Clay Minerals (1986) 21, 537-564

D I A G E N E S I S OF T H E S H A L L O W M A R I N E
F U L M A R F O R M A T I O N IN T H E C E N T R A L N O R T H
SEA

D. J. STEWART

Shell UK Exploration and Production Ltd., Little A delphi House, 10 John Adam St, London WC1

(Received 15 August 1985; revised 24 October 1985)

A B S T R A C T : The diagenetic history of the Upper Jurassic Fulmar Formation of the Central
North Sea is described with emphasis on the Fulmar Field. The Fulmar Formation was deposited
on a variably subsiding shallow-marine shelf under the influence of halokinetic and fault
movements. The sediments are extensively bio-destratified although large-scale cross-bedding is
locally preserved. The dominant mechanism of deposition is thought to have been storm-
generated currents. Soft-sediment deformation structures are common and are attributed to syn-
and post-depositional dewatering of the sandstones. The dewatering was associated with fractures
and shear zones which reflect tectonic instability resulting from periodic salt withdrawal and/or
graben fault movements. The dewatering may have been initiated by repacking of the sediments
during earth movements or by the gradual build-up and sudden release of overpressures due to
compaction and/or clay mineral dehydration during rapid burial at the end of the Cretaceous.
The formation is composed of arkosic sandstone of similar composition to Triassic sandstones
from which it was probably derived. The sandstones also contain limited amounts of marine
biogenic debris including sponge solenasters, bivalve shells, rare ammonites and belemnites.
Initial diagenesis began with an environment-related phase during which quartz and feldspar
overgrowths and chalcedony and calcite cements were precipitated. These cements appear to
form concretions adjacent to local concentrations of sponge debris and shell debris, respectively,
and were disturbed after their formation by fracturing and dewatering. This was followed by an
early burial stage of diagenesis which resulted in extensive dolomite cementation and minor clay
mineral authigenesis (illite and chlorite). The last phase of mineral growth was probably pyrite.
During early burial diagenesis, secondary porosity after feldspar and/or carbonate was
produced, although the exact timing is not clear. The lack of both stylolitic developments and
extensive illitization indicates that the late burial diagenesis stage was never reached, although
sufficient clay diagenesis occurred to destroy all traces of mixed-layer illite-smectite (present in
some shallower wells). The main control on reservoir behaviour is primary depositional fabric.
Diagenesis only overprints these controls. Locally-cemented fracture sets act as baffles to fluid
flow, but they are not extensive and the reservoir acts as one unit.

The U p p e r Jurassic F u l m a r F o r m a t i o n f o r m s the m a i n reservoir o f the substantial F u l m a r

Field in U K blocks 3 0 / 1 6 and 3 0 / l l b o f the C e n t r a l N o r t h Sea (Fig. 1). Sediments o f
similar age and e n v i r o n m e n t a l setting are also k n o w n f r o m elsewhere in the C e n t r a l N o r t h
Sea and t h e y c o m p r i s e the m a i n reservoir interval in the N o r w e g i a n U l a Field (Bailey et al.,
1981). T h e F u l m a r F o r m a t i o n s a n d s t o n e s were deposited in a s h a l l o w - m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t
and display distinctive e n v i r o n m e n t - r e l a t e d diagenetic features. This p a p e r describes and

Present address: Koninklijke/SheU Exploratie en Produktie Laboratorium, Postbus 60, 2280 AB, Rijswijk,
Netherlands.
9 1986 The Mineralogical Society
538 D. J. Stewart
FULMAR FIELD
MEGATECTONIC FRAMEWORK OF THE CENTRAL NORTH SEA

FIG. 1. Map showing the position of the Fulmar Field and main structural elements of the
Central North Sea.

discusses the post-depositional history of these shallow marine sandstones which

comprises: (1) syn- and post-depositional soft-sediment deformation; (2)environment-
related diagenesis, (3) early burial diagenesis.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Upper Jurassic in the Central North Sea is represented by the Humber Group (Fig. 2),
which was deposited during a transgressive phase possibly initiated by rising global sea
levels (Vail et al., 1977; Hallam, 1978). The Fulmar Formation, forming the lower part of
the group, onlaps a surface of Triassic and Zechstein sediments. Deposition of the Fulmar
Formation was followed by the deposition of a predominantly argillaceous succession
represented by the Kimmeridge Clay Formation, which is, in part, laterally equivalent to the
sandstones (Fig. 2). Mass-flow sands known locally as the Kimmeridge sand member are
present within the Kimmeridge Clay Formation. The thickness and distribution of these
formations is strongly controlled by syndepositional faulting and halokinetic movements
(Johnson & Stewart, 1985). This is illustrated by the Fulmar Field's position on a fault-
bounded terrace at the western margin to the South-West Central Graben, adjacent to
the Auk Horst (Figs 1, 2). The graben margin comprises a series of rotated step faults
which give a combined throw of 3000 ft. At the graben centre, thick Zechstein salt is
present, but at the margin it is only locally preserved. The Fulmar structure developed
under the influence of both halokinesis and graben tectonics (Johnson et al., 1986).
The oil-filling Jurassic reservoirs at the graben margin originated from the Kimmeridge
Clay Formation in the deep graben, and migrated up-dip.
 Diagenesis of the Upper Jurassic Fulmar Formation 539
FULMAR FIELD
UPPER J U R A S S I C S T R A T I G R A P H I C F R A M E W O R K CENTRAL GRABEN -

SYSTEM STAGE
LATE cIMMERiAN"UN(~0N,
CRET- RYAZANIAN / ~
ACEOUS BERRIASIAN ~ KIMMERIDGE
CLAY FM. - -
PORT -
~KIMM. SAND
LANDIAN VOL-GIAN ~ ~ . . : : ~ M B R .
U ""
-- O

< KIMMERIDGIAN ~ ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

.....
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

" "' iii

,,., :::::::::::::::::::::
=LI,I OXFORD,AN /~ ii~;~i~iii~i~i~i~i~i~i~iiiii~i~ /
,.
r z iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~ -~ k

CALLOVIAN I ~ 1
MID CALLOVIAN' UNCON.
IItlIIIILLI[IIII II[ll
FIG. 2. Lithostratigraphyof the Upper Jurassic in the Central North Sea.

QUARTZ

' ~ SUBLITHARENITE
J ~ / L I T H I C SUBARKOSE

MEMBER III
// \ \
FELDSPAR ROCK
FRAGMENTS

FIG. 3. Sandstone compositionand classification.

SEDIMENTOLOGY
The Fulmar Formation spans the chronostratigraphic interval Oxfordian to Late
Kimmeridgian, and in the Fulmar Field consists of fine to medium-grained arkosic
sandstones (Fig. 3) of moderate to good reservoir quality. Although the Humber Group
was deposited during an overall transgression, the Fulmar Formation itself consists of
540 D. J. Stewart

FULMAR FIELD
RESERVOIR NOMENCLATURE

RESERVOIR UNIT WEST FLANK EAST FLANK

MEMBERS NOMENCLATURE
KIMM. SHALE
1 RIBBLE i:~ililiii::iii::i::::i::!::!i!:::!~!~!i~i~i.............
::~:~
AVON

MERSE liiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
i,ilili
: iliiiii,liliiiiilililiil iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
iiiii,i,lii,i
i . . . .

iT[ a LYDELL
(n

lTr~ ~<z USK i

FIG. 4. Subdivision of the Fulmar Field used for reservoir management purposes and based on
sedimentological differences.

ISOPACH
THICKNESS
( f t ) O- ~..~:~.~...: GENERALISED F A C I E S I N T E R P R E T A T I O N
:.~,,~.:: "NEARSHORE"

~":;'~'a~
..... MODERATE WAVE ENERGY ENVIRONMENT
100-:::::::::~:~:~:; WITH STORM DEPOSITED GRANULE LAYERS.

~'q~""~ SANDS MEGARIPPLED AND BIOGENICALLY

~.~? :~. ~ REWORKED.

200 - ~.~;';';'.:~.~. 0
u)
:;:;:.;.;~C; ~ "PROXIMAL OFFSHORE"

!i;~ ~ BIOGENIC REWORKING > SEDIMENTATION RATE.

5
300-:~:;:;:;:::::i:i I LOCAL PARALLEL LAMINATED SANDS AND
Z GRADED BEDS-PROXIMAL STORMS LAYERS.

:.~::~', O
(J "DISTAL OFFSHORE" (OFFSHORE/SHELF)
400- i~:i~
........ -- BIOGENIC REWORKING > SEDIMENTATION RATE.

tJ ;~;..r:r:r.
..... ~ OCCASIONAL CROSS-LAMINATED DISTAL
.~.;:~::: STORM LAYERS.

L sooJ~
FIG. 5. Idealized coarsening-upwards sequence from the Fulmar Formation. Although based on
Member III of the Fulmar Field the three submember lithotypes can be regarded as facies
associations since they can be recognized elsewhere. (From Johnson & Stewart, 1985.)
 Diagenesis of the UpperJurassic Fulmar Formation 541

single or stacked coarsening-upwards sequences 50/600 ft thick, composed of three main

facies which either reflect minor 'regressive' periods of shore-line progradation or of local
elevations of the sea bed on a shallow-marine shelf. In general reservoir quality improves
upwards (Fig. 5).
Early environmental interpretations based on the Fulmar Field appraisal wells were
contradictory and varied between shallow and deep marine. These contradictions were the
result of uncertainties surrounding the massive, structureless nature of much of the
sandstone and the presence of widespread soft-sediment deformation features such as
water-escape structures, fiuidization pipes and autobrecciated beds. Furthermore, the great
thickness of 1000 ft (300 m) pointed to syndepositional tectonic activity. Subsequent
investigations of the sedimentology have shown that much of this apparent massiveness
results from bioturbation. For reservoir management purposes the Fulmar Field reservoirs
are divided into three members (Fig. 4). However, only Members II and III belong to the
Fulmar Formation; Member I consists of mass-flow sandstones within the Kimmeridge
Clay Formation, and is not discussed here.
A typical coarsening-upwards sequence (Fig. 5) can be illustrated by Member III of the
Fulmar Field. The lower part of the formation consists of very fine grained argillaceous,
locally glauconitic sandstones (Member IIIc), which have been strongly bioturbated,
predominantly by small organisms (chondrites-burrows) and display a distinctive
peUetoidal texture caused by faecal pellets. The interval displays rare cross-lamination but
otherwise few structures are present.
Member IIIc grades up into the fine-grained moderately to well sorted sandstone of
Member IIIb. In the Fulmar Field this unit is frequently massive to the naked eye.
However, X-radiography has established that the facies association is predominantly
bio-destratified (Fig. 6). The upper part of the coarsening-upwards sequence comprises well
sorted fine to medium grained sandstones that are massive, laminated and sporadically
cross-bedded (Fig. 7).
It is common for cm-scale graded units and vertical escape burrows to be present to a
greater or lesser extent throughout the coarsening-upwards sequence. The overall grain size
of the sandstones increases towards the Auk Horst indicating a westward increase in
depositional energies (Fig. 9).
Member II of the Fulmar Formation is composed of a similar, finer grained,
coarsening-upwards sequence, (Fig. 4) and has been subject to extensive early diagenetic
cementation (calcite and chalcedony) and widespread soft-sediment deformation. The
member is restricted to the north-east flank of the field (Fig. 8).
The interpretation of the overall depositional environment of the Fulmar Formation is
based on the presence of a shallow-marine trace fossil assemblage, and on neritic bivalves
and gastropods. Sporadic belemnites and ammonites have also been observed in the finer
grained sandstones. The predominance of burrowing suggest that overall rates of deposition
were moderately slow, although the widespread occurrence of graded units indicates periods
of rapid deposition. The principal depositional mechanism of the sediments was probably
periodic storm-generated currents rather than persistent fair-weather longshore or tidal
currents. As indications of emergence are absent from the top of each coarsening-upwards
sequence, and lagoonal/marsh or overbank sediments have not been identified in
association with these sediments, it is thought that the sediments represent deposition in a
totally submarine environment.
542 D. J. Stewart

~A

,.Q
0i t

< 2

--I
it
I,U =.
=-
I- 0
=~
it
0
c~
"r
<

O
0! - o~

0,.r
8

effl
Q
I
X

Z •
<
--I t~
<
z
0 ~. . . . 9149
, i9149149
~i ,.6
Z
 Diagenesis of the Upper Jurassic Fulmar Formation 543

A B C
FIG. 7. Core photographs illustrating key characteristics of the facies associations IIIa and Illb
in the Fulmar Formation. (B) and (C) are typical examples of clean and argillaceous sands in
IIIb. Textures in the latter result from the development of horizontal clay-lined burrows. The
coarsest grained of the three facies associations (Ilia) displays scattered evidence of cross-
bedding, generally fairly diffuse but in this case distinct (A).
544 D.J. Stewart

PERMEABtlTY PROFILE
TYPE LOG - EAST FLANK 1.9, FDC 2.7, m

::!.:!:,e ,w~ ~ ^

~1 "iiiiiiiiii""~'#i ~ - 10900

t~ ~ ~. :ii:!i:ii:i~ -~-, F D C ~
.:.:.:.:.:.

:::::::::::
:':+:+: "11200
=+:.:.:,:,-

(=1 1_ - 11400
U~

FIG. 8. Typical reservoir sequence on the north-east flank of the Fulmar Field (FDC =
Formation density; C N L = neutron porosity; TVSS = true vertical depth subsea).

AUK SOUTH WEST CENTRAL

PLATFORM CENTRAL GRABEN GRABEN TROUGH
STABLE SHALLOW VARIABLE SUBSIDING DEEPER MARINE BASIN
PLATFORM SHALLOW MARINE BASIN

PROGRADING SEQUENCES

............. TR AS ....... ~" ~ - ~

THIN (?) REWORKED AMPLIFIED, REGRESSIVE, SHALLOW I ? DISTAL SHALLOW MARINE

SAND SEQUENCES MARINE SAND SEQUENCES I AND DEEPER MARINE SEDIMENTS

HIGH ENERGY SANDS ~ COARSENING UPWARDS

SEQUENCE
LOW ENERGY BIOTURBATED SANDS ~ BIOTURBATION

LOW ENERGY BIOTURBATED ARGILLACEOUS SANDS -~- CROSS BEDDING

[ ~ SILTSTONE AND SHALE

FIG. 9. Schematiccross-sectionfrom the Auk platform to the deep Central Graben illustrating
the conceptualsedimentologicalframework. (From Johnson & Stewart, 1985.)

The Fulmar Formation in the Fulmar Field therefore represents the accumulation of
mainly shallow marine sands within a tectonically active basin that was influenced both by
graben tectonics and by salt withdrawal (Fig. 9). This basin was flanked to the west by a
relatively stable and non-subsiding shallow marine platform (Auk Horst) from which the
majority of the arkosic sandstones were derived by reworking of Permo-Triassic
 Diagenesis of the Upper Jurassic Fulmar Formation 545
continental sediments. The basin deepened eastwards into the Central Graben trough. The
coarsening-upwards sequences described above reflect the progradation of a slowly
deposited shallow-marine sand complex into this basin. Consequently, the sandstones
become more argillaceous towards the east (Member II and Clyde Field).
The thick sequences of the Fulmar Field reflect a delicate balance between progradation
and subsidence.

Soft-sediment deformation and dewatering

The Fulmar Formation in the Fulmar Field contains widespread soft-sediment
deformation structures that appear to have developed post-depositionally by in situ
dewatering of the sediment. Of particular significance, the dewatering appears partially to
post-date the development of silica and calcite cements in Member II (Figs 10, 11, 12, 13).
The deformation structures can be divided into two main assemblages: (i) associated with
well sorted, homogeneous sandstones (in Member III), (ii) associated with poorly sorted,
argillaceous sandstones and early authigenic cementation (in Member II).
Soft-sediment deformation in well sorted, homogeneous sandstones. This association
consists of isolated hairline fractures (Fig. 12) or conjugate fracture sets of high-angle shear
zones 2-30 mm wide. The hairline fractures are lined with dark grey clay or infil|ed with
cement (dolomite, Fig. 13). The more complex shear zones often display diffuse areas of
mottling and sediment injection between parallel fracture sets. These zones are generally
enriched with clay, and in oil-bearing sections do not show oil saturation (they do not
fluoresce under UV light). The alignment of mineral grains, especially mica, parallel to the
latter fractures suggests that the conjugate fractures were formed soon after deposition. In
addition there is little evidence of rock crushing or grain welding in the fractures as might
be expected if the rocks were brittle during fracturing. The clay enrichment probably
reflects the concentration of resedimented fines during vertical water escape. Most of the
steeply inclined fractures have ram-scale offsets suggesting that they are fluidization dykes
(Lowe, 1975).
In the most strongly deformed area, nearest to the Auk Horst, to the south-west of the
Fulmar Field, preferential cementation has caused substantial reductions in poroperm
values within the shear zones. However, fracturing gradually becomes less intense
eastwards.
Similar dewatering structures have been described from other shallow-marine sands that
accumulated in tectonicaliy active regions (e.g. Fox-Hills Sandstones of Western USA.
(Weimer & Tillman, 1980)).
Soft-sediment deformation in poorly sorted argillaceous sandstones with early
authigenic cementation. This assemblage of deformation structures develops as a direct
result of competence contrasts between unconsolidated argillaceous sands and very early
silica and calcite concretions (Figs 10, 1 I).
Most of the structures in this assemblage are again related to dewatering. They include
compaction textures, compacted and/or sheared clay-lined burrows, clay line fractures and
crenulated clay laminae, fluidization dykes, brecciated silica beds, crenulated silica infilled
fractures and brecciated and partially rotated calcite concretions (Figs 10-13). All of these
features are interpreted as reflecting rapid in situ compaction and dewatering.
The rotated and brecciated calcite beds display all ages of in situ disruption. The
brecciated zones are associated with fracture sets that sever the cement bands.
546 D. J. Stewart

kl.i

9 9

i :~!i~~ ~ ! ~ --ii~i3~ ~ ~ ~I~:!!;~311~E!~@~

~
~ v 9 1 4 9 84184 ~| ~
 Diagenesis of the Upper Jurassic Fulmar Formation 547

A B C
FIG. 11. Strongly autobrecciated and rotated silica beds: (A) illustrates brecciated silica bed
with later brecciated silica vein infill; (B) rotated silica bed; (C) highly disturbed and brecciated
vein infill.

The textures within the fracture zone commonly display evidence of fluidized sediment
injection and, furthermore, turbulent fabrics indicative of slumping occur around the
rotated and broken bands of cement (Fig. 10). Displacement of the bedding is generally
minimal (mm-scale), making the restoration of the brecciated zones and bands to their
original form relatively easy. Again it is thought that the fractures acted as dykes for the
intrusion of fluidized sediment. The crenulated fractures are commonly straight where they
pass through concretions.

Origin of the soft-sediment dewatering structures

The soft-sediment deformation structures are probably the result of tectonic instability in
the area, rather than being due to the depositional environment. Soft-sediment deformation
in the marine environment can be caused by dewatering after rapid deposition or
wave-induced liquefaction. However, the widespread fracturing and the disturbance of
early calcite and chalcedonic cements suggest later post-depositional deformation.
 548 D.J. Stewart

it:

::3

5
;i

A B C
FIO. 12. Compactionfeatures and hairline (clay-lined)fractures. (A) Hairline fractures lined
with clay; note the later cross-cutting set of fractures. (B and C) Narrow silica-cemented
fractures showingcrenulation,probably a resultof compaction.

Interpretation of the fracture sets and shear zones described above in terms of tectonic
failure, with the sediment infills regarded simply as 'gouge' sediment, has several
drawbacks (cf. Weber & Mandl, 1978; Smith, 1980): (i) little displacement is observed
across the 'shear zones'; (ii) slickensides have not been observed; (iii) sigmoidal
deformation patterns are mainly absent from the shear zone 'gouge' sediments (however,
see Fig. 13A); (iv) the 'gouge' sediments display textures consistent with soft-sediment
deformation and liquefied flows. It is particularly significant that little displacement of
bedding is observed, since adequate displacement would be necessary to smear clay along
the shear plane. The shear zones have, therefore, most probably been enriched in clay by
rapid in situ post-depositional dewatering of the Fulmar sands.
The contrasting assemblages of deformation structures outlined above have a common
origin. In both members deformation was initiated by rapid dewatering but in Member II
the style of deformation has been influenced by the varying competency of the constituent
beds, in particular, the contrast between brittle impermeable calcite and chalcedony bands
Diagenesis of the Upper Jurassic Fulmar Formation 549

.9

.9

.9

ra

~o

-x r~
550 D. J. Stewart
and unconsolidated argillaceous sands. In Member III, especially towards the south-west of
the field, fracturing with associated dolomite cement becomes more intense and
deformation features indicative of competence contrasts in the sediment are rare. Thus, in
this area, close to the Auk Horst, faulting probably dominated. The deformation probably
occurred at burial depths between a few metres to several hundred metres below the
depositional surface, since until the late Cretaceous the majority of the Fulmar Formation
lay at depths of 2000 ft or less and was mainly unconsolidated (Fig. 19).
There are two possible hypotheses for producing post-depositional deformation, viz: (i)
tectonic disturbances; (ii) rapid burial. Tectonic disturbances may have caused repacking
of the sediment resulting in liquefaction or fluidization. Both fault and halokinetic
movements were important during the development of the Fulmar structure and regional
evidence suggests that both processes operated throughout the Mesozoic in the Central
Graben. Consequently, fracturing may have occurred throughout deposition of the Fulmar
Formation and is likely to have continued into the early Tertiary (similar features are
observed in the Triassic and Kimmeridge Clay).
Alternatively, dewatering of the sediment may have occurred during the early Tertiary
owing to a phase of rapid burial. Undercompaction of the Fulmar Formation may have
resulted in the sands becoming overpressured. Furthermore, overpressuring could have
been enhanced as early as the late Cretaceous by smectite~illite clay mineral conversions
in the deeper part of the graben (see section on diagenesis). This reaction produces excess
pore-fluids by dehydration of the clays. These fluids can subsequently be moved to higher
levels by compaction (Bruce, 1984). Fracturing of permeability barriers during earth
movements may have provided channels along which fluidized sediment was driven by the
overpressured pore-fluids. It is also possible that overpressures locally reached a sufficient
level for autobrecciation to occur by hydraulic fracturing. Fracture-related breccias of
a similar style to those observed in the Fulmar Formation have been described from
Palaeozoic sediments by Murphy (1984), who ascribed their origin to hydraulic fracturing
by metamorphic fluids. Overpressured pore-fluids have also been invoked to account for
sand dykes injected into sediments with incipient cleavage (Winslow, 1983). The build-up
of overpressures may have been relieved (Bonham, 1980; Jones, 1980) at critical levels by
periods of'bleeding', causing dewatering and elutriation of fines along fracture zones.
The presence of crenulated fractures infilled with partially crushed early silica cement
also tends to support the overpressuring hypothesis since these fractures were clearly
formed and infilled with silica before significant compaction (deflation?) of the sediment
occurred. It has been estimated that 30-40% compaction has occurred to form the
crenulated fractures.

MINERALOGY
Over 450 samples from the Fulmar Formation have been studied by thin-section
petrography, XRD, SEM/EDAX and cathodoluminescence; 160 thin-sections were
point-counted from the Fulmar Field.
The Fulmar Formation is composed of arkosic sandstones (Fig. 10)containing between
17-43% feldspar, 41-75% quartz and 0--42% detrital clay minerals. In addition, mica
(mainly muscovite) is common in the finer-grained facies and locally rich concentrations of
 Diagenesis of the Upper Jurassic Fulmar Formation 551
sponge debris (26% bulk volume spicules and solenaste~s) are especially abundant in
Member II of the Fulmar Field. Accessory components include glauconite (particularly in
facies association IIIc), heavy minerals and rare shell debris.
The predominant feldspar is orthoclase, but small amounts of microcline, plagioclase
and perthite are also present. The heavy-mineral assemblage is dominated by apatite with
lesser amounts of zircon, tourmaline and garnet. At the time of deposition, shelly bivalve
material is likely to have been widespread but subsequent dissolution has left only moulds
and ghosted outlines as evidence of their former presence, as observed elsewhere by AUer
(1982) and F/Jrsich (1984). The rarity of shell debris is probably related to (i) high rates of
bioturbation and (ii) the ease of dissolution in a highly porous medium.
Detrital clay minerals are represented mainly by illite and subordinate chlorite and minor
mixed-layer minerals. Kaolinite is conspicuously absent in the Fulmar Field, although it is
present elsewhere in the Fulmar Formation. Chlorite is particularly abundant in Member
IIIc and illite becomes richer upwards. This has variously been assigned to a change in
provenance or to the erosion of the underlying Triassic rocks (inverted stratigraphy as the
Triassic becomes richer in chlorite upwards). However, the writer favours a diagenetic
origin for the chlorite, by the degradation of glauconite, which is common in the lower beds.
The framework mineralogy and heavy-mineral suite is very similar to that of the
underlying Triassic (the Triassic retains up to 10% more feldspar) suggesting that this is
the most likely source for the Upper Jurassic. The mineralogical immaturity of the
sandstones suggests local derivation with limited transport and reworking by tidal action in
the littoral zone (Brenner, 1978). It is likely that these sands were transgressively reworked
directly from the Triassic followed by rapid deposition nearby.

DIAGENESIS
The dominant authigenic cements in the Fulmar Formation are silica (quartz overgrowths
and chalcedony) and feldspar overgrowths, calcite, dolomite, minor authigenic clay
minerals (illite, chlorite) and pyrite (kaolinite occurs in some areas but not in the Fulmar
Field).
Quartz overgrowths. These range from small euhedral crystals to complete overgrowths
which sporadically interlock to form cemented patches (Fig. 15). Although widespread in
all facies associations they are volumetrically unimportant (mean = 0.75%; range 0-2%
bulk volume).
Feldspar overgrowths. These are widespread, especially in the cleaner sandstones. They
consist mainly of K-feldspar and minor albite (Fig. 14). The overgrowths are commonly of
rhombic form with hacksaw-like terminations. They are also volumetrically unimportant
(1.15%, 0.1-3% b.v.).
Silica cement (4.3%, 0-25% b.v.). Chalcedonic cement occurs in beds, veins and
irregular concretions and as brecciated fragments and irregular patches in fluidization pipes
and zones (Fig. 11). The chalcedony consists of fibrous rosettes constructed of small
diameter crystal aggregates 1 mm across. The cement has a high microporosity (measured
by well logs) but since the micropores are extremely small (few #m) this is ineffective. The
cement is found mainly in association with siliceous sponge remains or as vein infills. In the
more strongly cemented intervals the sponge debris has completely been replaced by the
cement and is only evident as pseudomorphs of sponge solenasters.
552 D . J . Stewart

.4
E
-s

~4
e-,

'O O

ca

.=_
-,s

es

1~16/_-I

~2
U~
 Diagenesis of the UpperJurassic Fulmar Formation 553

FIG. 15. Scanning electron micrographs of quartz and chalcedony cement. Q = detrital quartz;
QO = quartz overgrowth; Si = amorphous silica.
554 D. J. Stewart
In the Fulmar Field the chalcedonic silica horizons are mainly restricted to Member II,
possibly because the sponge organisms lived in areas of lower energy. Silica cementation
appears to predate compaction and dewatering-related deformation of the sediment, since
they are commonly brecciated in the vicinity of these zones. Elsewhere, the chalcedonic
cement demonstrably post-dates the precipitation of quartz overgrowths thus indicating
that locally there was an early phase of quartz cementation.
Calcite (6-2%, 0-62% b.v.). In the Fulmar Field calcite is mainly restricted to Member
II, although it is minor elsewhere (Fig. 16). It commonly forms concretions (16-20 cm
thick) composed of sparry poikilotopic iron-rich crystals that replace both the detrital
grains and the quartz and feldspar overgrowth cements which they enclose (Fig. 14). The
calcite appears to predate compaction and dewatering of the sands because the concretions
have been disturbed by fracturing and deformation (Fig. 16).
Authigenic dolomite (4.5%, 0-49% b.v.) is widespread throughout the formation. The
dominant crystal habit is isolated rhombs distributed evenly throughout the sandstone
matrix, but clustered rhombs and locally corrosive sparry poikilotopic dolomite also occur
(Fig. 14). The latter may form floating grain textures, and can be recognized easily on the
combined F D C / C N L petrophysical logs as high-density/low-porosity peaks. Cathodo-
luminescence studies indicate that the crystals are zoned and become increasingly
Fe-rich outwards (Fig. 14).
On a macroscopic scale the dolomite occurs in three forms: (i) scattered rhombs
disseminated in the finer-grained more argillaceous facies (i.e. IIIc); (ii) concentrated in the
more porous horizons as diffuse concretions 15-30 cm in diameter (commonly associated
with shell 'ghosts' or bioclastic debris); (iii) infilling fractures and shear zones.
Dolomite cementation is particularly strong in the south-west part of the Fulmar Field
where it appears to be associated with extensive fracturing and shearing.
Authigenic clays. Only minor quantities of authigenic clays are present. Most of these
probably represents recrystallized detrital clay, which locally forms fibrous iUite. In shallow
wells (7000-8000 ft) this detrital clay appears, in part, to be composed of mixed-layer
illite-smectite. Towards the base of the formation, in Member IIIc in particular,
concentrations of chlorite are present as Fe-rich clay pellets and particles. These may be
authigenic having originally been composed of glauconite and chamosite (glauconlte and
chamosite were probably also formed diagenetically around faecal pellets just below the
seabed).
Pyrite (1.3%, 0-7% b.v.). Pyrite occurs as framboidal aggregates and cubic crystals.
The former are associated with organic material, notably wood debris, or with chloritized
faecal pellets in the finer grained lithologies. Pyrite cubes commonly infill fractures.
Other minerals. Trace amounts of baryte and anhydrite have also been found, generally
as poikilotopic crystals.
Secondary porosity. Textures suggestive of secondary porosity are common throughout
the formation. They include enlarged pores, floating grains, honeycombed feldspars,
etched quartz and feldspar detritals and possibly etched carbonate crystals. Very early
leaching of calcite/aragonlte is locally evident by the occurrence of shell moulds and the
ghosted outlines of bivalve shells on cut core surfaces. Many of the bivalves were thick
shelled forms that are now preserved only as a pencil-line-thick parting. Early leaching of
sponge solenasters is also evident. The leaching of feldspar framework grains has created
up tq.10% (b.v.) intragranular secondary porosity although the average is approximately
 Diagenesis of the Upper Jurassic Fulmar Formation 555

B-
W
W

FIG. 16. Core photographs showing calcite cement features. The paler areas are calcite-cement
nodules (i.e. base of cores 1 and 4 and top of core 5).
556 D. J. Stewart

HABIT OF AUTHIGENIC MINERALS

AND THEIR EFFECT ON POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY

MINERAL STRUCTURE POROSITY PERMEABILIT1

Quartz over- thin, often incomplete 4 ~ ~
growth overgrowth, locally minor minor /
coalescing

Feldsparover-
growth
thiekorthorhombic
overgrowths
(~ ~ minor no

microcrystallinesilica
Silicacement crystals,dispersed, microporosity considerable
attachedto grainsor
in veins.

Calcitecement [ porefilling + replacive

cement in concretions considerable considerable

mainly isolateddolomite ] ~ ~
Dolomite cement rhombs; locallycoalesced considerable moderate
in aggregates

~hlorite pellets ~ ~
alteredglauconite no no
Clay mineral or chamosite)
paragenesis
early illitisationof ~ ~
feldspar,laterillite negligible negligible
asdruseon grains

Pyrite framboidal and cubic I~~.~A minor no

F]G. 17. Pictorial summary of habits of main diagenetic minerals and their effect on reservoir
characteristics.

4% (b.v.). In some cases the moulds of feldspar grains are encased in poikilotopic
carbonate cement thus suggesting that the leaching pre-dated the cement. No estimates of
intergranular secondary porosity were possible.
A summary of the diagenetic habits exhibited by cements in the Fulmar Formation is
given on Fig. 17.

DIAGENETIC HISTORY
The Fulmar Formation in the Fulmar Field is presently at its maximum burial depth of
between 10 000 and 11 000 ft. Texturally and mineralogically, however, it has not yet
reached a stage of advanced burial diagenesis (Nagtegaal, 1978) which is generally marked
by widespread illitic clay authigenesis and pressure solution (stylolite formation). The
 Diagenesis of the Upper Jurassic Fulmar Formation 5 57

BURIAL HISTORY
JURASSIC I CRETACEOUS I TERTIARY
feet 0 . UPP~fl I LOWER I UPPER I PLI EO lOLl MIO
~ A E R O B I C OXIDATION AND
~ _ SULPHATE REDUCTION

10OO

2000 FERMENTN]ON ZONE

ENVIRONMF-NT
RELATED
3000 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-1000 (INITIAL)

4000
11-lERMAL MATUR/~ION AND DECARBOX ZONE
500O
- Fe-bearing
ONSET OF I/S
6000 ORDERING

,oI
7 0 0 0 -2000
;itizatioh[~
~
EARLY BURIAL

[]
91~0. -

[]
_ OF I/S ORDERING
FtJLMAR FIELD
11 OOO~

T; 137" C
12000
l A T E BURIAL

13 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 230 C FINAL REPLACEMENT OF ALL SMECTITE

.,, rlitlttill I EEST 1 8 7 0 0 f t {5700)~]

F[G. 18. Diageneticsequenceillustratedby the sandstones of the Fulmar Field.

diagenetic history is considered to have occurred in two main phases: environment-related

diagenesis (initial burial); early burial diagenesis. Alkaline porewaters were probably
maintained throughout both phases, since authigenic kaolinite is virtually absent, although
the pH and ionic concentration of the pore-fluids may have fluctuated wildly. The possible
relationship of diagenesis to burial history is indicated in Fig. 18.

Environment-related diagenesis
Much of the diagenesis of the Fulmar Formation occurred during initial burial, under the
influence of marine porewaters of alkaline composition (pH 8-8.3). Furthermore, local
variations in the composition of the sands had a profound effect in producing local
micro-environments for diagenesis (e.g. where accumulations of shell or sponge debris were
present). Macroscopic relationships between cement nodules and dewatering features in the
sands demonstrate that both the chalcedonic and calcite cementation in Member II
occurred at very shallow burial depths since nodules and concretions have been disturbed
by soft-sediment deformation. Textural relationships also indicate that the majority of
quartz and feldspar overgrowths were formed during this period as evidenced by the
micro-stratigraphical relationships of these cements to calcite and chalcedony.
In the first few metres below the seabed (bacterial sulphate reduction zone), it is thought
that glauconite or chamosite (now preserved as chloritic pellets) formed in sediments
depleted in oxygen. These conditions would have been particularly prevalent around faecal
pellets in the finer-grained argillaceous sediments deposited below fair-weather wave base,
558 D.J. Stewart
and which dominate the lower part of the Fulmar Formation. The same reducing
pore-fluids would also have aided the formation of pyrite framboids by the bacterial
reduction of sulphate anions supplied by sea water.
2CH 2 + SO 2- = 2CO2 + S 2- + 2H20
The H E from this reaction will further react with iron and sulphur to form pyrite
(commonly associated with faecal pellets). At this stage, calcite and aragonite may have
been leached from shells owing to the temporary lowering of pH whilst HES and CO 2 were
generated by bacteria.
Chalcedony cements are thought to have developed adjacent to rich concentrations of
siliceous sponge debris following shallow burial and the decomposition of the amorphous
silica tests. The rich silica solutions so generated would have been oversaturated with
respect to silica, thus resulting in the precipitation of silica gel and final conversion to
chalcedony. In many cases, chalcedonic fracture infills were early, as subsequent
compaction resulted in crenulations (Fig. 12). However, since these fractures are straight
where they pass through calcite concretions they postdate the calcite.
Overgrowth cements started to develop soon after the first chalcedonic cements,
although it is apparent from stratigraphic relationships between the cements that
chalcedony and quartz cementation continued concurrently. The widespread development
of feldspar overgrowths required high K / N a ratios and concentrations of Si and A1. The
former could have been supplied by seawater or the breakdown of orthoclase or mica,
whilst the latter could be supplied by illite or orthoclase. The increase in silica saturation
necessary to precipitate quartz overgrowths may have been associated with the dissolution
of sponge debris, although this is thought unlikely on account of the restricted distribution
of the spicules and the ubiquitous distribution of quartz overgrowths.
An alternative hypothesis is the release of silica-rich fluids during the dewatering of
claystone horizons. (This is supported by the higher percentages of quartz overgrowth
cements in the thinly bedded mass flow sandstones encased in Kimmeridge Clay.) The
silica may have been supplied by clay mineral transformations or possibly silicate
dissolutions. Early silicate dissolution (e.g. K-feldspar) would result in the release of K and
OH. The resulting increase of pH would encourage quartz or feldspar authigenesis: which
came first would have depended on the concentration of silica at the time the critical pH
was reached. Silica is released during the transformation of randomly interstratified
smectites into ordered illite-smectite and illite. The considerable regional evidence
suggesting that this has occurred in the Central North Sea will be discussed in the next
section.
Locally, more alkaline conditions probably developed around horizons of leached shell
debris causing the precipitation of calcite bands. The calcite cementation can confidently be
dated as after quartz and feldspar overgrowths but before deformation (Fig. 18). However,
both calcite and chalcedony cementation continued after deformation, preferentially
forming in fractures and shear zones, which acted as vertical migration pathways for
mineral-saturated porewaters.

Early burial diagenesis

This phase of diagenesis is characterized mainly by widespread dolomite cementation in
porewaters that continued to be alkaline. The zonation of the dolomite crystals indicates
 Diagenesis of the Upper Jurassic Fulmar Formation 559
that the porewaters became increasingly reduced and iron-rich. The likely sources of Mg
for the dolomite could have been: (i) feldspar-forming brines, (ii) smectite-*illite conversion;
(iii) the underlying Permo/Triassic or (iv) decomposition or organic material. However, the
dehydration of smectite to illite is favoured because dolomite is preferentially developed in
the finer-grained more clay-rich stata. The conversion of smectites to illite in addition to
providing the Mg ions for the dolomite could also release Ca 2+, Fe 2+ and the silica for
quartz overgrowths (Boles & Franks, 1979; McHargue & Price, 1982). Smectites are
converted to ordered smectite-iUites as temperatures increase (with depth of burial),
releasing large volumes of free ions in solution. Boles & Franks (1979) have suggested that
Si4+ and Ca 2+ are released early and are available for quartz and calcite cementation
respectively, whilst Ca z+, Fe 2§ and Mg 2+ are released later and provide ions for dolomite
(or ankerite). The dolomite may be formed by replacement of early calcite or by direct
precipitation. The COl- ions necessary for direct precipitation could be produced from
CO z released from the thermal maturation of organic matter or from the dissolution of the
early carbonates. The main limiting factors controlling smectite --, illite conversions are the
availability of K + and the required temperature. It is possible that K + can be provided by
the decomposition of marine microplankton debris or from the alteration of feldspar or
mica.
Although no mixed-layer illite-smectite has been identified in the Fulmar reservoir, clay
mineral data from the Kimmeridge Clay Formation above the Fulmar reservoir
(10 300-10 750 ft) indicate up to 34% randomly interstratified illite-smectite. Work on the
Moray Firth/South Viking Graben (Pearson et al., 1983), and the Norwegian sector of the
North Sea (Dypvik, 1983) indicate that a depth-related conversion profile from randomly
interstratified to ordered interstratified illite-smectite can be identified. However, the great
depths of the Upper Jurassic in these areas have already resulted in an ordered clay-mineral
assemblage which is consistent with observations from the Fulmar Field. The comparison
of published data from the North Sea (Pearson et al., 1983; Dypvik, 1983) and from the
Gulf Coast (Boles & Franks, 1979) suggests that re-organization of illite-smectite is
completed at temperatures of ~120~ (a depth of 11 000 ft), and at VR/E (vitrinite
reflectance) of ~0.6. Much of the Fulmar reservoir lies below this depth with temperatures
of 130~ (at 11 000 ft) and a local VR/E of 0.76. Thus, any randomly interstratified
illite-smectite should have been converted to ordered illite-smectite, and the latter is likely to
have begun the conversion to illite. Examination of a typical burial curve from the Fulmar
Field indicates that conversion was initiated in the Eocene and completed by the Miocene
(Fig. 20).
When considering the post depositional history of the Fulmar reservoir it is important
to consider diagenetic reactions in off-structure claystone sequences, particularly the
source rock. Clay mineral conversions will occur earlier in deeper parts of the basin (Fig.
19), and furthermore thicker sequences of claystones capable of releasing ions are likely to
be present. A reconstruction of the burial history of the typical reservoir, the average
kitchen and the deep kitchen (region of hydrocarbon generation) for the Fulmar area
(Fig. 19) shows that source rocks above the reservoir are only just mature, whereas the
average and deep kitchen became mature in the Cretaceous. Thus free ions, H20 and silica
that can theoretically be generated by the smectite --, illite conversion could have migrated
up-structure into the Fulmar reservoir during the early burial history of the reservoir (i.e.
when it was buried at <2000 ft). These fluids may have been driven out of the deep graben
by compaction and may have caused the development of early overpressures (the reservoir
560 D. J. Stewart

BURIAL HISTORY
J URASSIC CRETACEOUS TERTIARY
uPP~,, .ow~. oP,.~. ,.cl ~o Io,-IM,ol~

IOOO-

2000-

3OOO-

4000-

5OOO-

6000-

-2
7000-

,NCRE,S,N~ ~% i
8000-
LAT,,CE \'~ \

9000-

~ ~000
I0 0 0 0 -

I1000 -

12000-

I I
-4000metres 2300C FINAL REPLACMENT OF (EST. 1 8 7 0 0 FT. ( 5 7 0 0 M ) ~
15000 feel
Ir ALL SMECTITE LAYERS ~IN FULMAR FIELD /

FIG. 19. Burial history of reservoir, average kitchen and deep kitchen rocks.
 Diagenesis of the Upper Jurassic Fulmar Formation 561
was 1100 p.s.i, overpressured on discovery) which could have aided dewatering and
deformation of the sediments (Bruce, 1984).
It seems likely that there were at least two phases of secondary porosity formation,
resulting from the early leaching of organic debris, and from the leaching of silicates and
possibly early carbonates during early diagenesis. At this stage it is conceivable that CO 2
and H2S from maturing organic-rich source rocks formed locally acidic solutions which
attacked the silicates and carbonates. However, in the Fulmar Field there is little evidence
for late-stage dolomite dissolution, suggesting that dolomite precipitation post-dates silicate
dissolution.
The latest diagenetic phase was probably the precipitation of pyrite cubes, which are
associated with heavy-oil residues. The pyrite may have formed in slightly acidic conditions
at the time of hydrocarbon migration.

Late diagenesis
The low degree of grain-to-grain pressure solution and stylolite formation, and the lack of
pervasive illite cements at depths > 11 000 ft suggests that the late diagenetic stage has not
yet been reached. The Fulmar Formation in the Fulmar Field is slightly overpressured and
has probably been so since initial burial. It is possible that the early development and
maintenance of overpressures have prevented severe compaction by supporting some of the
overburden load.

CONTROLS ON R E S E R V O I R QUALITY AND BEHAVIOUR

The main controls on reservoir quality and behaviour are primary depositional textures
inherited from the depositional environment (e.g. grain size, clay content and sorting).
Diagenetic modifications to the reservoir have generally only enhanced the variations
caused by these primary characteristics. The main effects of the cements on reservoir
quality are outlined on Fig. 17 and the distribution of features controlling reservoir quality
are shown on Fig. 20.
Although quartz and feldspar overgrowths are widespread throughout the field they have
negligible effect on reservoir quality or behaviour. The equally widespread dolomite cement
has a greater influence on reservoir quality in the west of the field, near the Auk Horst,
where it is associated with intense fracturing. These fracture zones form local baffles to the
lateral migration of fluids, but no field wide sealing faults have been encountered.
In Member II, chalcedony and calcite locally have serious effects on reservoir quality;
however, this only enhances the contrast in reservoir quality with the main part of the field
caused by greater proportions of detrital clay, finer grained sandstones and poorer sorting.

Depth-related porosity/permeability trends

Depth versus porosity and permeability plots of cored intervals in the Fulmar Field show
a gradual decrease in both. However, no association with the hydrocarbon-water contact
has been demonstrated.
562 D. J. Stewart

SW NE

~ l i- ~ J. i J. J. I J. .L i J- / J. i J. .L

-'- . . . . . . . . .
:o:.:,I.:o:.:.:o:o:o~176 ~ ~
~
. ....
--
v:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:......:
~ ~
: ....................
I
~ - - T
I -
~:~:~:~:~i~:.~:~i~:~:~:~:~i~:~i~i~:~.............................
:~:~:~
T - T T
i
I~ 1
T

:: !!!!!!-!$!:!!!!!!!!!!:::i:!:~!:!:! ::!:!:~::!::.::!:!:!::!:~!~ii!::i:!::!!!
~ ~ S ' . - . . , w : - - - --- v.~..:.:,:.:.:.:.:llla.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.: ..... :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:..-
-:-:.:.:.:-:-:-: . . . . ... ::: : ........ ; ........ ;; ......... "" 9 " ' ~ . : : : :..:...-.~:.'.::~l~'t',~'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'.'.'.'.'.'.'-'.:.:.:.:.:-:.:.:.: . . . . . . :

~ - ~ ! ! ! i ~ ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :~:~::::::: ::::::;::!::~::~:Z:i:~Z~:~:::~:~::::::i::::

:.-:-:..:.'...~.:~
~ ~ : ~ : , ' , ~-r " ' : " U"" ~' ' : " " , "-~"-. . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . :" ......................... ~':':':':':':':':" . ~
.
::::. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ::::::.:::::.::::::~
.."~ " ~ , ~ - ~' ' "~ '~ : ~: ~~-~ ~ - ~ ,-, ~,. . ~ , i _ : - ~ _ _
: -~ _ ~_--_ ~ - - _ - - _- - ~ - ~-.-. , . \ \ 9

VERY GOOD ~ 2 5 - 3 5 % POOR ~~15-25%

K ~ 1 1 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 0 mD (=RIBBLE) K ~ 1 - 50OmD (=CLYDE)

GOOD J ~ 20-30% NON-RESERVOIR'~ ~ 12-18%

K'~ 50O-40OOmD (= MERSEY /LYDEL I. ) K~<2mD (= FORTH)

MODERATE ~ 1 8 - 24%
K ~ I O 0 - lO00mD (= MERSEY /LYDELL/USK)

SW NE

- ~ x T • ' • 9 ' I i i i i

I I
~ . ~ - - ' ~ ~ ~ : . . ' : ~ : ! : ~ i : : : : : ~ ~ ~ * ~_~e 9
= ~ =~~:........-.:.:.:.:.::~ -:.~~i ,~n~.:.. :i~:.~.~:.~::.:..::.::-~:......-. .......... .-....................9................ .'...

=========================== ::r.c
TRIASSIC

~ CLEAN SANDS (< 1.5% CLAY,~O.S-2% QUARTZ lU " l SILICA (CHALCEDONY) CEMENT & ASSOCIATED
OVERGROWTH,~0.5-3% FELDSPAR OVERGROWTH) I 9 [ SPONGE REMAINS (Av.4.3%,RANGE 0-25%)

~ ABUNDANT DOLOMITE CEMENT

(Av.3.5-10%,RANGE~3-49%)
~
' ...~
MODERATE INTERSTITIAL CLAY ( : MEDIUM
~GRA|NED,MODERATELY SORTED SANDSTONES)

- - ~ C A L C I T E CONCRETIONS ~ ABUNDANT INTERSTITIAL CLAY

(Av.6.2%,RANIGE 0-62%) I I (--FINE GRAINED ARGILLACEOUS SANDSTONES)

FIG. 20. Stratigraphic distribution o f minerals in the F u l m a r Field.

 Diagenesis of the UpperJurassic Fulmar Formation 563

9 3A
9 38 PBRle,F . A B I U T Y
9 3C
10000~

1 ,_o, ,~-•

10 50OFT
~ ~ -

11 0 0 0
..... ' ............... . ..

11 5 0 0
~ . :- - ~ . ~ .

12 0 0 0
9

30 " ~ ~k "" "

O ~ ~ r n
10 500 FT 11 0 0 0 11 5 0 0 12 0 0 0

Fro. 21. Depth-related porosity-permeability trends.

CONCLUSIONS
The Fulmar Formation in the Fulmar Field is composed of shallow marine reservoir
sandstones, with reservoir characteristics strongly controlled by primary deposition
textures; diagenesis has enhanced existing variations caused by these primary features.
Diagenesis has been influenced by the original marine pore-fluids and the detrital
composition of the sandstones. The tectonic setting of the field has resulted in the
development of a variety of soft-sediment deformation structures that clearly show that
most of the cements (quartz and feldspar overgrowths, chalcedony and calcite) formed at
an early stage before significant burial. Dolomite is the main late-stage diagenetic mineral,
but the reservoir has never been subjected to severe clay authigenesis or pressure solution,
perhaps owing to the early development of overpressures. A knowledge of the burial
history of the deeper graben source rocks is necessary to understand the early development
of these overpressures.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank Shell UK Ltd., Esso Petroleum Co. Ltd., and the Fulmar Partners for
permission to publish this paper. I am indebted to colleagues for specialist advice and discussions. I would also
like to acknowledge the contributions of A. T. BuUer, H. D. Johnson, M. Goesten and F. C. Wonink to the
understanding of Fuhnar depositional and post-depositional history. The final manuscript was improved by the
comments of K. Glennie.
564 D.J. Stewart

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