1 Intro Turbulent Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T.
Groth 2019
c
1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows
Coverage of this section:

I Definition of Turbulence
I Features of Turbulent Flows
I Numerical Modelling Challenges
I History of Turbulence Modelling
AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

c
1.1 Definition of Turbulence
Oxford Dictionary: disturbance, commotion, varying irregularly
Webster’s Dictionary: agitation, commotion, erratic velocity
Taylor and Von Kármán (1937): “Turbulence is an irregular motion

which in general makes its appearance in fluids, gaseous or liquid,
when they flow past solid surfaces or even when neighbouring
streams of the same fluid flow past or over one another.”
There are problems with the Taylor-Von Kármán definition:

I not sufficient to say that turbulence is associated with
irregular motion; and
I there are non-turbulent flows that can be described as
irregular.
2
c
Hinze (1959): “Turbulent fluid motion is an irregular condition of

flow in which the various quantities show a random variation with
time and space coordinates, so that statistically distinct average
values can be discerned.”
From Hinze’s definition it should be noted that:

I instantaneous flow is sensitive to initial conditions but the
statistical averages are not; and
I it is not sufficient to define turbulent motion as irregular in
time alone.
Bradshaw (1974): “Turbulence has a wide range of scales”.
CPTG (2003): “Inherently three-dimensional and time dependent.”

c
4
c
1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows
1.2.1 Important to a Wide Range of Fields
Virtually all flows of practical interest are turbulent:

I flow past vehicles such as automobiles, airplanes, ships, &
rockets;
I flows associated with power generation & propulsion (i.e., gas
turbine engines); and
I geophysical and atmospheric flow applications such as river
currents and motion of clouds.
In all of these applications, the flows of interest are predominantly
turbulent.

c

1.2.2 Dependence on Reynolds Number
In contrast to turbulent flow, laminar flow structure appears

layered with well defined streamline structure (fluid laminae).
Turbulence disrupts the layered structure.
The boundary between laminar and turbulent flow regimes is

effectively defined by the flow Reynolds number, Re, which is the
ratio of inertial forces to viscous surface forces and given by
ρu` u`
Re = =
µ ν
where ρ is the fluid density, u is the flow velocity, µ is the dynamic
viscosity, ν = µ/ρ is the kinematic viscosity, and ` is the
characteristic length scale of interest. Flows tend to become
turbulent as Re becomes large.
6
c

Turbulent Pipe Flow (Recrit ≈ 2, 300)

c

Turbulent Pipe Flow (Recrit ≈ 2, 300)
8
c

Turbulent Flow Past a Flat Plate (Rexcrit ≈ 320, 000,
Reδcrit ≈ 2, 800)

c

Turbulent Flow Past a Flat Plate (Rexcrit ≈ 320, 000,
Reδcrit ≈ 2, 800)
10
c

1.2.3 Turbulent Vs. Laminar Flows
The behaviour of laminar and turbulent flows are very distinct.

The important effects of turbulent motion include:
I Enhanced Diffusivity: turbulent diffusion greatly enhances the
transfer (transport) of mass, momentum, and energy.
Apparent fluid stresses are several orders of magnitude larger
than in the corresponding laminar flow.
I Increased Skin Drag: turbulent boundary layer velocity profiles
are generally thicker and more “full” and this increases the
viscous drag as surfaces.
I Less Susceptible to Flow Separation: turbulent boundary
layers are less likely to separate and can support stronger
adverse pressure gradients while laminar boundary layers
generally cannot support even mild adverse pressure gradients.
11

c
1.2.3 Turbulent Vs. Laminar Flows
12
c

Turbulent Boundary Layer Profiles
13

c

1.2.4 Instability and Nonlinearity
I Transition from laminar to turbulent flow is due to nonlinear
instabilities of the Navier-Stokes equations.
I Instabilities result mainly from the interaction between the
nonlinear inertial and viscous terms.
I Inviscid instabilities (i.e., Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities) also
play a role.
I Linear stability analysis of boundary layer equations
(Orr-Summerfield equations) predicts growth modes and
instability of laminar flows but cannot accurately predict the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
I Understanding and predicting transition prediction is beyond
the scope and not the focus of this course. We will generally
assume that the flow is fully turbulent.
14
c

Transition to Turbulence for a Flat Plate
15

c

1.2.5 Turbulent Eddies
Turbulence consist of a continuous spectrum of scales ranging from

the largest to the smallest scales. It can be thought to consist of
turbulent eddies of varying sizes, where u is the eddy velocity scale,
` is the eddy length scale, and a eddy time scale, τ , can be defined
as τ = `/u. The eddies overlap in space with larger ones carrying
smaller ones.
16
c
Energy Cascade
Due to instabilities, the large eddies eventually break up, producing

successively smaller eddies. The kinetic energy of the larger eddies
is divided among the smaller eddies. This process is repeated down
to the small scales. This leads to an energy cascade in which
energy is passed down from the large scales to smaller scales where
eventually the kinetic energy is dissipated as heat.
17

c
Richardson, 1922
This notion that a turbulent flow is composed of a ”cascade of

eddies” of different sizes is an idea that was orginally introduced by
Lewis Richardson in 1922. He composed the following rhyming
verse that captures this viewpoint:
Big whorls have little whorls,

Which feed on their velocity;
And little whorls have lesser whorls,
And so on to viscosity.
18
c
Large-Scale Eddies
In general, the large-scale eddies contain most of the turbulent

kinetic energy (kinetic energy associated with turbulent motion)
and are mainly responsible for the enhanced diffusivity and
increased apparent stresses.
The large scales, as represented by the integral length scale, are

also generally not statistically isotropic (i.e., having no preferential
spatial direction), since they are determined by the particular
geometrical features of the flow and its boundaries.
19

c
Large-Scale Eddies
For free-shear flows, the size of the largest eddies, `, is of order
` ∝ δ (thickness of shear layer)
and, for wall-bounded flows, the largest scales are of order
` ∝ y (distance from the wall)
20
c

Small-Scale Eddies
The smallest scale eddies are at the Kolmogorov scales, η. This is

the smallest scale at which the turbulence can exist. The energy in
the turbulent motion (i.e., the turbulent kinetic energy) is
dissipated as heat by molecular viscosity at the Kolmogorov scales.
Most of the vorticity of a turbulent flow resides in the smallest
eddies.
Turbulence therefore consists of a continuous range of scales from

the largest energy-carrying scales, `, to the smallest Kolmogorov
scales, η, with a large separation of these scales, i.e.,
`
1
η
21

c

1.2.6 Taylor Micro Scales
The Taylor micro scale, `T , is an intermediate scale between the

largest and the smallest turbulence scales. It typically lies within
the so-called inertial subrange, as defined by Kolmogorov’s second
similarity hypothesis, but well above the Kolmogorov scale. The
Taylor micro-scale can be approximated by
(1/3)
`T `
≈7
η η
It is argued that this is the intermediate length scale at which fluid

viscosity begins to have significant affects on the dynamics of
turbulent eddies in the flow. Turbulent length scales which are
larger than the Taylor microscale are not strongly affected by
viscosity.
22
c
1.2.7 Kolmogorov Scales

Estimates of the Kolmogorov scale can be found by applying
Kolmogorov’s universal equilibrium theory (1941). This theory is
actually based on three hypotheses: (i) Kolmogorov’s hypothesis of
local isotropy; (ii) Kolmogorov’s first-similarity hypothesis defining
the smallest scalest of turbulence; and (iii) Kolmogorov’s
second-similarity hypothesis defining the inertial subrange and is
backed up by both dimensional arguments and experimental
observations.
23

c
1.2.7 Kolmogorov Scales
By equating the rate of energy transfer from the large scales to the
rate of dissipation of turbulent energy to heat by molecular
viscosity, ν, at the small scales, i.e.,
dk
= −
dt
where k is the turbulent kinetic energy and is the dissipation
rate. Using dimensional analysis, it then follows that
1/4
ν3

η≡ (Kolmogorov length scale)

ν 1/2
1/4
τ≡ υ ≡ (ν) (Kolmogorov time & velocity scales)

24
c
1.2.8 Continuum Phenomenon

“Even the smallest scales occurring in a turbulent flow are
ordinarily far larger than any molecular length scale” (Tennekes &
Lumley, 1983).
Consider the Knudsen number, Kn = λ/η, for the small scales
where λ is the mean free path for the gas (average distance
travelled by gaseous particles
p between collisions). Assuming that
ν ≈ (1/2)c̄λ and using c̄ = 8kT /πm then
2ν
Kn ≈ ≤ 0.01
ηc̄
This implies that the continuum approximation (i.e., the

Navier-Stokes equations) are fully valid down to the Kolmogorov
scales.
25

c
1.2.9 Homogeneous & Isotropic Turbulence
Energy Cascade: As noted, turbulence features a cascade process

whereby, as the turbulence decays, kinetic energy is transferred
from larger to smaller eddies until it is dissipated at the smallest
scales.
Dissipative Process: Furthermore, turbulence is dissipative in

nature and without a continuous source of external energy for the
generation of turbulence, the motion will decay.
The energy cascade and dissipation of energy has a strong

tendency to make the turbulence more homogeneous and isotropic.
26
c
Homogeneous Turbulence: turbulent flow that has statistically the

same structure in all parts of the flow field.
Isotropic Turbulence: turbulent flow whose statistical features have

no preference for a spatial coordinate direction.
27

c

Kolmogorov, 1941
Kolmogorov postulated that, for very high Reynolds numbers, the

the small scale turbulent motions become statistically isotropic
(i.e. having no preferential spatial direction). This is the basis for
Kolmogorov’s hypothesis of local isotropy. Through the energy
cascade, the geometrical and directional information of the
generally anisotropic larger scales is lost as the scale is reduced, so
that the statistics of the small scales become more isotropic and,
when the Reynolds number is sufficiently high, they eventually
achieve a universal character, the same for all turbulent flows. The
behaviour of these universal small scales is then uniquely
determined by the viscosity, ν, and the rate of energy dissipation,
. These ideas are the basis for Kolmogorov’s first similarity
hypothesis.
28
c
1.3 Numerical Modelling Challenges

1.3.1 Difficulty of Calculating Turbulent Flows
Questions: The continuum assumption applies and the

Navier-Stokes equations provide a complete description of
turbulence, so why not just solve the equations directly from first
principles (i.e., using a Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
technique) and be done with it? Why bother with turbulence
models?
Answers: Performing DNS of turbulence is a very difficult

challenge for the following reasons:
I turbulent flow is inherently 3D and time dependent; and
I all physically relevant scales down to the Kolmogorov scale
must be resolved.
29

c
1.3.1 Difficulty of Calculating Turbulent Flows
Example: Consider turbulent flow over a slender airfoil-like body

with u = 50 m/s and a body length of L = 9 m. In order to resolve
all of the necessary scales, it is estimated that a computational
mesh of size
N = 20, 000 × 1, 200 × 4, 800 = 115 × 109 = 115 billion nodes
would be required. Even for this relatively low velocity and simple
geometry, the problem is currently impossible to solve using DNS.
DNS is reserved for model flow problems of academic interest for
understanding fundamentals of turbulent flows. Generally limited
to flows with simple geometries, periodic boundaries, etc...
DNS cannot currently nor will it in the near future be used to
predict practical engineering flows!
30
c
1.3 Numerical Modelling Challenges
1.3.2 Turbulence Models
Turbulence Models: Provide approximate descriptions of turbulence

and “should introduce the minimum amount of complexity while
capturing the essence of the relevant physics” (Wilcox, 2002).
Turbulence modelling is one of the key elements of computational

fluid dynamics (CFD). It enables the solution of practical
engineering flows.
31

c
1.4 History of Turbulence Modelling
History of turbulence modelling dates back more than 100 years:

I 1877 – Boussinesq – eddy viscosity concept
I 1895 – Reynolds – Reynolds averaging
I 1904 – Prandtl – boundary layer
I 1925 – Prandtl – mixing length model
I 1930 – Von Kármán – early turbulence research
I 1942 – Kolmogorov – two-equation model
I 1945 – Prandtl – k-equation and one-equation model
I 1945 – Chow – second-order Reynolds-stress closure
I 1951 – Rott – second-order Reynolds-stress closure
I 1956 – Van Driest – algebraic model
32
c
I 1963 – Smagorinski – subgrid-scale LES model

I 1968 – Donaldson – second-order Reynolds-stress closure
I 1969 – Wolfstein – one-equation model
I 1970 – Daly & Harlow – second-order Reynolds-stress closure
I 1972 – Launder & Spalding – two-equation (k-) model
I 1974 – Cebeci & Smith – algebraic model
I 1975 – Launder, Reece, & Rodi – second-order
Reynolds-stress closure
I 1978 – Baldwin & Lomax – algebraic model
33

c
I 1988 – Wilcox – two-equation (k-ω) model

I 1990 – Baldwin & Barth – one-equation model
I 1991 – Germano, Piomelli, Moin, & Cabot – dynamic subgrid
scale model
I 1992 – Spalart & Allmaras – one-equation model
I 1994 – Menter – two-equation (SST) model
I 1990s & 2000s – LES, DES, & DNS
34

1 Intro Turbulent Flows

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 Intro Turbulent Flows

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T.

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

Coverage of this section:

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

1.1 Definition of Turbulence

Oxford Dictionary: disturbance, commotion, varying irregularly

Webster’s Dictionary: agitation, commotion, erratic velocity

Taylor and Von Kármán (1937): “Turbulence is an irregular motion

There are problems with the Taylor-Von Kármán definition:

1.1 Definition of Turbulence

Hinze (1959): “Turbulent fluid motion is an irregular condition of

From Hinze’s definition it should be noted that:

CPTG (2003): “Inherently three-dimensional and time dependent.”

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

1.1 Definition of Turbulence

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

1.2.1 Important to a Wide Range of Fields

Virtually all flows of practical interest are turbulent:

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

In contrast to turbulent flow, laminar flow structure appears

The boundary between laminar and turbulent flow regimes is

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

The behaviour of laminar and turbulent flows are very distinct.

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

1.2.3 Turbulent Vs. Laminar Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

Turbulence consist of a continuous spectrum of scales ranging from

1.2.5 Turbulent Eddies

Due to instabilities, the large eddies eventually break up, producing

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

1.2.5 Turbulent Eddies

This notion that a turbulent flow is composed of a ”cascade of

Big whorls have little whorls,

1.2.5 Turbulent Eddies

In general, the large-scale eddies contain most of the turbulent

The large scales, as represented by the integral length scale, are

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

1.2.5 Turbulent Eddies

For free-shear flows, the size of the largest eddies, `, is of order

` ∝ δ (thickness of shear layer)

and, for wall-bounded flows, the largest scales are of order

` ∝ y (distance from the wall)

1.2.5 Turbulent Eddies

The smallest scale eddies are at the Kolmogorov scales, η. This is

Turbulence therefore consists of a continuous range of scales from

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

The Taylor micro scale, `T , is an intermediate scale between the

It is argued that this is the intermediate length scale at which fluid

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

1.2.7 Kolmogorov Scales

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2019