fluids which are of-
ten referred to as lime, “hot or quicklime” and “hydrated or
»» Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) slacked lime”. These lime products can generate heat and
H2S represents a special hazard. It is colorless and both form a high pH when mixed in water or when exposed to
highly poisonous at very low levels and highly flammable. water vapor. This heat can then accelerate other chemical
While it has a strong odor at low concentrations, it may reactions. Due to the heat of hydration and resulting high
be undetectable at high concentrations. H2S can come pH, these materials should be handled with utmost care and
from drilled gases and from biodegradation of drilling fluid proper PPE protection.
and completion fluids, especially when seawater or sulfate
brines are used. Even in routine operations, there must be “Hot lime” or “quicklime” is calcium oxide (CaO), it is more
continual monitoring of H2S gas at the shale shaker area, hazardous to use than hydrated lime because it generates
mud tank area, drill floor and above or in the mud flow line. more heat when mixed and is more reactive such that it can
Because H2S is heavier than air, testing for it should always cause chemical and thermal burns. Quick lime can even
be performed prior to entering any closed or confined spac- generate heat when it reacts with humidity in air. “Empty”
es that have contained drilling or other well work-related bags of quick lime exposed to humid air can generate suffi-
fluids, particularly confined spaces, in low-lying areas, and cient heat to smolder and ignite. It is used most often at oil
below grade (such as underground or underdeck tanks or based mud mixing plants where it is preferred to slaked lime
enclosed areas). because it generates heat and speeds the emulsification
process due to a quicker reaction with emulsifiers.
Almost any untreated seawater system will develop H2S if
it is untreated and stored under static conditions. The nat- The other product is “hydrated lime” or “slaked lime”. It is
urally occurring sulfate-reducing bacteria use the sulfates calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). Hydrated lime generates one
found in seawater to digest hydrocarbons, polysaccharides fifth the heat of solution (in water) and is slower to reac-
and other oilfield materials. This results in the generation of tive than quicklime. This makes it less hazardous and safer
H2S as a waste product. This is especially common in packer to handle. Hydrated lime can be used to form stable NAF
fluids or temporary abandonment fluids. Where formation emulsions in mud mixing plants if sufficient shear and mix-
fluids containing H2S are likely to be encountered, additional ing energy is used.
contingencies such as self-contained breathing apparatus
and dual flare lines must be employed. See the H2S Hand- »» Caustic (Sodium hydroxide or NaOH) and caustic
book and API RP 49 Recommended Practice for Drilling and potash (Potassium hydroxide or KOH)
Well Servicing Operations Involving H2S for more detailed Caustic and caustic potash are solid materials that create
recommendations. heat and high pH when exposed to water or water vapor. If
mixed with an equal volume of water, the resulting mixture
»» Carbon dioxide (CO2) will spontaneously boil. Due to the heat of hydration and re-
Carbon dioxide is a common component of diesel exhausts sulting high pH, these materials should be handled with ut-
and formation fluids. It can be produced by thermal and bio-
most care and proper PPE protection. The heat and high pH
how much is in contact and how long it is in contact. This
can also adversely affect many mud systems. These prod-
makes it impossible to set specific limits as to the risk of ex-
ucts are usually best added by first diluting them with water
posure to the fluid.
such as with a chemical barrel. Caustic should ALWAYS be
added to water because of the threat of boiling. NEVER add
Similarly, the pipes and flowlines carrying hot mud can also
water to caustic.
cause burns. Here too, there are many contributing factors
In some operations, the risks of handling caustic and caustic and there are only limited regulatory guidelines beyond the
potash are regarded as too high and less reactive agents are requirement to prevent personal injury. The ASTM Standard
used to raise pH. Exposure to these dry products can cause Guide for Heated System Conditions that Produce Contact
severe skin burns. Soda ash (sodium carbonate or Na2CO3) Burn Injuries (C 1055-92) provides a method for evaluating
and/or slaked lime are less aggressive. When used in com- risk. As a rule, contact with surfaces above 104 °F can cause
bination, they can be effective at increasing pH. Soda ash discomfort. Bath water at 120 °F can cause third degree
and lime can be added directly to the mud. burns within five minutes of exposure and this temperature
is often chosen as the maximum temperature for surfaces
OBM surfactants that people may momentarily contact. Water at 150 °F can
Almost all drilling fluids can be irritating to the skin if not produce third degree burns in one second. While surfaces
promptly washed off. The base oil and surfactants in OBM, may transfer heat more or less effectively than bath water,
however, require additional precautions. These can be ir- many organizations require insulation or guards to prevent
ritating to the skin on first exposure and can sensitize it to accidental contact.
produce an allergic response on repeated exposures. Chem-
ical resistant clothing, gloves, barrier creams, and other PPE »» Sack cutting
can reduce or eliminate direct exposure. Clothing and oth- Many products come in sacks that must be cut or torn open.
er fabric items that are exposed to OBM, or the surfactants Proper cutting tools, protective gloves and other PPE should
used in it, must be carefully laundered to remove all traces be used. Handling the sack and pouring the contents into a
of these materials before reuse. Even clothing that has not chemical hopper puts the operator close to the contents,
been directly exposed can pick up surfactants from contam- calling for proper respiratory and eye protection.
inated clothing while being laundered. For this reason, it is
recommended that separate washing machines be used for »» Cranes
OBM-contaminated and uncontaminated clothing. While the Small leaks of liquid chemical products, particularly comple-
initial irritation can appear to be minor, the long-term effects tion brines from totes and other containers, can result in a
can become quite severe if left untreated. All skin irritations “rain” of small drops when the container is hoisted. Safety
should be promptly reported and treated. glasses, hard hats and other appropriate PPE should always
be worn when observing lifts and any drips or spills should be
Physical hazards immediately addressed.
There are a number of physical hazards that may impact
safety and need to be properly addressed. »» Noise
Working in and around the pump room, engine room, shale
»» Heat shakers or in other areas with loud noises requires hearing
Working in hot and humid environments, like the area around protection.
the shakers or above enclosed mud pits, can bring on heat
stroke and heat exhaustion. This is particularly true when »» Pits and walkways
wearing PPE to reduce chemical exposure. Extra ventilation, Walkways on and around the drilling fluid circulating system
readily available water, sun protection and frequent breaks are prone to condensation, corrosion and areas of spilled
may be required to avoid injury and lost time. All applicable fluids. These areas must be routinely inspected and good
health and safety regulatory requirements should be ob- housekeeping strictly enforced.
served.
»» Closed vessel entry
In addition, hot drilling fluid returning from the well can cause Precautions related to closed vessel and confined space
thermal burns. Fluid can splash from flowlines and shakers entry are outside the scope of this manual. Any entry into
and the flowline itself can become too hot to touch safely. a closed vessel or confined space can be dangerous and ad-
In certain operations the drilling fluid can flash into steam or equate precautions must be followed. One source of infor-
vapor as it is circulated from the well. The extent of thermal mation on confined space entry is the IADC Health, Safety &
injury from contact with drilling fluid depends on the heat ca- Environmental Reference Guide. Operators and contractors
pacity, composition, density, viscosity, chemical properties,
have specific safety procedures and protocols for closed ves- Pressure washing around stored products presents an ad-
sel entry which should be followed. ditional hazard. Some products react violently with water
or with other products once they are dissolved. Great care
»» Tank strength must be taken not to contact stored sacks with water, either
Drilling and completion fluids often have densities twice that directly or indirectly.
of water. Tanks and other vessels must be built strong enough
to contain the pressures these fluids exert on the bottom and
Use of icons/colors/risk factors to visually
sides. Occasionally, a higher-density fluid may be required
for unusual well operations or as a spike fluid which has a denote danger
density almost three times that of water. If such fluid densi- The hazardous nature of chemical products must be prop-
ties have not been used recently, the mechanical integrity of erly identified by permanently attached labels. The exact
the tanks and facilities should be checked before use. requirements for labeling are given in the applicable regu-
lations which vary depending on where the drilling opera-
»» Spills tion is taking place and regulatory oversight. These agencies
Drilling fluids are viscous and usually treated to be lubri- include the International Maritime Organization or IMO,
cious. This makes them slippery when spilled or splashed Occupational Safety and Health Administration or OSHA
onto walking surfaces. Completion brines may be hygro- (USA), Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
scopic as well and so puddles of them never dry out. All (CCOHS) and the Work Health and Safety or WHS (Aus-
spills should be immediately cleaned up and proper equip- tralia). Most jurisdictions, however, are adopting the GHS
ment available at all times. standards for labeling (See Appendix.)
Sand content concentration of drill solids, thus reducing the plastic vis-
Sand-sized particles are measured and reported as the cosity. Removal of drilled solids during the early circula-
“sand content”, although the particles may not actually be tion stages with solids removal equipment at the surface is
sand. Higher concentrations of these sand-sized particles much simpler and less expensive. Obviously, these benefits
are detrimental and increased wear circulating system com- are the result of planning prior to drilling a well and are ac-
ponents, especially mud pump parts. Sand-sized particles complished through the use of properly designed, sized and
are removed through the use of solids-control equipment operated solids removal equipment. The drilling crew has an
(desander, desilter, fine mesh shaker screens or mud clean- obligation to become knowledgeable in the proper use of the
er) and by settling in a sand trap or settling pit. Reducing the equipment: otherwise, its potential benefits may be reduced
mesh size of shale shaker screens (API 200 mesh size or or nullified.
finer) will also reduce sand content.
Potential problems affecting mud systems
Solids, water and oil content
The addition of water or base oil and the efficient use of sol- Weight material settling or sag
ids control equipment can usually reduce the total solids in Weight material sag is when the weight material partially
the system. The addition of water can increase water con- “settles” out of the drilling fluid. It is most often associated
tent and the addition of base oil in NAFs will increase oil con- with deviated well sections with angles of 50° to 80°. While
tent (Oil/Water Ratio or OWR and Synthetic/Water Ratio it tends to occur more often with NAFs, it can happen in
or SWR) as seen in the distillation retort analysis. WBMs. Settling or sag problems can be broken down into
several types: dynamic settling, static settling and slumping
Methylene blue test beds. Dynamic settling typically occurs when circulating at
The MBT results are used to monitor the bentonite and low rates in a deviated well. Static settling occurs when the
reactive solids content for WBMs. The reduction of these fluid is not flowing. Bed slumping occurs in deviated holes
solids is accomplished by the addition of water or selective (50° to 80°) and is more often seen under static conditions.
flocculants. Reduction can also be achieved through solids
Sag or settling treatment and prevention
removal equipment or by using inhibitive mud systems as a
preventative measure.
recommendations
-Reduction in calcium and excess lime Use lime / gyp to precipitate CO3 and give an excess of
-Presence of bicarbonates and carbonates (high Mf, low pH, Pf lime, increase pH >10, use caustic to increase Pf
Carbonates/Bicarbonates
may be high if carbonates) -Increase thinners like lignosulfonate, lignite or tannin to
(CO3)
-High rheology (FV, PV, YP, Gels) deflocculate
-Increase in fluid loss & filter cake thickness -May require additional fluid loss additives
Increase pH to >11.5
-Reduction in pH
-Keep 2+ ppb excess lime in system and a Pf >1.0 using lime
-Discoloration of mud system
and caustic soda or convert to lime-based mud
-“Rotten egg” odor to mud
Hydrogen Sulfide – H2S -Use zinc oxide, zinc carbonate or iron oxide to precipitate
-Rheology and Filtrate increases
sulfides
-Formation of black scale on DP
-Raise mud weight to control H2S influx
-Foaming in pits
-Consider using hematite for slugs and density
-Excess mud flow and pit increase Begin well control procedures if a kick has occurred
-Increase in gas content from the gas detector -Raise mud weight to control gas influx
-Reduction in mud weight at shaker due to gas cut -Route return mud flow through gas separator and/or
Formation Gas
Foaming in pits degasser
-Well flows when pumps shut off -Use defoamer for entrained gas in mud pits
-Increased viscosity -Treat mud properties as necessary
-Lower ES Readings
-Grainy or dull appearance of mud in pits
-Add significant amounts of emulsifier and wetting agent
-Water-wet barite being discarded at shale shaker
-Add lime to maintain excess lime
Water-Wet Solids -Decrease in mud weight
-Add barite to maintain mud weight
-Sticky solids or barite sag
-Add fresh uncontaminated mud volume
-Water in HTHP filtrate
-Cuttings integrity decrease
-Reduction of excess lime content & POM -Increase the mud weight to control gas
-Reduction in ES -Increase excess lime content to >5 ppb
-Mud weight reduction at shaker due to gas cut -Use of H2S scavenger if H2S detected
Acid Gas (H2S or CO2) -For H2S, smell of rotten eggs -Add emulsifier and wetting agent to keep ES >300 volts
-Discoloration of mud and drill pipe (dark or black) -Use Garrett Gas Train or other method to test for acid
-Foaming in pits gases while drilling section
-Increase in fluid loss and filter cake thickness -Consider using hematite for slugs and density
-Reduction in the mud weight or gas cut mud -Increase mud weight to control influx
-Reduction in viscosity -Increase emulsifier content
-Increase in OWR / SWR -Add fluid loss additives
Reservoir Hydrocarbon en-
-Increase in fluid loss and filter cake -Add lime if needed
trained in the mud system
-Decrease in excess lime & Pom -Skim off any oil floating on the mud system
-Discoloration of mud or oil floating on top of mud system -Zero discharge should be evaluated if discharging cuttings
-Smell of crude or increased vapors -Adjust OWR/SWR with water and salt or brine
gas hydrates. This is done through maintaining the concen- gating together to form mud rings or restrictions inside of the
tration of calcium chloride in the brine phase. Typically, >25% riser. Treatments with surfactants and other anti-balling ad-
by weight of calcium chloride is kept in the water phase as ditives or a cleanout trip may be needed if the problem is se-
inhibition against hydrates. vere. Use a riser boost pump and adequate circulation times
prior to trips to clear cuttings from the riser.
»» Well operations
Maintain adequate mud weight to keep gas out of the well- Stuck pipe
bore! No available gas means no hydrates will form. If us- Stuck pipe issues can be divided into mechanical and dif-
ing WBMs, spot high-salt or glycol-treated fluids across the ferential causes. Some of the causes of mechanical stick-
BOP stack and in the choke and kill lines as a preventative ing include hole packoff /bridges, settled cuttings, shale
measure. High concentrations of natural gas hydrates can instability, loosely consolidated formations and junk in the
sometimes be found near the base of permafrost in arctic hole. Wellbore geometry issues may also lead to mechani-
locations. If hydrates are encountered, lower the ROP sub- cal sticking and include key-seats, an undergauge hole, stiff
stantially to bring up the gas slowly and in a manageable BHA, severe doglegs, mobile formations and casing failures.
fashion. Differential sticking is caused by high overbalance, station-
ary drill string, high fluid loss or a thick filter-cake. It is worse
Deepwater riser issues with high-density or high-solids mud systems.
it is often necessary to find a way to drill ahead to the casing formations are: stuck pipe; managing salt saturation or over-
point with the losses or run the casing early. saturation of mud system, bit-balling and losses when en-
countering salt inclusions; wellbore enlargement when drill-
Wellbore strengthening is a drilling fluid technique that uses ing through the salt formation and/or through shales above
a certain concentration of sized LCM to prevent lost circu- or below the salt formation (rubble zones); excessive torque
lation by preventing or limiting induced fractures. Theories and pack-offs caused by salt creep; difficulty evaluating the
vary on how wellbore strengthening works and on what con- required mud weight; well control issues; and excessive mud
centration or particle size should be used. The concentration losses. The rubble zone that might lie beneath, adjacent to
and particles need to be in the drilling fluid prior to drilling or on top of the salt section usually consists of a series of
the interval and they need to be maintained continuously. highly reactive shale stringers that are embedded with un-
Concentrations in the order of 20 to 50 lb/bbl are used consolidated sands. This zone could be over-pressured at
for wellbore strengthening and particle sizes range from a the entry point because of a gas pocket under the salt or
narrow 250-650 micron range to a wide 50-2000 micron other reasons. For the remainder of the section, it could be
range. Wellbore strengthening has allowed intervals to be under-pressured (leading to numerous problems) or uncon-
drilled without losses using mud weights that are several solidated (causing severe lost circulation problems). Deter-
pounds per gallon higher than offset wells where this strat- mining the mud weight needed to drill out the bottom of the
egy was not used. salt is difficult as salt does not have a true pore pressure and
can be drilled significantly over-pressured or under-pres-
Losses to high-permeable formations or natural subsurface sured.
conditions, such as a fault or open fracture, are often iden-
tified by a drilling break just prior to the loss event. These Treatments
kinds of loss zones can normally be treated with LCM if a Treatment methods include the following:
large enough material can be used. Effective bridging can be • Wellbore Enlargement in Salt: Drill with saturated salt
achieved at concentrations as low as 10 lb/bbl if the size of WBMs or NAFs. Minimize the addition of water and
the material is half the diameter of the fracture or pore open- monitor chlorides;
ing. Keep in mind that most LCMs have a wide particle size • Formation Gas or Saltwater in the Rubble Zone:
distribution and it is only the larger particles that initiate the Increase mud weight to the safest level to control the
bridge or sealing process. LCM sizes are also limited by drill intrusions;
string components, with 2 mm being about the largest size • Lost Circulation: Pretreat with LCM before entering the
that can be used with most LWDs/MWDs and mud motors. rubble zones. The LCM might include calcium
carbonate, graphite materials and cellulosic LCM. Other
LCM material types for seepage to moderate losses would LCM types might be needed if losses are severe.
include granular (particulate), fibrous/cellulosic, flakes/ Develop a lost circulation strategy for the rubble zone
platelets and mixed LCM types. These are often locally prior to the start of the well;
sourced low-cost agricultural or industrial byproducts. • Drilling Below Salt: Have a salt exit strategy developed
prior to drilling below the bottom of the salt. This might
Pills, squeezes and spotting solutions for persistent loss include entraining the mud system with a variety and
zones include: dilatant slurries; high fluid-loss, high-solids high concentration of LCM, having a LCM pill built and
dewatering squeezes; cross-linked polymer pills; gunk or ready to pump and other operational procedures;
reverse gunk squeezes activated downhole; sodium silicate • Stuck in Salt: Spot a fresh water pill across the
pills; latex pills; swellable polymer pills; mud gelling material suspected stuck pipe zone to dissolve the salt.
pills; barite/hematite plugs; thixotropic LCM/WSM (well-
bore strengthening material) plugs; cement plugs; and res- HTHP conditions
in-coated sand pills. When using WBM and NAF systems, HTHP wells are sus-
ceptible to problems such as high-temperature gelation,
An important tool to have before drilling is a lost circulation barite sag, high-solids content, dehydration, decreases in
decision tree. This helps determine the proper treatment total alkalinity and increased fluid losses. The use of tem-
based on the amount of losses, local experience and avail- perature stable mud products is key to minimizing these po-
ability of products. An example is provided in Figure FL-7. tential problems. Rheology stabilizers, thinners, chemicals
Note that this is only an example. to reduce fluid loss and aid in filter cake building, barite sag
treatment chemicals and others must be stable to the high-
Salt formations and rubble zones est BHT expected to be seen. The mud system should be run
The major problems typically associated with drilling salt with minimum low gravity solids (LGS) to reduce or prevent
HTHP gelation problems. Higher concentrations and tem-
LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials:
10 ppb Fiber 2 ppb Wetting Agent 20 ppb CaCO3 - Med 2 ppb Wetting Agent 40 ppb CaCO3 M/C 2 ppb Wetting Agent
10 ppb CaCO3 - Fine 20 ppb CaCO3 F/M 20 ppb CaCO3 - Fine 30 ppb CaCO3 F/M 30 ppb Graphite Med 40 ppb CaCO3 M/C
10 ppb CaCO3 - Med 20 ppb Graphite Med 15 ppb Nut Shells- Med 30 ppb Graphite Med 10 ppb Nut Shells - Med 40 ppb Graphite Med
15 ppb Nut Shells - Med 10 ppb Fiber LCM F 15 ppb Fiber LCM F 10 ppb Fiber LCM F 20 ppb Fiber LCM F/M 20 ppb Fiber LCM F/M
perature stabilizing additives may be required to make the • Keep shales from swelling or failing from chemical
system tolerant of HTHP conditions. One means of address- interactions by using a NAF system or inhibitive WBM
ing the gelation potential is to spot a pill on the bottom with system.
increased additions of temperature stable products prior
to making a trip. Have a HTHP drilling plan in place prior to
the start of a well. For a NAF system, the utilization of tem- Calculations and tables
perature-stable organophilic clays and emulsifiers/wetting
agents should be selected to minimize problems. Brine tables
Brines and fluids containing salts, are often used as the base
Wellbore stability issues fluid for drilling fluids and for completion fluids. Sodium
Wellbore stability issues are often exemplified by excess chloride and calcium chloride are the most common salts
shale cuttings coming over the shaker, splintery shale cut- used. The density of all brines changes significantly with
tings, mud losses, tight holes on trips or connections, hole temperature. It is critical to know the temperature at which
fill-up while tripping, the need for excessive reaming when the density is measured as well as the temperature of a giv-
making connections and other drilling problems. High-an- en application.
gle wellbores and certain directions will require higher mud
weights than a vertical well to maintain stability. Some The freezing points and crystallization temperatures listed
things to keep in mind for the mud system include: in Table FL-7 for sodium chloride and Table FL-8 for calcium
• Keep the mud weight high enough to maintain chloride are examples only. These values vary significantly
mechanical hole stability and prevent sloughing; depending on the purity of the salt or brine being used and
• Keep fluid loss as low as possible and use deformable with contamination.
plugging agents to keep micro-fractured shales from
being invaded and swelling, crumbling or delaminating;
• Increase rheology to increase the hole cleaning ability
of mud and address the pack-off issues;
* Examples only. Freezing point and crystallization temperature vary significantly depending on salt/brine purity.
* Examples only. Freezing point and crystallization temperature vary significantly depending on salt/brine purity.
Hole volume calculations (pipe in hole) The values from Eq 14 and Eq 15 are then multiplied times
the interval lengths to calculate the pipe (or hole) capacity
Hole vol. = ann. vol. + pipe cap. Eq 10 for each section.
Annular volume (or pipe displacement): The total pipe (or hole capacity) is then the sum of each dif-
For each section with different annular dimensions (inside ferent section volume from surface to total depth.
diameter (ID) casing or open hole or outside diameter (OD)
pipe), calculate: Pipe cap. = PCap1 + PCap2 + PCap3 +...+ PCapn Eq 16
[ ID (in.)2 – OD (in.)2 ] Note: When calculating the hole capacity of the open hole,
Ann. vol. (bbl/ft) = Eq 11 use the bit diameter multiplied by a factor to account for
1,029 wellbore enlargement (typical values are 1.1 for OBMs and
1.25 to 1.5 for WBMs). These washout values can vary wide-
[ ID (mm)2 – OD (mm)2 ] ly and are highly dependent on the formation drilled and
Ann. vol. (cu m/m) = Eq 12 other factors.
1.273 x 106
Hole cap. = HCap1 + HCap2 + HCap3 +...+ HCapn Eq 17
The values from Eq 11 and Eq 12 are then multiplied times
the interval lengths to calculate the annular volume for each Circulation times and strokes
section.
Pump output and circulation rate
The total annular volume is then the sum of each annular The pump output (PO) can be calculated using Equations
volume from the surface to the total depth: 18-19 or 21-22 for any liner size or stroke length. These val-
ues can also be found in the manufacturer’s tables or in ge-
Total ann. vol. = AV1 + AV2 + AV3 +...+ AVn Eq 13 neric tables like Tables FL-9 and FL-10.
Note: Pipe displacement volumes are important when de- Mud pump efficiency is affected by many factors with oper-
termining if the hole is taking or giving the correct volume ating pressure, pump RPM, mud weight, suction pressure,
of fluid when tripping pipe or running casing. While these and the presence of larger mud particles (LCM and sand)
values can be calculated with Equations 11 or 12 (if the di- having the greatest influence. Mud pump efficiency values
mensions of the tool joints or casing collars are taken into are normally in the 75 to 95% range.
account), it is recommended that displacement volumes be
obtained from tables for the particular size and weight of Triplex Mud Pumps
pipe that includes the specific tool joint or casing connec- Triplex pumps have three pistons and pump fluid on the
tion dimensions. forward stroke only (single acting). As compared to duplex
pumps, triplex pumps often have shorter stroke lengths (6-
Pipe (or hole) capacity 12 in.), operate at higher speeds (50-150 strokes/minute)
Pipe capacity is used to determine the volume of fluid in- and have higher efficiency (85-95%).
side the drill string. Hole capacity is used to determine the
volume of fluid in the wellbore when the drill string is not in PO (bbl/ Stk)
the well. = liner ID (in.)2 x stk (in.) x Eff. (decimal) Eq 18
For each section with different pipe (or hole) size, use the ID 4,118
dimension of the pipe (or hole) and then calculate as follows: PO output (l/Stk)
= liner ID (mm)2 x stk (mm) x Eff. (decimal) Eq 19
4.00 0.0233 0.0253 0.0272 0.0291 0.0311 0.0330 0.0350 0.0369 0.0389
4.25 0.0263 0.0285 0.0307 0.0329 0.0351 0.0373 0.0395 0.0417 0.0439
4.50 0.0295 0.0320 0.0344 0.0369 0.0393 0.0418 0.0443 0.0467 0.0492 0.0541
4.75 0.0329 0.0356 0.0384 0.0411 0.0438 0.0466 0.0493 0.0521 0.0548 0.0603
5.00 0.0364 0.0395 0.0425 0.0455 0.0486 0.0516 0.0546 0.0577 0.0607 0.0668 0.0729
5.25 0.0402 0.0435 0.0469 0.0502 0.0535 0.0569 0.0602 0.0636 0.0669 0.0736 0.0803
5.50 0.0441 0.0477 0.0514 0.0551 0.0588 0.0624 0.0661 0.0698 0.0735 0.0808 0.0881
5.75 0.0482 0.0522 0.0562 0.0602 0.0642 0.0682 0.0723 0.0763 0.0803 0.0883 0.0963
6.00 0.0525 0.0568 0.0612 0.0656 0.0699 0.0743 0.0787 0.0831 0.0874 0.0962 0.1049
6.25 0.0569 0.0617 0.0664 0.0711 0.0759 0.0806 0.0854 0.0901 0.0949 0.1043 0.1138
6.50 0.0616 0.0667 0.0718 0.0769 0.0821 0.0872 0.0923 0.0975 0.1026 0.1129 0.1231
6.75 0.0664 0.0719 0.0774 0.0830 0.0885 0.0940 0.0996 0.1051 0.1106 0.1217 0.1328
7.00 0.1309 0.1428
7.50 0.1503 0.1639
ID (in.)2
Hole cycle time Hole vol (bbl/ft) = Eq 36
During drilling operations, it is important to know the time or 1,029
strokes for mud at the pump suction to be circulated down the
drill string out the bit and up the annulus to the shale shakers. ID (mm)2
This is most often needed when increasing the mud weight to Hole vol (cu m/m) = Eq 37
1.273 x 106
determine when the wellbore is fully displaced to the new mud
weight.
The values from Eq 36 and Eq 37 are then multiplied times the
Hole cycle = surf. to bit + BU Eq 35
interval lengths to calculate the hole volume for each selection.
The total hole volume with no pipe in the hole is then the sum
Hole volume (pipe out of hole) of each different hole section volume from the surface to the
Hole volumes are important to know when tripping in or out total depth:
of the hole as they determine if the surface volume and pit
capacity is sufficient. Hole volumes can be calculated in the Hole vol. (no pipe)
same way pipe capacity is calculated (as shown below or
= HV1 + HV2 + HV3 + .......... +HVn Eq 38
found in the tables).
For each hole section with different ID dimensions for the cas- Hydrostatic pressure and hydrostatic gradient
ing or open hole, calculate: The hydrostatic pressure (PHYD) is the pressure the fluid column
exerts on the wellbore. It is primarily controlled by increasing or
decreasing the drilling fluid density or mud weight (MW).
Liner ID 8 10 12 14 15 16 18
(in.) Rod size (in.)
1.75 2.0 2.0 2.25 2.50 2.50 3.0
4.00 0.0375 0.0453 0.0544 0.0611 0.0625 0.0667 0.0670
4.25 0.0428 0.0520 0.0624 0.0704 0.0725 0.0774 0.0790
4.50 0.0485 0.0591 0.0709 0.0803 0.0832 0.0887 0.0918
4.75 0.0545 0.0666 0.0799 0.0908 0.0944 0.1007 0.1053
5.00 0.0608 0.0745 0.0894 0.1018 0.1062 0.1133 0.1195
5.25 0.0674 0.0828 0.0993 0.1135 0.1187 0.1266 0.1344
5.50 0.0744 0.0915 0.1098 0.1256 0.1317 0.1405 0.1501
5.75 0.0817 0.1006 0.1207 0.1384 0.1454 0.1551 0.1665
6.00 0.0893 0.1101 0.1321 0.1517 0.1597 0.1703 0.1836
6.25 0.0972 0.1200 0.1440 0.1656 0.1745 0.1862 0.2014
6.50 0.1055 0.1303 0.1564 0.1800 0.1900 0.2027 0.2200
6.75 0.1141 0.1410 0.1693 0.1951 0.2061 0.2198 0.2393
7.00 0.1230 0.1522 0.1826 0.2106 0.2228 0.2377 0.2593
7.25 0.1322 0.1637 0.1965 0.2268 0.2401 0.2561 0.2801
7.50 0.1417 0.1757 0.2108 0.2435 0.2580 0.2752 0.3016
7.75 0.1516 0.1880 0.2256 0.2608 0.2765 0.2950 0.3238
8.00 0.1618 0.2007 0.2409 0.2786 0.2957 0.3154 0.3468
Table FL-11: Data shows the quantity of barite in lb/bbl (same as 100 lb sacks /100 bbl) needed to increase the mud weight
(upper right) and the volume of water in bbl water per bbl mud needed to decrease the mud weight (lower left). Keep in
simultaneously when weighting-up to properly wet the material and maintain the desired viscosity and rheology values.
8.3 39.9 69.7 100.8 133.2 167.0 202.3 239.2 277.7 318.1 360.5 404.9 451.6 500.8 552.5 607.1 664.8 725.8 790.5 859.2
9.0 3.23 29.0 59.3 90.8 123.7 158.0 193.9 231.5 270.8 312.0 355.2 400.6 448.4 498.8 551.9 608.1 667.4 730.4 797.2
9.5 6.45 0.76 29.6 60.5 92.8 126.4 161.6 198.4 236.9 277.3 319.7 364.2 411.1 460.4 512.5 567.5 625.7 687.4 752.9
10.0 9.68 1.53 0.43 30.3 61.9 94.8 129.3 165.3 203.1 242.6 284.2 327.8 373.7 422.1 473.1 527.0 584.0 644.5 708.6
10.5 12.90 2.29 0.87 0.30 30.9 63.2 97.0 132.3 169.2 208.0 248.6 291.4 336.3 383.7 433.7 486.4 542.3 601.5 664.4
11.0 16.13 3.05 1.30 0.60 0.23 31.6 64.6 99.2 135.4 173.3 213.1 254.9 299.0 345.3 394.2 445.9 500.6 558.5 620.1
11.5 19.35 3.82 1.73 0.91 0.46 0.19 32.3 66.1 101.5 138.6 177.6 218.5 261.6 307.0 354.8 405.4 458.9 515.6 575.8
Copyright © 2015
12.0 22.58 4.58 2.16 1.21 0.70 0.38 0.16 33.1 67.7 104.0 142.1 182.1 224.2 268.6 315.4 364.8 417.2 472.6 531.5
12.5 25.81 5.34 2.60 1.51 0.93 0.56 0.32 0.14 33.8 69.3 106.6 145.7 186.8 230.2 276.0 324.3 375.4 429.6 487.2
13.0 29.03 6.11 3.03 1.81 1.16 0.75 0.48 0.27 0.12 34.7 71.0 109.3 149.5 191.8 236.5 283.8 333.7 386.7 442.9
13.5 32.26 6.87 3.46 2.11 1.39 0.94 0.63 0.41 0.24 0.11 35.5 72.8 112.1 153.5 197.1 243.2 292.0 343.7 398.6
14.0 35.48 7.63 3.90 2.42 1.62 1.13 0.79 0.55 0.36 0.21 0.10 36.4 74.7 115.1 157.7 202.7 250.3 300.7 354.3
14.5 38.71 8.40 4.33 2.72 1.86 1.32 0.95 0.68 0.48 0.32 0.19 0.09 37.4 76.7 118.3 162.1 208.6 257.8 310.0
DRILLING FLUIDS
15.0 41.94 9.16 4.76 3.02 2.09 1.51 1.11 0.82 0.60 0.43 0.29 0.18 0.08 38.4 78.8 121.6 166.9 214.8 265.7
15.5 45.16 9.92 5.19 3.32 2.32 1.69 1.27 0.96 0.72 0.54 0.39 0.27 0.16 0.08 39.4 81.1 125.1 171.9 221.5
16.0 48.39 10.69 5.63 3.63 2.55 1.88 1.43 1.09 0.84 0.64 0.48 0.35 0.24 0.15 0.07 40.5 83.4 128.9 177.2
16.5 51.61 11.45 6.06 3.93 2.78 2.07 1.58 1.23 0.96 0.75 0.58 0.44 0.32 0.23 0.14 0.07 41.7 85.9 132.9
17.0 54.84 12.21 6.49 4.23 3.02 2.26 1.74 1.37 1.08 0.86 0.68 0.53 0.41 0.30 0.21 0.13 0.06 43.0 88.6
17.5 58.06 12.98 6.93 4.53 3.25 2.45 1.90 1.50 1.20 0.97 0.78 0.62 0.49 0.38 0.28 0.20 0.12 0.06 44.3
18.0 61.29 13.74 7.36 4.83 3.48 2.64 2.06 1.64 1.32 1.07 0.87 0.71 0.57 0.45 0.35 0.26 0.18 0.12 0.05
FL-37
FL-38
Table FL-12: Weight-Up (Barite) and Dilution (Water) - SI units (metric)
Weight-up Chart for 4.1 SG Barite kg of barite per m3 mud (upper right section) and Dilution with Fresh Water m3 water per m3 mud (lower left section)
DRILLING FLUIDS
1.00 67.2 136.7 208.5 282.8 359.6 439.3 521.8 607.4 696.2 788.5 884.3 984.0 1087.8 1195.8 1308.5 1426.1 1548.9 1677.3 1811.6 1952.4 2100.0 2255.0 2417.9 2589.5
1.05 .50 68.3 139.0 212.1 287.7 366.1 447.3 531.5 618.9 709.6 803.9 902.0 1004.1 1110.4 1221.3 1337.0 1457.8 1584.1 1716.3 1854.8 2000.0 2152.5 2312.8 2481.6
1.10 4.00 1.00 69.5 141.4 215.8 292.9 372.7 455.6 541.5 630.8 723.5 820.0 920.4 1025.0 1134.0 1247.8 1366.7 1490.9 1620.9 1757.1 1900.0 2050.0 2207.7 2373.7
1.15 6.50 2.00 0.50 70.7 143.9 219.6 298.2 379.6 464.2 551.9 643.1 738.0 836.7 939.6 1046.8 1158.7 1275.6 1397.7 1525.6 1659.5 1800.0 1947.5 2102.6 2265.8
1.20 9.00 3.00 1.00 0.33 71.9 146.4 223.6 303.7 386.8 473.1 562.7 656.0 753.1 854.2 959.6 1069.6 1184.4 1304.5 1430.2 1561.9 1700.0 1845.0 1997.4 2157.9
1.25 11.50 4.00 1.50 0.67 0.25 73.2 149.1 227.8 309.4 394.2 482.4 574.0 669.4 768.8 872.3 980.4 1093.3 1211.4 1334.9 1464.3 1600.0 1742.5 1892.3 2050.0
1.30 14.00 5.00 2.00 1.00 0.50 0.20 74.5 151.9 232.1 315.4 402.0 492.0 585.7 683.3 785.1 891.3 1002.2 1118.2 1239.5 1366.7 1500.0 1640.0 1787.2 1942.1
IADC Drilling Manual
1.35 16.50 6.00 2.50 1.33 0.75 0.40 0.17 75.9 154.7 236.5 321.6 410.0 502.0 597.9 697.9 802.2 911.1 1025.0 1144.2 1269.0 1400.0 1537.5 1682.1 1834.2
1.40 19.00 7.00 3.00 1.67 1.00 0.60 0.33 0.14 77.4 157.7 241.2 328.0 418.4 512.5 610.6 713.0 820.0 931.8 1048.8 1171.4 1300.0 1435.0 1576.9 1726.3
1.45 21.50 8.00 3.50 2.00 1.25 0.80 0.50 0.29 0.13 78.8 160.8 246.0 334.7 427.1 523.4 623.9 728.9 838.6 953.5 1073.8 1200.0 1332.5 1471.8 1618.4
1.50 24.00 9.00 4.00 2.33 1.50 1.00 0.67 0.43 0.25 0.11 80.4 164.0 251.0 341.7 436.2 534.8 637.8 745.5 858.1 976.2 1100.0 1230.0 1366.7 1510.5
1.55 26.50 10.00 4.50 2.67 1.75 1.20 0.83 0.57 0.38 0.22 0.10 82.0 167.3 256.3 348.9 445.7 546.7 652.3 762.8 878.6 1000.0 1127.5 1261.5 1402.6
1.60 29.00 11.00 5.00 3.00 2.00 1.40 1.00 0.71 0.50 0.33 0.20 0.09 83.7 170.8 261.7 356.5 455.6 559.1 667.4 781.0 900.0 1025.0 1156.4 1294.7
1.65 31.50 12.00 5.50 3.33 2.25 1.60 1.17 0.86 0.63 0.44 0.30 0.18 0.08 85.4 174.5 267.4 364.4 465.9 572.1 683.3 800.0 922.5 1051.3 1186.8
1.70 34.00 13.00 6.00 3.67 2.50 1.80 1.33 1.00 0.75 0.56 0.40 0.27 0.17 0.08 87.2 178.3 273.3 372.7 476.7 585.7 700.0 820.0 946.2 1078.9
Copyright © 2015
1.75 36.50 14.00 6.50 4.00 2.75 2.00 1.50 1.14 0.88 0.67 0.50 0.36 0.25 0.15 0.07 89.1 182.2 279.5 381.4 488.1 600.0 717.5 841.0 971.1
1.80 39.00 15.00 7.00 4.33 3.00 2.20 1.67 1.29 1.00 0.78 0.60 0.45 0.33 0.23 0.14 0.07 91.1 186.4 286.0 390.5 500.0 615.0 735.9 863.2
1.85 41.50 16.00 7.50 4.67 3.25 2.40 1.83 1.43 1.13 0.89 0.70 0.55 0.42 0.31 0.21 0.13 0.06 93.2 190.7 292.9 400.0 512.5 630.8 755.3
1.90 44.00 17.00 8.00 5.00 3.50 2.60 2.00 1.57 1.25 1.00 0.80 0.64 0.50 0.38 0.29 0.20 0.13 0.06 95.3 195.2 300.0 410.0 525.6 647.4
1.95 46.50 18.00 8.50 5.33 3.75 2.80 2.17 1.71 1.38 1.11 0.90 0.73 0.58 0.46 0.36 0.27 0.19 0.12 0.06 97.6 200.0 307.5 420.5 539.5
2.00 49.00 19.00 9.00 5.67 4.00 3.00 2.33 1.86 1.50 1.22 1.00 0.82 0.67 0.54 0.43 0.33 0.25 0.18 0.11 0.05 100.0 205.0 315.4 431.6
2.05 51.50 20.00 9.50 6.00 4.25 3.20 2.50 2.00 1.63 1.33 1.10 0.91 0.75 0.62 0.50 0.40 0.31 0.24 0.17 0.11 0.05 102.5 210.3 323.7
2.10 54.00 21.00 10.00 6.33 4.50 3.40 2.67 2.14 1.75 1.44 1.20 1.00 0.83 0.69 0.57 0.47 0.38 0.29 0.22 0.16 0.10 0.05 105.1 215.8
2.15 56.50 22.00 10.50 6.67 4.75 3.60 2.83 2.29 1.88 1.56 1.30 1.09 0.92 0.77 0.64 0.53 0.44 0.35 0.28 0.21 0.15 0.10 0.05 107.9
2.20 59.00 23.00 11.00 7.00 5.00 3.80 3.00 2.43 2.00 1.67 1.40 1.18 1.00 0.85 0.71 0.60 0.50 0.41 0.33 0.26 0.20 0.14 0.09 0.04
Table FL-12: For SI (metric) units,Table FL-12 shows the quantity of barite in kg/m3 needed to increase the mud weight (upper
right) and the volume of water in cu m water per cu m mud needed to decrease the mud weight (lower left).
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-39
Temperature
Government regulations er land-based sources and the offshore industry by the Paris
Regulations on the use and disposal of drilling fluids exist in Convention of 1974. These two conventions were unified
many forms. These regulations generally focus on the health (hence OSPAR), up-datedand extended by the 1992 OSPAR
and safety of workers and the protection of the environment. Convention. The new annex on biodiversity and ecosystems
Potential hazards of drilling fluid materials are identified in was adopted in 1998 to cover non-polluting human activities
MSDSs1, along with recommended practices for managing that can adversely affect the sea.
the HSE risks and regulations pertinent to the country (and
hemisphere) of origin of the material. Recent developments The OSPAR Convention requires application of best avail-
have led to formation of the GHS which has modified the able techniques (BAT) and best environmental practice
MSDS requirements. 2 Among the changes, the word “Ma- (BEP) to prevent and eliminate marine pollution. OSPAR has
terial” has been dropped from the new standard forms and pioneered this concept internationally and adopted a large
they are now simply labeled “SDS” instead of “MSDS.” number of BAT and BEP recommendations for various in-
dustrial technologies and sources of land-based pollution.
Drilling fluids may contain potentially hazardous materials Indeed, the majority of governments involved in offshore
that are regulated either at the source, during storage or exploration and production or E & P (including Africa, the
transport, during use and/or during disposal. These include Middle East and the Far East), but some onshore as well,
the base fluid itself, which can range from fresh water to pro- subscribe to the precepts of the OSPAR Convention. BAT is
duced brines to various types of NAFs. In addition, various defined by OSPAR as “the latest stage of development (state
additives can pose HSE risks. The types of materials that are of the art) of processes, of facilities or of methods of oper-
of particular concern include cationic polymers, surfactants, ation which indicate the practical suitability of a particular
biocides, trace heavy metals, alkalinity control agents, flam- measure for limiting discharges, emissions and waste.” BEP
mable materials, oxidizers and other potentially corrosive is defined as “the application of the most appropriate com-
or reactive compounds as well as any material containing a bination of environmental control measures and strategies”.
relevant concentration of a listed hazardous chemical. Even
generally innocuous materials like starches, which are nor-
mally used as filtration control agents, may pose a potential Table FL-15 : Hazard ranking of
explosion hazard as dusts. Various materials can also be an materials under charm model12
environmental risk for low forms of life and are controlled
Key to HQ Bands
or banned in some applications. It is imperative that drilling
fluid suppliers, service companies and operators all have a Min Value Max Value Category
thorough understanding of the HSE limitations of each and
every material used to formulate drilling fluids. >0 <1 Gold
However, materials thought to be acutely and/or chronically At the beginning of 1996, OSPAR released the offshore
toxic, such as products containing heavy metals, have also chemical notification scheme (OCNS) which manages
received scrutiny. 5-11 chemical use and discharge by offshore petroleum indus-
tries in the UK and the Netherlands. The OCNS uses the
Various international organizations have attempted to pro- OSPAR harmonized mandatory control scheme (HMCS) de-
vide some guidance on the use and disposal of materials veloped through the OSPAR Decision 2000/2. This scheme
used in drilling oil and gas wells. OSPAR is the mechanism ranks chemical products according to the hazard quotient
by which fifteen European governments came together to (HQ) which is calculated using the chemical hazard and risk
define protocols for the protection of the marine environ- management (CHARM) model. The lower the HQ, the more
ment of the North-East Atlantic. It started in 1972 with the hazardous the material. The ranking is shown in Table FL-15.
Oslo Convention against dumping. It was broadened to cov-
(%) Oil & Grease (%) NPDESc NPDES NPDES NPDES NPDES
Roadspreading 6-9 <4 NA NA NA
d
Landspreading Wetland 6-9 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
d
Landspreading Upland 6-8 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
Solids Landspreading Wetland 6-9 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
Landspreading Upland 6-8 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
Burial or Landfill 6-9 <4 NA NA <1
a These requirements do not apply for deep wells or c Follow NPDES permit requirements.
annular injection.
d Wetland is area inundated or saturated by surface/
b Concentration limits for heavy metals are also specified. ground water continually enough to support life
For example, for mercury the limit is 17 mg/kg of soil, adapted to those conditions; Upland is area not
while for chromium the limit is 1,500 mg/kg of soil, as identified as Wetland.
measured by API method 3050.
Ecotoxicological information, partitioning between oil and At the federal level, the Environmental Protection Agency
water, bioaccumulation potential, biodegradability, aquatic (EPA) develops and enforces regulations with the help of
toxicity, composition and usage are taken into account in the other agencies. On federal and American Indian lands, the
ranking. 10 Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is responsible. Off-
shore regulations are enforced by the Bureau of Ocean En-
ergy Management (BOEM) and the Bureau of Safety and
Environmental regulations Environmental Enforcement (BSEE). These agencies were
In addition to health and safety restrictions, environmental formed on October 1, 2011 from the Bureau of Ocean Ener-
standards and guidelines abound and often are combined gy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement (BOEMRE)
with health and safety standards and guidelines as per the which was previously known as the Minerals Management
OSPAR conventions discussed in the previous section. Pro- Service or MMS.
visions are also found in lease documents that impact how
waste drilling fluids or drilled cuttings can be handled. These The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), as
include the acceptability of storing waste fluid or cutting in amended in 1980, describes the requirements for classify-
sumps, burying the waste, injecting the waste to the subsur- ing and managing solid waste. This became the mandate of
face, land-farming the waste or discharging it to the ocean? the EPA in 1988.14 Drilling fluid discharges are covered in the
In most cases, before waste fluid and/or cuttings can be Clean Water Act (CWA) and Emergency Planning and Com-
discharged on site, analyses have to be carried out which munity Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), along with the terms
demonstrate that certain contaminants in the waste mate- of the Superfund Clean-Up Act (CERCLA) and the Super-
rial do not exceed some maximum value. Limitations may fund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), which
be placed on groups of compounds such as organic materi- exempts classification of oil and gas discharges as hazard-
als; specific compounds such as benzene; elements such as ous substances.15 Although not considered hazardous, such
mercury; and salts through the measurements of electrical discharges are still subject to some controls as shown in
conductivity. Superseding these provisions are regulations Table FL-1614. Discharges of various materials above certain
issued by each nation, including the USA (and even every threshold limits must be reported.15
state within the USA) that restricts waste disposal methods
for drilling fluids and cuttings. The API has issued several Point source liquid/solid discharges onshore or to navigable
environmental guidance documents that address these is- waters of the USA (including at sea out to 200 miles from
sues 11, 12, 13 A summary of current regulations on waste dis- shore) are regulated by the CWA’s National Pollutant Dis-
posal methods for fluids and solids from drilling operations charge Elimination System (NPDES) program. The design of
is provided by the drilling waste management information reserve and waste pits, as well as the amounts of liquid and
system. solid waste that may be discharged into them, fall under the
jurisdiction of NPDES.14 Individual states provide their own Additional requirements are set forth in CFR 40 for NAFs:
regulations as well. In Texas, the Railroad Commission of the • No NAFs may be discharged;
Texas Oil and Gas Division establishes the rules governing • Cuttings coated with up to 6.9% NAF may be
discharges of waste liquids and cuttings. In Louisiana, it is discharged if the NAF is a member of a special class of
the Department of Natural Resources Office of Conserva- hydrocarbons. Cuttings coated with ester base fluids
tion. Consequently, oil and gas companies must check with may have up to 9.4% SBM on cuttings. The method for
regulators in the state they wish to operate for specific state calculating the residual oil on cuttings is spelled out in
discharge regulations. Although federal regulations general- the regulations;
ly trump state regulations, if the state regulations are strict- • Mass Ratio of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon
er, the state regulations must be followed. (PAH) to base fluid must be ≤ 1 x 10-5;
• Biodegradation rate of NAFs shall be no slower than
A vast array of methods has been developed to reduce the that of a reference olefin NAF;
burden of disposing of waste fluids and solids.14 These in- • Base fluids are tested using the marine
clude alternative methods of drilling; recycling or substitut- anaerobic closed bottle test;
ing less persistent, less harmful and even beneficial mate- • Base fluid sediment toxicity shall be no more toxic than
rials for existing drilling fluid components; and removing that of a reference olefin NAF;
the offending products. Many imaginative techniques have • Base fluids are tested via a ten-day acute
been developed to remove waste products including filtra- solid-phase test using the amphipod
tion, distillation and destruction (via combustion, radiolysis, leptocherirus plumulous;
etc.). Even fairly exotic techniques such as vermiculture (di- • Discharged cuttings are tested the same way
gestion by worms) and bioreactors (digestion by microbes) via a four-day acute solid-phase test;
have been developed and used commercially to clean cut- • No discharge of formation oil is allowed;
tings drilled with NADFs. Waste management regulations • Discharged cuttings are tested for crude oil
usually target these “oily” cuttings, aiming not only to re- contamination by fluorescence method.
duce the NAF on the drilled cuttings, but also the type of
NAF that is allowable. This is particularly true for offshore In the North Sea, discharges of NADFs are prohibited,
drilling where nations have been concerned about the for- though non-diesel NADFs may be used in highly-controlled
mation of persistent piles of anaerobic cuttings on the sea- closed loop operations. Indeed, the OSPAR conventions for
bed and the toxicity of NAF to sea life. discharge of waste fluid and solids in offshore operations
are more restrictive than USA offshore regulations. In other
Offshore use of drilling fluids in the USA beyond a three-mile parts of the world, environmental impact analyses (EIA) are
limit are controlled exclusively via federal regulations which usually required by contract with the host government or by
differ from region to region. Regulations for the Gulf of Mex- regulation/law. The EIA form will often dictate acceptable
ico, for example, include a static sheen test and two toxicity methods of disposal of waste fluid and/or cuttings based
tests: chronic marine toxicity tests (with mysid shrimp) and on the geology, groundwater and other considerations.
sediment toxicity tests with marine and estuarine amphi- Regulations in each country are usually based on guidelines
pods (leptocheirus or chorophium). In California and else- established by international bodies and in many cases, the
where along the Pacific coast, restrictions are different. In OSPAR protocols are used for both offshore and onshore
Alaska (where drilling is permissible even within the three- operations. This is generally the case whether in Africa or
mile limit), the regulations are different again. Everyone, the Far East. In South America and Canada, the regulations
however, must comply with the standards set forth by EPA, are more like those in the USA, but usually with additional
as in CFR 40 of the Federal Register, which describes the restrictions. In Canada, for example, all drilling fluid prod-
types of non-aqueous base fluids that may be used to drill ucts must pass a microtox™ test which measures the effect
offshore wells: of the additive on the metabolism of a luminescent microbe.
This type of test is much more sensitive than tests on larger
• No discharge of free oil (using a static sheen test); forms of life. In South America, it is common to find severe
• There must be a 96-hour LC50 > 30,000 ppm as per restrictions on the electrical conductivity (salt content) of
EPA’s mysid shrimp toxicity text; fluid or cuttings that can be buried, land-spread (land-treat-
• Limits of contaminants in barite used to densify the ed) or land-farmed.
drilling fluid are ≤1 mg/kg mercury and ≤3 mg/kg
cadmium;
• No discharge of drilling wastes is allowed within three
miles of shore (except for Alaska).
Transportation regulations are divided into nine classes with each having a unique
Transport of materials is regulated by agencies such as: graphic symbol and wording. Individual countries may not
use the same precise language or symbols but the GHS is
• The United States Department of Transportation an internationally agreed upon system that brings consis-
(USDOT) which issues most regulations in the Title tency across standards in different countries. This system
49-Transportation Code of Federal Regulations (49 complements the OSPAR HMCS system mentioned earlier.
CFR);
The regulations for marine transport and ship-borne pol-
• The Hazardous Materials Regulations (HMR) which lution may differ.In 1973, IMO adopted the Internation-
governs transportation of hazardous materials in all al Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by Ships and
modes of transportation whether air, highway, rail or subsequently modified it by protocol in 1978. The Conven-
water. tion is known as MARPOL 73/78and its objective is to limit
ship-borne pollution by restricting operational pollution and
Globally, the United Nations Economic and Social Council reducing the possibility of accidental pollution. Acceptance
issues the UN “Recommendations on the Transport of Dan- of the convention by national governments obliges them to
gerous Goods” and IMO issues the “International Maritime make the requirements part of domestic law. Included in this
Dangerous Goods Code” for transport of dangerous goods convention are guidelines for the design of ships (including
by sea. Another agency, the Intergovernmental Organiza- mobile offshore drilling units or MODUs) and the safe han-
tion for International Carriage by Rail, has developed “Regu- dling and transport of chemicals from and to those ships.
lations for the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by IMO established various codes for chemicals that are re-
Rail” (RID). In the UN recommendations, dangerous goods quired to be used.
CITED REFERENCES
1. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29 (CFR 29),1910 9. http://www.cefas.co.uk/ocns/index.htm.
5. Kirkeleit, J., Riise, T., Bråtveit, M., and Moen, B.E. “In- 13. Guidance Document for the Development of a Safety
creased Risk of Acute Myelogenous Leukemia and Multi- and Environmental Management System for Onshore Oil
ple Myeloma in a Historical Cohort of Upstream Petroleum and Natural Gas Production Operations and Associated Ac-
Workers Exposed to Crude Oil.” Cancer Causes & Control tivities, API Bulletin 75L, 1st Ed, Nov. 2007.
19.1 (2008): pp 13-23.
14. http://web.ead.anl.gov/dwm/techdesc/burial/index.
6. Murray, C., Clark, G., Epps, L., Lin. Terry. “Sampling for Oil cfm.
Mist and Hydrocarbons on Drilling Rigs in Northeast British
Columbia.” WorkSafeBC (2009). 15. Federal Register, Environmental Protection Agency 40
CFR Parts 9 and 435, “Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
7. Steinsvag, K., Bratveit, M., Moen, B.E. “Exposure to Oil New Source Performance Standards for the Oil and Gas Ex-
Mist and Oil Vapour During Offshore Drilling in Norway, traction Point Source Category,” Jan 22, 2001.
1979-2004.” Ann. Occup. Hyg. (2006): pp 109-122.
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
“Principles Of Drilling Fluid Control”, The University Of Texas health professionals in the oil and gas industry), OGP (In-
Petroleum Extension Service ternational Association of Oil & Gas Producers) and IPIECA
(International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conserva-
World Oil, June Edition (yearly) “Guide to Drilling, Completion tion Association), http://www.ogp.org.uk/pubs/396.pdf
and Workover Fluids”
Caenn, Gray, Darley and Rogers, Composition and Proper-
API RP 13A “Specification for Drilling Fluid Materials” ties of Drilling and Completion Fluids, Gulf Publishing, 2011, .
API RP 13B “Recommended Practice for Field Testing of Water Lummus, J. J.and Azar, J. J., Drilling Fluids Optimization – A
Based Drilling Fluids” Practical Field Approach, Penwell, 1986.
API RP 13B-2 - “Recommended Practice for Field Testing of Oil Messenger, J.U., Lost Circulation, Penwell, 1981.
Based Drilling Fluids”
Planning for Drilling in Hydrogen Sulfide Zones: An Outline
API RP 13C – “Recommended Practice for Drilling Fluid Pro- of Safety and Health Procedures. Petroleum Extension Ser-
cessing Systems Evaluation” vice, The University of Texas at Austin.
API RP 13D - “Rheology and Hydraulics for Oil Well Fluids” A Primer of Oil Well Drilling: A Basic Text of Oil and Gas
Drilling. Baker, Ron, Petroleum Extension Service, The Uni-
API RP 13I8 – “Recommended Practice for Laboratory Testing versity of Texas at Austin.
of Drilling Fluids”
OSHA, eTools Home :Oil and Gas Well Drilling and Servicing
API RP 13J – “Testing of Heavy Brines” eTool, Drilling >> Drilling Ahead >> Drilling Fluid, https://
www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/oilandgas/drilling/drillingflu-
API RP 13K – “Recommended Practice for Chemical Analysis id.html
of Barite”
Online “Drilling Waste Management Information System”
API RP 13L – “Recommended Practice for Training and Qualifi- Argonne National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy’s
cation of Drilling Fluid Technologists” (DOE’s) Natural Gas & Oil Technology Partnership program,
National Energy Technology Laboratory, http://web.ead.
API 13M – “Recommended Practice for Measurement of Vis- anl.gov/dwm/index.cfm
cous Properties of Completion Fluids”
Lyons, W.C., Guo, B.and Seidel, F. 2001. Air and Gas Drilling
OGP Report No. 342, May 2003, “Environmental aspects of Manual. New York: McGraw-Hill.
the use and disposal of non aqueous drilling fluids associ-
ated with offshore oil & gas operations OGP, International Canadian Assn. of Petroleum Producers, TECHNICAL RE-
Association of Oil & Gas Producers, http://www.ogp.org. PORT, “Offshore Drilling Waste Management Review”, Feb-
uk/pubs/342.pdf ruary 2001, 2001-0007 (Country-Specific Requirements for
Discharge of Drilling Muds and Cuttings) Calgary.
OGP Report No. 396, “Drilling fluids and health risk man-
agement “, (A guide for drilling personnel, managers and
www.iadclexicon.org
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-1
IMPORTANT: The GHS hazard numbering format is OP- Some SDSs and labels use precautionary pictograms to in-
POSITE to NFPA 704 transportation labeling and HMIS III dicate the personal protective equipment which should be
labels. On NFPA 704 and HMIS III labels the categories used when handling a product or chemical (Figure FL-A3).
range from 0 to 4 with 4 being a severe hazard and 0 indi-
cating a minimal hazard. It is recommended that:
1. The supplier provide Safety Data Sheets for every
SDSs are comprehensive for all applications of a chemical chemical or product being used.
product. For safe handling and usage, it is recommended
to concentrate on the information that is applicable to the 2. That the location of SDSs be clearly communicated and
particular application of the product, especially the hazard easily accessible for all workers at all times.
information in Section 2 (Figure FL-A1) and exposure con-
trols and personal protective measures covered in Section 3. All workers handling or transporting a chemical prod-
8 (Figure FL-A2). uct should be trained on the information contained on
SDSs and product labels. This training should include
the location of the safe handling information, instruc-
tions on the other information contained on a SDS, and
how to properly make use of that information.
Signal word: Danger and Warning are the only two signal
words used. They are used to indicate the level of hazard
and are used on both the product label and the SDS. As an
example, the signal word for “Self-heating substances and
mixtures” class, Category 1, is “Danger”. Within this same
class, “Warning” is used for the less serious Category 2. For
other less hazardous categories, no signal word is used.
GHS Safety Data Sheets have 16 standard sections: (e.g., skull & crossbones, flame, etc.)
Section 1. Identification of the chemical and its supplier • Precautionary statement(s)
Section 2. Hazard(s) Identification • Description of any hazards not otherwise classified
Section 3. Composition/Information on Ingredients
Section 4. First-Aid Measures The pictograms used for this section in the GHS are shown
Section 5. Fire-Fighting Measures in Figure FL-A4, they have red borders. Hazard pictograms
Section 6. Accidental Release Measures are graphic symbols used to communicate specific informa-
Section 7. Handling and Storage tion about the hazards of a chemical. These pictograms are
Section 8. Exposure Controls/Personal Protection also used on packaging or container labels and lab sample
Section 9. Physical and Chemical Properties or workplace. An easy to understand leaflet explaining the
Section 10. Stability and Reactivity pictograms can be found at: http://echa.europa.eu/docu-
Section 11. Health Effects / Toxicological Information ments/10162/2621167/eu-osha_chemical_hazard_picto-
Section 12. Ecological Information (non-mandatory) grams_leaflet_en.pdf
Section 13. Disposal Considerations (non-mandatory)
Section 14. Transport Information (non-mandatory) Transportation, outer packaging and shipping label picto-
Section 15. Regulatory Information (non-mandatory) grams or placards have black borders with similar icons, also
Section 16. Other Information, including date of SDS prepa- shown in Figure FL-A5.
ration or last revision
Section 3. Composition/Information on Ingredients
SDS Sections 1 through 8 contains general information about This section identifies the ingredient(s) contained in the
the chemical, identification, hazards, composition, safe han- product indicated on the SDS, including impurities and sta-
dling practices, and emergency control measures. bilizing additives. Includes information on substances, mix-
tures, and all chemicals except for special situations where a
SDS Sections 9 through 11 and 16 contain other technical and trade secret is claimed.
scientific information, such as physical and chemical prop-
erties, information about stability and reactivity, toxicology, Section 4. First-Aid Measures
exposure control, and other information for any required el- This section describes the initial care that should be given
ement. by untrained responders to an individual who has been ex-
posed to the chemical.
SDS Sections • Necessary first-aid instructions by relevant routes of
exposure (inhalation, skin and eye contact, and
Section 1. Identification ingestion).
This section identifies the chemical on the SDS as well as its • Description of the most important symptoms or effects,
recommended uses. It also provides the essential contact and any symptoms that are acute or delayed.
information of the supplier. • Recommendations for immediate medical care and
• Product identifier used on the label and any other special treatment.
common names or synonyms by which the substance is
known. Section 5. Fire-Fighting Measures
• Name, address, phone number of the manufacturer, This section provides recommendations for fighting a fire
importer, or other responsible party, and emergency caused by the chemical.
phone number. • Recommendations of suitable extinguishing equipment,
• Recommended use of the chemical (brief description of and information about extinguishing equipment that is
what it actually does) and any restrictions on its use. not appropriate for a particular situation.
• Advice on specific hazards that develop from the
Section 2. Hazard(s) Identification
chemical during the fire, such as any hazardous
This section identifies the hazards of the chemical present-
combustion products created when the chemical burns.
ed on the SDS and the appropriate warning information as-
• Recommendations on special protective equipment or
sociated with those hazards (Figure FL-A1).
precautions for firefighters.
• The hazard classification of the chemical (e.g.,
flammable liquid, category). Section 6. Accidental Release Measures
• Signal word This section has recommendations on appropriate response
• Hazard statement(s) to spills, leaks, or releases, including containment and clean-
• Pictograms (these hazard symbols may be in black and up practices to prevent or minimize exposure to people,
white or be a description of the name of the symbol properties, or the environment. Its recommendations may
distinguish between responses for large and small spills • Upper/lower flammability or explosive limits
where the spill volume has a significant impact on the haz- • Odor
ard. • pH
• Use of personal precautions (such as removal of ignition • Relative density
sources or providing sufficient ventilation) and • Melting point/freezing point
protective equipment to prevent the contamination of • Solubility
skin, eyes, and clothing. • Initial boiling point and boiling range
• Emergency procedures, including instructions for • Flash point
evacuations, consulting experts when needed, and • Evaporation rate
appropriate protective clothing. • Flammability (solid, gas)
• Methods and materials used for containment (e.g., • Vapor pressure
covering the drains and capping procedures). • Vapor density
• Cleanup procedures (e.g., appropriate techniques for • Partition coefficient: n-octanol/water
neutralization, decontamination, cleaning or • Auto-ignition temperature
vacuuming; absorbent materials; and/or equipment • Decomposition temperature
required for containment/cleanup). • Viscosity
Section 7. Handling and Storage The SDS may not contain every item on the above list be-
This section provides guidance on the safe handling practic- cause information may not be relevant or is not available.
es and conditions for safe storage of chemicals. Manufacturers may also add other relevant properties.
• Precautions for safe handling, including
recommendations for handling incompatible chemicals, Section 10. Stability and Reactivity
minimizing the release of the chemical into the This section describes the reactivity hazards of the chem-
environment, and providing advice on general hygiene ical and the chemical stability information. This section is
practices (e.g., eating, drinking, and smoking in work broken into three parts: Reactivity, Chemical Stability, and
areas is prohibited). Other.:
• Recommendations on the conditions for safe storage, • Reactivity
including any incompatibilities. Provide advice on • Description of the specific test data for the
specific storage requirements (e.g., ventilation chemical(s).
requirements). • Chemical Stability
• Indication of whether the chemical is stable or
Section 8. Exposure Controls/Personal Protection unstable under normal ambient temperature and
This section indicates the exposure limits, engineering con- conditions while in storage and being handled.
trols, and personal protective measures that can be used to • Description of any stabilizers that may be needed
minimize worker exposure (Figure FL-A2). to maintain chemical stability.
• OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), American • Indication of any safety issues that may arise
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists should the product change in physical
(ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), and any other appearance.
exposure limit used or recommended by the chemical • Other
manufacturer, importer, or employer preparing the • Indication of the possibility of hazardous
safety data sheet, where available. reactions, including a statement whether the
• Appropriate engineering controls (e.g., use local chemical will react or polymerize, which could
exhaust ventilation, or use only in an enclosed system). release excess pressure or heat, or create other
• Recommendations for personal protective measures to hazardous conditions. Also, a description of the
prevent illness or injury from exposure to chemicals, conditions under which hazardous reactions may
such as personal protective equipment (PPE. occur.
• Any special requirements for PPE, protective clothing or • List of all conditions that should be avoided that
respirators (e.g. type of glove material, such as PVC or may lead to hazardous conditions.
nitrile rubber gloves). • List of all classes of incompatible materials with
which the chemical could react to produce a
Section 9. Physical and Chemical Properties hazardous situation.
This section identifies physical and chemical properties as- • List of any known or anticipated hazardous
sociated with the substance or mixture. decomposition products that could be produced
• Appearance (physical state, color, etc.)
SAMPLE LABEL
ARD
TM
Identifier
}
Company Name_______________________
Street Address________________________
}
City_______________________ State_____ Supplier
Postal Code______________Country_____ Identification
Emergency Phone Number_____________
Labels Signal Word
ng of Keep container tightly closed. Store in a cool, Danger
well-ventilated place that is locked.
nication Keep away from heat/sparks/open flame. No smoking.
Only use non-sparking tools.
}
will be Use explosion-proof electrical equipment.
Take precautionary measures against static discharge. Highly flammable liquid and vapor. Hazard
azard and Ground and bond container and receiving equipment. May cause liver and kidney damage. Statements
Do not breathe vapors.
er, and Wear protective gloves.
abel, Do not eat, drink or smoke when using this product. Precautionary
Wash hands thoroughly after handling. Statements
wn on the Dispose of in accordance with local, regional, national,
international regulations as specified. Supplemental Information
rovided
In Case of Fire: use dry chemical (BC) or Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Directions for Use
fire extinguisher to extinguish. __________________________________
because of use, storage, or heating This section provides guidance on proper disposal practices,
recycling or reclamation of the chemical(s) or its container,
Section 11. Health Effects / Toxicological Information
and safe handling practices.
This section identifies toxicological and health
effects information or indicates that such data are Section 14. Transport Information
not available. This section provides guidance on classification information
• Information on the likely routes of exposure (inhalation, for shipping and transporting of hazardous chemical(s) by
ingestion, skin and eye contact). road, air, rail, or sea.
• Description of the delayed, immediate, or chronic
effects from short-term and long-term exposure. Section 15. Regulatory Information
• The numerical measures of toxicity This section identifies the safety, health, and environmental
• Description of the symptoms. This description includes regulations specific for the product that is not indicated any-
the symptoms associated with exposure to the chemical where else on the SDS.
including symptoms from the lowest to the most severe
exposure. Section 16. Other Information
• Indication of whether the chemical is listed as a known This section indicates when the SDS was prepared or when
or potential carcinogen. the last known revision was made. The SDS may also state
where the changes have been made to the previous version.
Section 12. Ecological Information You may wish to contact the supplier for an explanation of
This section provides information to evaluate the environ- the changes. Other useful information also may be included
mental impact of the chemical(s) if it were released to the here.
environment.
GHS product labels for packaging, shipping
Section 13. Disposal Considerations
1. W indicating that material reacts violently or explosive- tion, but they might not provide specific chemical names or
ly with water quantities.
2. OX indicating that material is an oxidizer and may be
unstable, possibly explosive or able to cause a violent Not only is the NFPA numbering system opposite of the
chemical reaction, even without oxygen or air GHS, but the criteria used for the various NFPA categories
3. COR indicating that material is corrosive, a strong acid is different than that used for GHS Safety Data Sheets and
or base labels. The NFPA rating system can be found in NFPA Fire
4. ACID indicating that material is acidic Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials or NFPA 704 Stan-
5. ALK indicating that material is alkaline dard System for Identification of the Hazards of Materials
6. POI indicating that material is poisonous for Emergency Response. Tables 5.2, 6.2, 7.2 and Chapter
7. SA indicating that material is a simple asphyxiant gas 8 of NFPA 704.
8. RAD (or ) indicating that material is a radioactive haz-
ard
9. BIO ( or ) indicating a biological hazard HMIS III Labels
10. CYL or CRYO indicating that material is cryogenic, Another common labeling system used for packaging and
meaning they are liquid gases at ultra-low and danger- products is the American Coatings Association (ACA)
ous temperatures, below about -150°C (- 238°F). Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS®) labels
(currently referred to as the HMIS III system). The informa-
NFPA 704 diamonds used outside hazardous materials stor- tion on HMIS labels does not replace or substitute for other
age areas indicate the most hazardous material in that loca- regulatory labeling requirements for chemical manufactur-
ers, importers, or distributors, but instead, supplements it
4 = SEVERE HAZARD
FLAMMABILITY
3 = SERIOUS HAZARD
PHYSICAL HAZARD
2 = MODERATE HAZARD
0 = MINIMAL HAZARD
4 = SEVERE HAZARD Life-threatening, major or permanent damage may result from single or repeated overexposures
3 = SERIOUS HAZARD Major injury likely unless prompt action is taken and medical treatment is given
*CHRONIC HAZARD or additional information Chronic (long-term) health effects may result from repeated overexposure
Flammable gases, or very volatile flammable liquids with flash points below 73°F, and boiling points
4 = SEVERE HAZARD
below 100°F. Materials may ignite spontaneously with air. (Class IA)
Materials capable of ignition under almost all normal temperature conditions. Includes flammable
3 = SERIOUS HAZARD liquids with flash points below 73°F and boiling points above 100°F as well as liquids with flash points
between 73°F and 100°F. (Classes IB & IC)
Materials which must be moderately heated or exposed to high ambient temperatures before ignition
2 = MODERATE HAZARD will occur. Includes liquids having a flash point at or above 100 F but below 200 F.
(Classes II & IIIA)
Materials that must be preheated before ignition will occur. Includes liquids, solids and semi solids
1 = SLIGHT HAZARD
having a flash point above 200 F. (Class IIIB)
Materials that are readily capable of explosive water reaction, detonation or explosive decomposition,
4 = SEVERE HAZARD
polymerization, or self-reaction at normal temperature and pressure.
Materials that may form explosive mixtures with water and are capable of detonation or explosive
3 = SERIOUS HAZARD reaction in the presence of a strong initiating source. Materials may polymerize, decompose, self-react,
or undergo other chemical change at normal temperature and pressure with moderate risk of explosion
Materials that are unstable and may undergo violent chemical changes at normal temperature and
2 = MODERATE HAZARD pressure with low risk for explosion. Materials may react violently with water or form peroxides upon
exposure to air.
Materials that are normally stable but can become unstable (self-react) at high temperatures and
1 = SLIGHT HAZARD pressures. Materials may react non-violently with water or undergo hazardous polymerization in the
absence of inhibitors.
MaMaterials that are normally stable, even under fire conditions, and will NOT react with water,
0 = MINIMAL HAZARD
polymerize, decompose, condense, or self-react. Non-Explosives.
in a uniform and user-friendly way. This system is also often and Physical Hazards is communicated by numerical rat-
used for the labeling of products and chemicals used in lab- ings. These ratings range from 0 to 4, with 4 being a severe
oratory and field testing. hazard and 0 indicating a minimal hazard which is the same
as the NFPA system but opposite of the GHS system.
The HMIS label conveys product identity by proper chemi-
cal or common names, code numbers, or other descriptive On HMIS III labels, required PPE for using a product is spec-
terms that clearly identify the material to employees. The ified by a letter, with items identified either as groupings of
presence of chronic health hazards is communicated by an complementary equipment or as individual pieces of PPE
asterisk (*) linked to descriptive information on the Safety (Figure FL-A10). Icons may also be used.
Data Sheet. The severity of any acute Health, Flammability,
A Safety Glasses
J Splash Goggles & Gloves & Apron & Dust and Vapor Respirator
K Air Line Hood or Mask & Gloves & Full Suit & Boots