CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

The nature and properties of beta rays have been well known since the early days of
the study of radioactivity. Henri Becquerel is credited with the discovery of beta particles. In
1900, he showed that beta particles were identical to electrons, which had been discovered by
Joseph John Thomson. Beta particles are high energy, high speed electrons or positrons
emitted by certain types of radioactive nuclei. Beta particles have an electrical charge of -1
and have a mass of 549 millions of one atomic mass unit. Beta particle emission occurs when
the ratio of neutrons to protons in the nucleus is too high. In this case, an excess neutron
transforms into a proton and an electron. The proton stays in the nucleus and the electron is
ejected energetically. The speed of electron emitted depends on how much energy they have
and varies over a wide range.
Beta particles interact with surrounding via different mechanisms. Positrons being
positively charged particles interact with electrons from surrounding matter through the
process called annihilation of radiation, producing gamma rays. However, positrons are not of
much interest since they do not last for very long in matter before they are annihilated. In case
of electrons i.e. beta particles, the interaction between the electric field of a beta particle and
the orbital electrons of the absorbing medium leads to inelastic collisions that generate
electronic excitation and ionization. The other important mechanism of reducing energy of
beta particles is "bremsstrahlung". Bremsstrahlung is the emission of continuous
electromagnetic energy which results when a high-speed electron on passing through material
undergoes a substantial nuclear scattering. This energy is in the range of X-rays (lower
electromagnetic energy than gamma rays) and becomes more energetic if the stopping
material is made of heavy materials such as materials of high Z. The energies of the beta-
particles from a radioactive source form a spectrum.
Intensity

EMean EMax

Figure 1.1
 It is clear from figure 1.1 that a range of energies is present and features such as the
mean energy, E mean , or the maximum energy, E max , are quoted.
If a beta-particle is produced inside a nucleus when a neutron is converted into a
proton, a single distinct energy should result. Therefore, two particles are actually produced in
beta-decay as we are getting energy spectrum. The second particle produced in beta-decay is
called a neutrino and was named by Enrico Fermi. It is quite a mysterious particle possessing
virtually no mass and carrying no charge. The difficulty with them is that they are very hard
to detect and this has greatly limited our knowledge about them so far. The beta-particle
energy spectrum can be explained by considering that the energy produced when a neutron is
converted to a proton is shared between the beta-particle and the anti-neutrino. Sometimes all
the energy is given to the beta-particle and it receives the maximum energy, E max . But more
often the energy is shared between them so that for example the beta-particle has the mean
energy, E mean and the neutrino has the remainder of the energy. Hence because of the
continuous energy distribution, absorption of beta particles in material is also continuous.
Of the three common types of radiation given off by radioactive materials, alpha, beta
and gamma, beta has the medium penetrating power. Although the beta particles given off by
different radioactive materials vary in energy, most beta particles can be stopped by a few
millimeters of aluminum. Being composed of charged particles, beta radiation is more
strongly ionizing than gamma radiation. Beta particles have ranges considerably greater than
those for alpha particles. In addition to a difference in range when compared with alpha
radiation, there is also a significant difference in the pattern of energy deposition. The density
of energy deposited is much less for beta irradiation than for alpha, and as a result, the target
cells may be damaged rather than killed outright.
Beta particles are not too penetrating, it can only travel up to millimeters of skin. If
the beta emitting material is on the surface of the skin, the resulting beta irradiation causes
damage to the basal stratum of the skin. The lesion is similar to a superficial thermal burn.
However, if the beta material is incorporated internally, the beta radiation can cause much
more significant damage. Being an ionizing radiation, it can damage cells. However, the
damage depends on what kind of radiation is received, how the dose is absorbed, how quickly
it is absorbed, and how strong the tissue is. The doses of radiation absorbed are related to the
energy. The existence of the energy in the tissues harms the DNA and reduces the ability of
the cell to reproduce. High doses of radiation can cause major health effects, such as burns,
cell damage, and even death. In addition to cell damage, if small areas of the body are
exposed to radiation, localized tissue damage will begin. Beyond certain thresholds, it can
produce acute effects such as skin redness, hair loss, radiation burns, or acute radiation
syndrome.

2
 Aluminium is used for shielding against beta radiation. In case high energy beta
particles are emitted shielding must be accomplished with low density materials, e.g. plastic,
wood, water, or acrylic glass. This is to reduce generation of Bremsstrahlung X-rays. When
gamma emission follows beta disintegration, protection against gamma rays is also required.
In this situation, we need to stop the beta particles first with light materials and then gamma
and bremsstrahlung radiation with heavy material (lead or other metal).
Beta particles can be used to treat health conditions such as eye and bone cancer and
are also used as tracers. Beta particles are also used in quality control to test the thickness of
an item, such as paper or aluminium foils. Some of the beta radiation is absorbed while
passing through the product. If the product is made too thick or thin, a correspondingly
different amount of radiation will be absorbed.
Attenuation is the loss in intensity of any kind of flux through a medium. It is an
exponential function of the path length through the medium and is generally given by the
Beer-Lambert law (Swinehart 1962). This law states that when a beta ray passes through
matter, the probability for absorption is proportional to the thickness and the attenuation
coefficient of the material. The total absorption shows an exponential decrease of intensity
with distance from the incident surface:
I( x ) = I0e - mx (1.1)
where I0 is the incident intensity of the beam, I is the intensity of the beam after
2
passing through the thickness x ( mg / cm ) of the material, μ is the attenuation coefficient
2
(measured in cm / mg ).
The attenuation that results due to the interaction between penetrating radiation and
matter is not a simple process. Several interaction events are usually involved and the total
attenuation is the sum of attenuation due to different types of interactions.
Attenuation coefficient describes the extent to which the intensity of an energy beam
is reduced as it passes through a specific material. A large attenuation coefficient means that
the beam is quickly "attenuated" (weakened) as it passes through the medium, and a small
attenuation coefficient means that the medium is relatively transparent to the beam.
These coefficients are studied mainly in terms of linear attenuation coefficient and
mass attenuation coefficient. The linear attenuation coefficient (α) describes the fraction of a
beam of beta rays that is absorbed or scattered per unit thickness of the absorber and is
determined from the Beer-Lambert law using the linear attenuation or absorption coefficient α
in place of the general attenuation coefficient. It is generally expressed in cm-1. The mass
attenuation coefficient (µ) is a measurement of how strongly a chemical species or substance
absorbs or scatters light at a given wavelength, per unit mass. It is related with the linear
attenuation coefficient as α/ρ, where ρ is the density in mg/cm3. When this coefficient is to be

3
determined from the Beer-Lambert law, then "mass thickness" (defined as the mass per unit
area) replaces the product of length times density.
The beta attenuation studies in matter have helped a lot in solving variety of problems
in physical sciences, bio-sciences, agricultural sciences and medical physics. On the basis of
beta attenuation studies, the materials for the thin windows fixed on G.M. counters,
proportional counters and silicon detectors are selected. This study further suggests suitable
material for β shielding purposes. The attenuation process of beta particles provides a simple
method for measuring the energy of unknown beta emitter by feather’s analysis method
(Feather 1930) or from range and energy curves. In the field of agriculture, beta ray gauging
technique is useful for determining leaf thickness, moisture status of plants and water
economy or balance in plants. The main advantage of this method is that it is a non-
destructive method for measuring water status of plant leaves. Other moisture determining
techniques include diffusion pressure deficit method (Meyer 1983), the relative turgidity
method and spectroscopic technique. The former two methods require a controlled
environment, and are not useful for monitoring continuously the changes in plant water status.
The leaf (material to be chosen for present study) is an appendage growing from the
stem of a plant. The leaves are any of the flat, thin, expanded organs, usually green, growing
laterally from the stem or twig of a plant: it usually consists of a broad blade, a petiole, or
stalk, and stipules and is involved in the processes of photosynthesis and transpiration. Leaves
are extremely variable in form and function according to species. However, most leaves are
flat and green adapted to capturing sunlight and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. They
consist of an outer tissue layer (the epidermis) through which water and gases are exchanged,
a spongy inner layer of cells that contain chloroplasts and veins that supply water and
minerals and carry out food. Some leaves are simple, while others are compound, consisting
of multiple leaflets. The flat part of leaf, the blade, is often attached to the stem by a leafstalk.
Water is an essential and important constituent of plants and trees. Water occurs in green
leaves in following conditions: protoplasmic contents of the cells, in cell walls, as free water
in cell cavities. Moisture content of leaves depends upon environmental and physiological
conditions. When leaves dry up, they mainly lose their water content. Even oven dried leaves
retains a small percentage of water, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered
absolutely dry.
Water is indispensable to plants and the shortage of such critical resources leads to a
decline in land productivity and yield loss. Leaf water status information is highly needed for
monitoring plant physiological processes. Wildland fires burn large areas of the earth’s land
surface annually, causing significant environmental damage and danger to human health. In
order to mitigate the effects, and to better manage the incidence of such fires, fire behavior
models are used to predict, among other things, the likelihood of ignition, the rate of spread,

4
and the intensity and duration of burning. A key input parameter to these models is the
amount of water in the vegetation. The knowledge of vegetation water conditions can
contribute to drought assessment. Non-destructive estimation of leaf water content provides
vital information about vegetation productivity. Quantitative estimation of vegetation water
content is helpful in forest fire assessment, fungus and disease control. The localized, precise,
rapid and continuous collection of information concerning crop water is an important
foundation for the implementation of irrigation strategies and management; this information is
also an important consideration in modern agricultural technology and precise irrigation
systems.
The attenuation studies of beta particles through materials have been done by many
workers. Each of them has used his own independent geometrical set up and they have tried to
fit their experimental results in empirical relations. Mederski (1961) introduce beta radiation
gauge as a non destructive method for measuring relative water content in leaves of soyabean
plant. Nakayana and Erhler (1964) used the technique for cotton leaf. Later Jarvis and Slatyer
(1966) made an attempt to caliberate the beta gauge for determining the leaf water status
using cotton leaves as absorbers. Rolston and Horton (1968) compared two beta sources for
evaluation of water status of plant leaves using cotton leaves. Jones (1973) also used the beta
gauge to estimate water status in cotton leaves. Obrigewitsch et al (1975) tried the same
technique by slightly varying experimental set up. Recently, Nayana (1985) has related the
beta gauge as an evaporimeter. However, no such studies using this technique are available
for leaf samples taken for the present study and of this region. The work reported in this thesis
has been divided into two parts:
1. To study the transmission of beta rays through selected leaf samples, i.e., Brinjal,
Pumpkin, Tomato and Spinach, and to determine the mass attenuation coefficients for
fresh and dry samples.
2. To estimate the water content of selected leaf samples, i.e., Brinjal, Pumpkin, Tomato and
Spinach.

5
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Beta radiation based techniques are well acceptable as they are non-destructive.
Radiations do not require direct contact with the object to be inspected and can be used with
any type of medium regardless of its nature i.e. the material can be solid, liquid or gaseous.
The studies of transmission of beta particles in several absorbers at different energies have
been carried out by many workers using various types of detectors under different geometrical
set ups and the work carried out by these different researchers on attenuation studies of beta
particles and moisture content determination of leaves has been reviewed in this section.
Chang et al (1953) carried out the transmission of positrons in the energy range 50-
750 KeV through aluminum and platinum windows of an end-window-type Geiger Muller
counter. They developed theoretical transmission curves, with an empirically determined
constant. These curves were found to be in relatively good agreement with the experimental
curves.
Mederski (1961) studied the changes in water status in leaves of intact soybean plant
14
with beta ray gauge. He placed beta source C on one side of the leaf and a thin window
Geiger tube on the other side. He found that beta radiation passing through the leaf thickness
was closely related to the relative turgidity of the leaf.
Brovetto et al (1962) employed G.M. counter to determine the absolute activity of a β
emitter. They obtained results in geometry close to 2π. Relationship between mass-absorption
coefficient and maximum energy of β particles was found experimentally by employing five β
sources in the energy range from 0.15 to 2.3 MeV.
Daddi et al (1963) examined the validity of the binomial and exponential functions to
describe the experimental absorption particularly in Al. They used pure beta emitters (S35,
Ca45, Cl36, Sr90 and p32) and employed three different geometrical arrangements. They
concluded that the actual law is to be considered exponential till transmission of about 15%
and also extrapolation to zero thickness is possible only when the absorbers are kept close to
the window of detector.
Nakayama and Ehrler (1964) investigated the beta ray gauging technique for
147
determining water status in plants. They used Pm to study water changes in cotton leaves
with thickness 15 to 35 mg/cm2. They suggested that with proper calliberations, leaf water
and internal water (relative turgidity or diffusion pressure deficit) changes can be estimated.
Jarvis and Slatyer (1966) tried to calibrate the beta gauge for determining leaf water
status. They measured the beta absorption at single known relative water content. They also
measured the turgid and dry weights of a sample of leaf discs. They obtained caliberation
curves for a series of cotton leaves.
 Takhar (1967) carried out the direct comparison of transmission of positrons (1.88
MeV) and electrons (1.77 MeV) through solids and liquids to very low transmission rates. He
eliminated the problem of γ -ray background associated with beam of positrons by
determining two annhiliation γ- photons using coincidence technique. He concluded that
positrons are transmitted in large percentage than electrons for C, Al, Cu,Sn,Pb and a number
of other materials with the exception of brass and plaskon.
Rolston and Horton (1968) compared the beta sources 14C and 147Pm for determining
water status of plants. The plant species used were Soybean, Sorghum and Barley. They
concluded that both the sources give high correlation of relative turgidity with attenuated
radiation. Also 14C is more sensitive to small changes in relative turgidity than 147Pm.
Patrick and Rupaal (1971) determined the differences in penetration of positrons and
electrons in the 320 KeV region. The experiment was performed with 324 KeV positrons
from 65Zn and 312 KeV electrons from 60Co in Al, Cu, Sn and Pb. The results were found to
be Z-dependent as expected from the theory. They concluded that positrons penetrate less
than electrons in low Z materials and more than electrons in high Z materials. The µ-/µ+ ratio
between electrons and positrons increases from 0.95 for Aluminium to 1.19 for Lead. In view
of this they redetermined the positron and electron transmission in low Z and high Z elements
such as Be, Al, Cu, Ag and Pb. The results show that there is difference between the
transmission behavior of positrons and electrons of the same energy. This finite difference
was also found to be in opposite direction to the multiple scattering theory.
Thontadarya and Umkantha (1971) studied the comparison of mass absorption
coefficients for positrons and electrons adopting ‘Good Geometry’ set ups in alumium and
tin using a β- and three β+ sources covering endpoint energy from 0.4 to 2.3 MeV. They
concluded that the large differences observed by Takhar in aluminium in the mass absorption
coefficients of β+ from 68Ga (E0= 1.88 MeV) and β- from 86Rb (E0= 1.77 MeV) is essentially
due to the difference in end point energy of the source used.
Jones (1973) carried out very useful study of the effects of plant parameters such as
variability of leaves, lateral leaf shrinkage, growth and ontogenetic changes on the use of beta
ray gauging technique. He examined cotton leaves and concluded that with parallel sampling
technique, the method can be of great importance for determining both long term and short
term changes in water status.
Richard and Gail (1973) suggested that relative water content (RWC) may be
accurately estimated using the ratio of tissue fresh weight to tissue turgid weight. This ratio,
calculated as tissue fresh weight/tissue turgid weight is linearly related to RWC. Data for
grapevine leaf tissue of uniform morphological age and varying moisture status supported this
contention with r2 values ranging from 0.971 to 0.999. Similarly, high correlation coefficients
were found for apple and corn.

7
 Obrigewitsch et al (1975) simplified the technique providing completely linear
caliberation between attenuated beta radiation through plant leaf and its relative water content
simply by measuring the radiation intensity at only two points i.e. at full turgidity and
complete dryness. They used 14C beta source to study sugarbeet leaves. They concluded that
after proper caliberation, only radiation intensity measurements are required to determine the
relative water content of leaf.
Batra et al (1986) made an attempt to understand systematically the practical range of
electrons and positrons in various absorbers. The methods suggested by them explain the
dependence of the measured electrons and positrons range on the atomic number of the
absorbing material and the electon energy. It also shows that practical range Rp+ and Rp- for
positrons and electrons is a decreasing function of atomic number.
Nathuram and Subrahmanian (1982) determined the mass attenuation coefficients μ/ϱ
of beta particles of end point energy E0 ranging from 0.16 – 2.30 MeV. They employed a 4π
geometrical configuration, where the source is sandwiched between thin foils of aluminium as
absorbers and the sandwich is kept in a 4π gas flow proportional counter for measuring
transmitted beta particles. An empirical relation connecting μ/ϱ and E0 was determined. They
discussed the estimated values of μ/ϱ in this geometry and compared it with published values,
obtained by employing various other types of geometry.
Nayana (1983) extended the technique to determine leaf surface wetness. He
measured surface wetness as a function of wind velocity in the laboratory using beta ray
204
gauge. He used Tl pure beta emitter. He tested the beta ray gauge as dewmeter over a wax
bean crop and tobacco. Nayana (1985) put forward a similar kind of work by using beta ray
gauge as an evaporimeter. He measured the variations of net count rate through a turgid
tobacco leaf by beta ray gauge, correspondent with stomatal movement. Three distinct stages
of evaporation rates were observed through porous medium.
Singh and Batra (1987) gave a new method for calculating mass attenuation
coefficient of beta particles. They calculated mass attenuation coefficient of β- and β+ particles
of energies 0.25 to 5.0 MeV for various absorbers. This method was based upon the
interaction of β- and β+ particles with matter and use of varying transmission limit for
different absorbers. The root mean square (r.m.s) deviation of theory from 61 electron and 30
positron measurements in all elements is 6.5% and 9.7% respectively. Attenuation
coefficients in rare earths calculated by this method are in excellent agreement with the earlier
measurements.
Jensen and Mejdahl (1988) used GM multicounter system for measuring annual beta
doses in archaeological and geological samples. The system comprises five individual
counters built into a single unit. The counting rate for a dose rate of 1 Gy/ka is about 160
counts per hour for 1 g samples and the background is about 15 counts per hour,

8
corresponding to less than 0.1 Gy/ka. The standard deviation when counting different aliquots
of the same sample in the five counters is less than 2% and the overall error is about 4%.
Hunt and Rock (1989) measured reflectance factors at 0.82 µm and 1.6 µm on leaves
of Quercus agrifolia (sclerophyllous leaves), Liquidambor styraciflua (hardwood deciduous
tree leaves), Picea rubens and Picea pungens (conifer needles), and Glycine max (herbaceous
dicot leaves) as they dried on a laboratory bench. They measured Relative Water Content
(RWC) and Equivalent Water Thickness (EWT) concurrently with the reflectance
measurements.
Spagnolo (1989) described an instrument developed for the routine measurement of
aerosol mass using the β-particle attenuation method. The instrument used electromechanical
devices for the automatic positioning of filters in the sampling and measuring holders and the
return to their stand by locations, where the filters were stored for off-line testing purposes
and documentation. The instrument was designed with very low system ‘dead time’ and high
sensitivity.
Özmutlu and Cengız (1990) obtained mass-attenuation coefficients using method
based upon the simulation of β emission by means of the β energy spectrum. The range of the
β particle was chosen as random incidence by means of range distribution of monoenergetic
electrons which have the same energy as the β particle. Thus, the range distributions of the β
particles were found. The mass-attenuation coefficient is obtained as the slope of the semi-log
plot of integral range distribution.
Bedi (1991) studied the effect of geometry on the mass attenuation coefficient (µ) of
204
0.766 Mev particles (from Tl) in aluminium and tin by varying the absorber to detector
distance (HAD). He concluded that µ values first increase with increase in HAD, reach a
maxima and then decrease with further increase in HAD for both the absorbers. He also
estimated moisture content in plant leaves of Cotton, Sunflower, Mung and Spinach using
beta gauging technique and suggested that with the help of this technique moisture status of
leaves can be estimated quickly.
204
Dhaliwal et al (1991) studied attenuation of beta ray bremsstrahlung from Tl and
32
P beta emitters in Al, Cu, Sn and Pb targets. The calculated values were obtained from the
bremsstrahlung spectra recorded with different targets and the tabulated values of attenuation
coefficients for mono-energetic gamma rays. A good agreement between the measured and
calculated values supports the correctness of the procedure used to evaluate the attenuation of
bremsstrahlung. Metallic absorbers were found to act as energy filters and change the shape
of transmitted bremsstrahlung spectrum due to decrease of the attenuation parameter with
increase in absorber thickness.
Batra et al (1992) measured relative intensities and the mass attenuation coefficient of
204
β-particles from Tl through the fresh and dry leaves of the plant. From these parameters,

9
they evaluated the moisture content of plant leaves of Cotton, Sunflower, Mung and Spinach.
Pietro Ceccato et al (2001) laid emphasis on the use of remote sensing to directly
detect vegetation water content in terms of Equivalent Water Thickness (EWT) at leaf level.
They proved that shortwave infrared (SWIR) was sensitive to EWT but cannot be used alone
to retrieve EWT because two other leaf parameters (internal structure and dry matter) also
influence leaf reflectance in the SWIR and therefore a combination of SWIR and NIR is
necessary to retrieve EWT at leaf level.
P. Bowyer and F.M. Danson (2004) used a modeling approach to investigate the
sensitivity of reflectance data at leaf and canopy level to variation in the biophysical variables
that are used to compute fuel moisture content (FMC). They had shown that at the leaf level
the sensitivity of reflectance to variation in leaf water and dry matter content, used to compute
FMC, is greatest in the shortwave infrared and near infrared, respectively. At the canopy
level, the results show that the sensitivity of reflectance to variation in leaf water and dry
matter content is heavily dependent upon the type of model used and the range of variation
over which the variables are tested
L.S. Stodieck et al (2008) determined leaf water indices relation to the LWT (leaf
water thickness) in cowpea, bean, and sugarbeet. In all three species, the LWT increased
linearly with increasing leaf thickness. The T1300/T1450 leaf water index, based on light
transmitted through leaves, showed a strong exponential correlation with the LWT as
expected from theoretical analysis. However, the R1300/R1450 leaf water index, based on light
reflected from leaves, exhibited a characteristic logarithmic correlation with the LWT.
T. Cheng et al (2011) investigated the spectroscopic estimation of leaf gravimetric
water content (GWC) using continuous wavelet analysis applied to the reflectance spectra
(350–2500 nm) of 265 leaf samples from 47 species observed in tropical forests of Panama.
They built linear relationship between wavelet power and GWC to identify wavelet features
(coefficients). The derived wavelet features were then compared to three established spectral
indices used to estimate GWC across a wide range of species.
Victoria Fernández et al (2011) determined the relative water content (RWC) of
poplar leaves and filter discs by estimating reflectivity at 1730 MHz (l-band), measured with
a microwave digital cordless telephony (DCT). The accuracy of this new method had been
contrasted with the R1300/R1450 index, determined by a portable near infrared (NIR)
spectrometer.
Wenting Han et al (2011) measured 33 groups of peach tree leaf reflectance spectra
(350 to 1075 nm). Linear regression and background artificial neural network methods were
used to establish peach tree leaf water content and perform quantitative analysis between
spectral indices. They had shown that a linear regression exist between the peach tree leaf
water content and its leaf reflectance spectral index.

10
 Cheng et al (2012) evaluated a spectral analysis, continuous wavelet analysis (CWA),
for the spectroscopic estimation of leaf gravimetric water content (GWC, %) and determined
robust spectral indicators of GWC across a wide range of plant species from different
ecosystems. This wavelet-based spectral analysis tool could add a new dimension to the
modeling of plant physiological properties with spectroscopy data.
Ermis and Celiktas (2012) determined beta linear and mass attenuation coefficients
for bakelite, Al, Fe and plexiglass absorbers by means of timing method. They employed
counting system with plastic scintillation detector. To show the accuracy and reliability of the
obtained results through this method, they also evaluated coefficients found via conventional
energy method. Obtained beta attenuation coefficients from both methods were compared
with each other and the literature values. They found that beta attenuation coefficients
obtained through timing method to be compatible with the values obtained from conventional
energy method and the literature.
Lei Zhang et al (2012) determined the relationships of equivalent water thickness
(EWT), fuel moisture content (FMC) and specific leaf weight (SLW) of cotton leaves with
leaf spectra reflectance. They established quantitative models for the quick and accurate
estimation of EWT, FMC and SLW in cotton plants under different salinity levels.
Ullah et al (2012) estimated leaf water content from the mid to thermal infrared (2.5–
14.0 μm) spectra, based on continuous wavelet analysis. The dataset comprised 394 spectra
from nine plant species, with different water contents achieved through progressive drying.
The six individual wavelet features identified in the mid infrared yielded high correlations
with leaf water content (R2=0.86 maximum, 0.83 minimum), as well as low RMSE (minimum
8.56%, maximum 9.27%). The combination of four wavelet features produced the most
accurate model (R2=0.88, RMSE=8.00%).
Yalcin et al (2012) determined the thickness of an absorber using the energy
distribution of beta particles. An empirical relationship was obtained between the absorber
thickness and the energy distribution of beta particles transmitted through. The thickness of a
polyethylene radioactive source cover was determined by exploiting this relationship, which
in determined the in-situ cover thickness of beta sources in a fast, cheap and non-destructive
way.
Zhang et al (2012) investigated the feasibility of detecting the water content in the
leaf using the diffuse reflectance spectra. The experiment with leaves in different water stress
was conducted. The statistical test result indicated that the determination of water content in
leaf could be successfully performed by spectroscopy combined with chemometrics method.
The performances of different pretreatment methods were compared. The model with best
performance was obtained from the first derivative spectra. They concluded that this
experiment could lead to the development of portable instrument for synchronous detection of

11
water content and other biochemical parameters rapidly and nondestructively.
Chaudhari (2013) determined the linear and mass absorption coefficients of various
204
leaves (fresh and dry) of Asoka plant using beta source Tl. He proved the validity of the
expected exponential absorption law for leaves. He suggested that linear and mass absorption
coefficient values are useful for quantitative evaluation of interaction of radiations with leaves
of plants.
Qiu-xiang Yi et al (2013) performed all two-band combinations (350–2500 nm) in the
ratio type of vegetation index (RVI) and the normalized difference type of vegetation index
(NDVI) on cotton leaf raw spectral reflectance (R) and the first derivative reflectance (DR).
The correlation coefficient (r) between all two-band combinations and two leaf water
parameters (EWT: equivalent water thickness, and FMC: fuel moisture content) were
presented by matrix plots. They suggested that study could further our understanding of the
relationships between leaf water content and hyperspectral reflectance
Alana Eksteen et al (2014) investigated the water relations of a high-fibre sugarcane
hybrid (Saccharum spp F1 hybrid, 04G0073, referred to as G73) under well watered and
drought stress conditions, and compared it with that of a traditional sugarcane cultivar
(Saccharum spp, cultivar N19). They suggested that study could be useful for deriving crop
parameters for sugarcane crop models with regards to energy-cane genotypes and in
identification of marginal areas suitable for energy-cane cultivation.
Steven M. de Jong et al (2014) investigated the possibilities to predict leaf-water
content of three dominant tree species in a study area in Mediterranean France using spectral
indices. The spectra were measured in two ways: using an optical cable with a field of view
of 25° and using a leaf clip with its own artificial illumination source. Results show that a
good correlation (0.70) exists between leaf-water content and spectral indices using the right
slope of the 970 nm water-absorption band.
Wang et al (2014) retrieved the vegetation water content equivalent water thickness
(EWT) information and the relevant parameters for the land surface from full-band TM
remote sensing data. They concluded that the spatial distribution of the EWT is closely related
to the vegetation, and the EWT is able to monitor the regional water conditions to a certain
extent.
Zuo et al (2014) explored a centralized signal for the evaluation of plant water status
based on soil water status. They conducted two greenhouse experiments investigating the
effect of the relative distribution between soil water and roots on wheat and rice. A significant
relationship was found between the plant water deficit index (PWDI) and the root-weighted
(rather than the arithmetic) average SWC over root zone. They suggested that results could be
beneficial for scheduling irrigation, as well as for evaluating plant water consumption and
root density profile.

12
 Dadshani et al (2015) determined the volumetric water content of leaves and the ionic
conductivity of the leaf juice from non-invasive microwave measurements at two different
frequencies by one sensor device. He employed a semi-open microwave cavity loaded with a
ceramic dielectric resonator and a metallic lumped-element capacitor- and inductor structure
for non-invasive microwave measurements at 150 MHz and 2.4 Gigahertz on potato, maize,
canola and wheat leaves. He found clear correlations between the leaf-induced resonance
frequency shifts and changes of the inverse resonator quality factor at 2.4 GHz to the
gravimetrically determined drying status of the leaves.
A.B.G. Fernandes et al (2015) evaluated the effectiveness of spectroscopic methods
to estimate water content in commercial wine for three grape varieties (Mencía, Merlot and
Tempranillo). They estimated equivalent water thickness (EWT), from the untransformed
spectrum and from the spectrum transformed using continuum removal. They used Partial
least squares regression (PLSR) and ordinary least squares regression (OLSR) to fit the model
and obtained best results for Tempranillo.
Zhuo Wang et al (2015) used the Four-Electrode method which consisted of four
probes, two current probes injecting constant alternating current into the object and two
voltage probes measuring the voltage drop between two electrodes. The voltage drop was then
used to reflect the electrical property and evaluate the water content of plant leaves as the
physiological electrical property of plants was found to have relation with leaf water content.
Corn leaves were tested at different growth stages and water status, and the electrical property
of corn leaves was measured. Three indexes were calculated as the indicators of corn leaf
water content, dry base water content (DWC), wet base water content (WWC), and relative
water content (RWC). The leaf electrical property was observed to have a negative correlation
with all three parameters of water content. In each test, the relative water content (RWC) had
the best correlation with the leaf electrical property. It is shown that the electrical property of
corn leaves can be used to effectively evaluate the water stress.

13
CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 INTERACTION OF BETA PARTICLES WITH MATTER

Some radioactive nuclei decay by the emission of beta rays, which collectively stand
for electrons and positrons. The main difference between the beta particles and the electrons
is that the beta particles have continuous energy spectrum while the latter has discrete energy.
The beta spectrum rises with energy, reaches a smooth maximum and then comes down to
meet the energy axis at a point E0. This maximum energy (E0) is called the end point energy
and is characteristic of a particular beta transition.
When the beta particles of end point energy E0 interact with the matter, they lose
kinetic energy. As the space through which the radiation passes is not completely devoid of
matter, the interactions resulting from collision of radiation with matter will occur. Such
interactions will result in absorption, scattering and ionization of atoms. The important
processes by which the beta particles loss their kinetic energy during their passage through
matter are as follows:
3.1.1 Energy loss by inelastic collision
During this process the beta particles (electrons) lose their energy when they collide
with atomic electrons of the stopping material inelastically. In such a mechanism the incident
electrons transfer their energy to the atomic electrons, taking them to the excited state or
cause ionization. The mean energy loss per centimeter length due to inelastic collision for
electrons with energy E< m0c2 (m0 is the rest mass of electrons) is given by [Segre (1960)]

Ê dE ˆ 4pe NZ Ï1.16m0 v ¸
4 2
Á - ˜ = ln Ì ˝
Ë dx ¯i m0 v 2 Ó 21 ˛
(3.1)
For high energy (several MeV) beta particles one should use relativistic formula for mean
energy loss due to ionization:

Ê dE ˆ 2pe NZ Ï m0 v E ¸
4 2
Á- ˜ = 2
ln Ì 2 2
- b2 ˝ (3.2)
Ë dx ¯i m0 v Ó I (1 - b ) ˛
where N = Number of atoms per cm3,
v = Electron velocity,
Z = Atomic number of stopping material (absorber),
e = Charge of electron,
I = Mean ionization potential of absorber, and

b = v / c (Ratio of electron velocity to the velocity of light)

 Since the electron has very tortuous path at low energies, in this case dx is measured
along the track of electrons and should be distinguished from penetration depth. For energies
up to 1 MeV, energy loss due to elastic collisions decreases because of an increase in
b = v / c . At 1.0 KeV, β = 0.06 and it increases to 0.94 at 1 MeV. The minimum ionization
energy loss by the electrons occurs at energies of about 1.5 MeV. Thus, as the energy of the
electrons increases, the energy loss by radiation process plays an important role until the
energy loss by collisions can be neglected by comparison.
3.1.2 Effect of scattering and straggling of energy loss
For low (<1 MeV) and medium (≈10 MeV) energy beta particles interacting with
condensed materials, the scattering phenomenon becomes quite complicated. The small mass
of electrons makes its range at these energies very large. As total path length taken by the
electrons in passing through the material increases and correspondingly the energy loss
increases. At the higher energies the scattering is not so important but at these energies
statistical fluctuations in the broken path length of electrons are more predominant which
cause fluctuations in energy loss. These fluctuation effects are known as straggling of energy
loss. Theory of straggling of electrons gives straggling of about 10 to 15 percent of total
range.
3.1.3 Radiative collisions of electrons with atomic nucleus
When the incident electrons pass through the field of nucleus, they suffer
Bremmsstrahlung loss. It can be considered as a radiative type of inelastic collision between
electron and atomic nucleus. The rate of energy loss by the electrons due to this interaction is
proportional to Z 2 (Z= Atomic number of target atom). The mean energy loss per centimeter
due to radiative process is [Segre (1960)]:

Ê dE ˆ
Á - ˜ =
Nr0 2 Z2
E + (
m c ) ( )
2 È 4 ln 2 E + m 0c
2
4˘
- ˙ (3.3)
0 Í 2
Ë dx ¯ rad 137 Î m0 c 3˚

where E = kinetic energy of the electron,

N = Atomic density (No. of atoms per cm3),
r0 = e 2 / m 0 c 2 (Classical electron radius)

This energy loss increases quadratically with increasing atomic number, while energy loss

due to ionization is proportional to Z. The incident electron with total energy E 0 is

accompanied by a light quantum with frequency between n andn + dn , maximum frequency

can be determined from the following equation:

hn = E 0 - m 0 c 2 = E (3.4)

As the electric field in which the electron radiates is the coulomb field of the nucleus, the

15
strength of this field or in other words the screening effect of the atomic electrons will play an
important role. The effect of screening is measured by the quantity [Segre (1960)]:

m 0 c 2 hn
Y = 100 (3.5)
E 0 EZ1 / 3
when γ>>1, the screening may be neglected and when γ ≈0, then screening is complete. Thus,
this effect is predominant in those type of interaction where the energy of incident electron is
sufficient to penetrate the screening field of the atomic electron. In addition, there is also a
probability that the electron can excite the nucleus, as in an elastic collision. However cross
section for such process is generally low at very low energies and considerable at high
energies.
3.1.4 Elastic collisions of electrons with a nucleus
The incident electron can suffer elastic collisions with a nucleus which results in the
deflection of incident electrons without any radiation loss or excitation of nucleus. The
incident particles may lose only the kinetic energy so that law of conservation of momentum

(
holds. The cross section for this type of collision is of the order of e 2 / m0 v 2 )
2
where v is the
velocity of incident electron. The cross section is directly proportional to Z2. The cross section
for these interactions is more at high energies. This radiation loss dominates at high energies.
As the energy of electron decreases, ionization and collision losses become relatively more
important until a certain critical energy E c at which radiative and collision energy loss are

equal in magnitude. The critical energy E c is given by

1600 m 0 c 2
Ec = (3.6)
Z
3.1.5 Elastic collisions with atomic electrons
The incident electron may suffer deflection elastically in the field of the atomic
electrons of stopping material. The energy and momentum for such a process is conserved
and the energy transfer is generally less than the lowest excitation potential of the atom as a
whole. Such collisions are significant for only incident electrons of very low energies (<<100
eV). Thus the total energy loss per unit path length is the sum of all the contributions. At high
energies, losses due to range straggling, radiation, elastic collision of incident electron
dominate while at very low energies losses due to elastic collisions with atomic electrons
dominate. At the energies of the order of several MeV the dominance of the radiative energy
loss on the collision energy loss gives rise to the phenomenon of Cascade showers or multiple
scattering. As the spectrum of energy emitted by fast electrons has fairly uniformly distributed
frequencies these produce considerable number of high energy photons. These can either
produce electron positron pair (phenomenon is called pair production) or can eject Compton

16
electron from atoms of stopping material (phenomenon is called production of secondary
electrons). These fast secondary electrons again radiate producing more photons which in turn
produce more electrons and so on. This results in a cascade shower or multiple scattering.
3.2 GEIGER MULLER COUNTER
With increasing awareness of the environment and of protection levels, the detection
and measurement of nuclear radiation becomes increasingly important. The Geiger Muller
tube, with its high detection sensitivity, robust construction and simple circuitry, continues to
be one of the most widely used radiation detectors in all areas of application.
3.2.1 Construction
A Geiger Muller tube, like other gas-filled detectors, has an anode and a cathode in an
envelope that contains a gas at low pressure. There may also be a special ‘window’ of
radiation transparent material either at one end of the tube or in its side. Some tubes also have
an integral radiation-shield as part of the outer walls where this is required for modifying the
performance characteristics.

Figure 3.1 General arrangement of the main parts of a typical Geiger Muller tube

Figure 3.1 shows the general arrangement for a typical unshielded tube with an end window.
In most tubes the anode is a wire about 1 millimeter thick supported through the axis of, but
insulated from, a gas-tight cathode cylinder. This simple arrangement gives a high electric
field when the necessary voltage is applied, and it also helps to propagate the required
avalanche of ion multiplication through the tube.
3.2.2 Characteristics of gas-filled detectors
Geiger Muller tubes are members of the gas-filled radiation detector family which
also includes ionization chambers and proportional counters. The simplest gas-filled radiation
detectors consist merely of two electrodes in a low pressure gas chamber; the walls of the
chamber are constructed to permit penetration by the radiation of interest.
Figure 3.2 shows a simplified detector circuit with a tube similar to that shown in

17
figure 3.1. The Voltage is applied between the cathode (the wall of the tubular gas container)
and the anode (the central wire; insulated from the tube wall). Current in the external circuit is
governed by the conductivity of the gas inside the tube and consequently by its ionization.

Figure 3.2 Simplified gas-filled detector and circuit

If ionization is absent then none of the gas molecules are ionized, the gas behaves as an
insulator and no current flows in the external circuit. In case ionization is present, some of
the gas molecules are ionized by a particle having recently entered the detector, some current
could flow. The immediately subsequent events, however, depend on the electric field applied
between the electrodes. If the field is weak, newly-produced ions and electrons simply
recombine. If the electric field is high enough, the positive ions and the electrons become
fully separated, being attracted towards the respective electrodes. Those ions that reach the
cathode will be neutralized by electrons from the cathode. This transfer of electrons, and the
arrival of electrons at the anode, causes a current pulse in the external circuit. Provided that
sufficient ions and electrons arrive more or less simultaneously, the current pulse can be
detected by sensing the associated voltage across the resistor in the external circuit.
Figure 3.3 shows the characteristic curves for gas-filled detectors with beta particle
radiation. The form of this curve is determined to some extent by the design of the detector,
the gas used and the gas pressure.

18
 In general, however increasing voltage reveals five regions (see figure 3.3)

Figure 3.3 Variation of charge collected due to beta particles shown as a function of the
applied voltage.

(a) Region I
The low electric field in region 1 has negligible effect. Most ions recombine and
current is small. Detectors are not usually operated in this region.
(b) Region II: Ionization chamber region
Separated ions and electrons are forced to drift towards the electrode in region II, and
because recombination is delayed or prevented, many reach the electrodes. Current in this
region depends almost exclusively upon the number of ions generated by the radiation, and is
almost independent of the exact value of the applied voltage. Ionization chambers operate in
this region.
(c) Region III: Proportional region
In region III, electrons are accelerated to high velocities and produce secondary ions
by collisions, leading to a multiplication of charge. Particles moving through the counter can
produce a large current and voltage pulse in suitable circuitry, with the amplitude proportional
to the energy of the ionizing particles. Proportional counters operate in this region. Ion
multiplication gains of up to 106 are attainable in this method of operation. The upper end of
Region III is generally known as ‘the region of limited proportionality’ where output becomes
more dependent on applied voltage than on initial ionization.

19
(d) Region IV: Geiger region
Ion multiplication escalates in Region IV and, in the ensuing ‘avalanche’, virtually all
primary and secondary electrons are accelerated sufficiently to create more secondary and
tertiary ions. Though the detector can no longer distinguish between the different kinds of
radiation or between different energies in this region, detection sensitivity is excellent. Geiger
Muller tubes operate in this region which is also often called the ‘Geiger Muller plateau’.
(e) Region V
Further escalation of avalanche in Region V produces total ionization of the gas
between the electrodes. A self-sustaining discharge, which will continue as long as voltage is
applied, can be instigated by a single pulse. This type of discharge can be harmful to the
detector and lengthy operation in this region should be avoided.
3.2.3 Operation
Despite variations in construction, all Geiger Muller tubes are designed to operate
under the conditions of Region IV (Figure 3.3). The following description of the discharge is
deliberately simplified:
(a) Initiation of the discharge
When a particle or energy quantum enters the detection gas (usually neon, argon or
helium and sometimes krypton), some initial gas ionization may occur, creating electrons and
positive ions. If the correct operating voltage is applied to the tube, electrons in the gas near
the anode and positive ions in the gas near the cathode are collected almost instantaneously.
The remainder of the electrons and ions, together with products of ion multiplication, follow
in rapid succession. The resulting current pulse produces a fast-rising voltage pulse across the
series resistor chain in the external circuit, and the pulse can be detected by a counter.
(b) Collapse of the discharge
The main energy for the discharge is derived from the self capacitance of the tube and
from stray capacitances. When these are significantly discharged, tube current collapses and
gas de-ionization follows. While this de-ionization continues, the recharging of the
capacitances gives an almost exponential tail to the pulse in the external circuit, the rate of fall
depending on the RC values.
(c) Recovery from the discharge
When the primary discharge is complete, residual positive ions drift towards the
cathode and combine with electrons from the cathode surface. Residual positive ions near the
anode weaken the field strength temporarily, and this reduces tube sensitivity for a short
period after each discharge. Recovery from this lower sensitivity is described later.
3.2.4 Fill gas
Because gas multiplication is critically dependent on the migration of free electrons
rather than much slower negative ions, the fill gas in proportional counters must be chosen

20
from those species that do not exhibit an appreciable electron attachment coefficient. Because
air is not one of these, counters must be designed with provision to maintain the purity of the
gas. The gas can be either permanently sealed within the counter or circulated slowly through
the chamber volume in designs of the continuous flow type. The gas used in Geiger Muller
counter is basically an inert gas such as helium, argon or neon. Because of cost factors, argon
is the most widely used of the inert gases, and a mixture of 90% argon and 10% methane,
known as P -10 gas, is probably the most commonly used gas.
(a) Quenching gas
Together with the normal filled gas selected for the discharge, a small amount of
additional ‘quenching gas’ is also induced. If a Geiger tube is filled with a single gas such as
argon, then all the positive ions formed are ions of that same gas species. After the primary
Geiger discharge is terminated, the positive ions slowly drift away from the anode wire and
ultimately arrive at the cathode or outer wall of the counter. Here they are neutralized by
combining with an electron from the cathode surface. In this process, an amount of energy
equal to the ionization energy of the gas minus the energy required to extract the electron
from the cathode surface (the work function) is liberated. If this liberated energy also exceeds
the cathode work function, it is energetically possible for another free electron to emerge from
the cathode surface. This will be the case if the gas ionization energy exceeds twice the value
of the work function. The probability is always small that any given ion will liberate an
electron in its neutralization, but if the total number of ions is large enough, there will likely
be at least one such free electron generated. This electron will then drift toward the anode and
will trigger another avalanche, leading to a second full Geiger discharge. The entire cycle will
now be repeated, and under these circumstances the G-M counter, once initially triggered,
would produce a continuous output of multiple pulses. Such repeated triggering or oscillation
is avoided by the addition of a ‘quenching gas’.
Action of quenching gas: The quenching gas has an ionization potential less than that of the
main detection gas. De-ionization of the main gas is hastened because the slow-moving
residual ions of the main gas combine with electrons taken from the quenching gas. The
newly-formed positive ions of the quenching gas drift towards the cathode, and on impact
they are merely neutralized, there being insufficient total energy to cause emission of
secondary electrons.
Types of quenching gas: Quenching gases in modern tubes generally contain traces of
halogens, usually chlorine or bromine. These atoms can recirculate after being ionized and
neutralized, there being no permanent change in their nature. As a result, long life and stable
characteristics are typical of Geiger Muller tubes with halogen quenching. Older tube designs
had quenching gases consisting of organic vapours; the quenching action thus broke down the
quenching gas molecules irreversibly, gradually modifying the characteristics of the tube and

21
limiting its life.
3.2.5 Plateau
Figure 3.4 shows a simplified version of part of the characteristics curve of a Geiger
Muller tube. This characteristic is obtained by plotting the count rate in pulses per second as a
function of supply voltage in a constant radiation field. Note that the constant radiation field
strength used for obtaining this curve is fixed so that a rate of 100 to 300 counts per second is
obtained at the operating voltage (the centre of the Geiger Muller plateau).
At very low voltages, the count rate is insignificant. Tubes cannot generally be
operated usefully in this region. The starting voltage Vs is defined as ‘the lowest voltage
applied to a counter tube at which pulses can be detected by a system with certain defined
characteristics.’ The value of Vs varies with design of tube but is generally between 350 V
and 500 V. Above the starting voltage Vs, the count rate increases rapidly. The voltage is
increased by between 50 V and 100 V to reach the threshold voltage VT. Above VT all fully
distinguishing ionizing events produce the same size normal output pulses, the charge
collected by the anode per ionization event being substantially independent of the number of
ions originally created.

VT

VS

Figure 3.4 Characteristic curve of a Geiger Muller tube showing the count rate as a
function of the applied anode voltage

22
The threshold voltage VT depends on the conditions defined for the circuit. The threshold
voltage VT also marks the beginning of the Geiger Muller plateau for the conditions under
which the circuit is operating. The plateau extends for about 100 V. The large voltage range
of the plateau, and it’s very low gradient, permit accurate measurements of radiation intensity
without the need for stabilized power supplies. At the upper end of the plateau there is sharp
rise in the count rate. The relationship between the count rate and the radiation intensity is no
longer linear. The tube circuit becomes unstable and oscillations may occur. Formula for the
plateau length and plateau slope is given as:

Plateau length = (V2-V1) Volts (3.7)

N 2 - N1 100
Plateau slope = ¥ %V (3.8)
0.5( N 2 + N1) V 2 - V1

The small positive slope that always occurs on the plateau is caused in the following way:

1. Increasing voltage lengthens the active volume of the tube slightly (the spatial region
where ions are in an adequate electric field to ensure that they have a chance of initiating
an avalanche discharge). The number of counts thus increases for a given radiation
intensity.
2. Since even a quenched discharge leaves some residual charges or molecules in an excited
state, there remains a possibility of a second discharge being induced. The probability of
this occurring is low but rises with increasing voltage. The small number of such spurious
counts will add slightly to the initial count rate and thus contribute to the slope of plateau.
Operation in the plateau: The amplitude of the output signal that can be derived from a
Geiger Muller tube is always a function of the supply voltage of the circuit, the starting
voltage Vs of the particular tube, and the specific component values in the RC network.
However, for given circuit components, operation with supply voltage set nominally in the
centre of the plateau gives a counting rate substantially independent of the applied voltage
over the range of the plateau when the tube is operated in a uniform radiation field.
3.3.6 Equivalent circuit
Figure 3.5 shows all the components in a standard application for a Geiger Muller
tube. The equivalent capacitances C1 to C4 represent primarily the inherent stray capacitances
of components and wiring, but in the case of C4 an actual capacitor might be added for
compensation purposes.

23
 Figure 3.5 Equivalent Geiger Muller application circuit.

(a) Anode resistor R1

Resistor R1 is an essential component for correct operation of the geiger muller tube.
The minimum value of R1 for any particular tube type is always specified in the data sheet
but it is better to use a higher value if the application allows it. This anode resistor reduces
anode voltage after a discharge has been initiated, the voltage dropping to below the starting
voltage Vs while sufficient discharge ionisation is present. This severe reduction in anode
voltage allows the tube and circuit to recover from the discharge. Recovery time is
determined partly by R1 as well as by the time taken for the gas ions to recombine. Average
tube current flowing during quickly repeated multiple discharge is also limited by R1, and the
recommended value of R1 given in the data is selected to give a current that will lead to long
tube life. The anode resistor also has an effect on the plateau length, a lower value of R1
giving a shorter plateau length.
(b) Cathode resistor R2
When discharge occurs, the current through the tube develops a positive going
voltage across the cathode resistor R2. This is the preferred way of taking the output signal
from the circuit. In most applications, the ration of R2:R1 is normally set at 1:45 and the
manufacturing test methods also adhere to this relationship. A lower value can be used for the
cathode resistor and this offers the advantage of a lower source resistance but at the cost of
reduced output pulse amplitude. This reduction might be unimportant, however, because of
the substantial amplitude of the unreduced pulse. When the gas in the tube ionises, the voltage

24
across the tube falls somewhat below the starting voltage Vs. the extent to which the voltage
falls below Vs depends on several factors but the differnce between the voltages is small
enough to be ignored to a first approximation. If we therefore assume that the anode voltage
falls approximately to Vs , then the output pulse amplitude Vpulse is given by :
Vsupply - Vs
Vpulse = (3.9)
45
(c) Tube self-capacitance C1
The self capacitance of the tube (Figure 3.5) cannot be reduced in any way. Its value
is typically about 1 pF.
(d) Stray anode capacitance C2
The stray anode capacitance C2 in figure 3.5 consists of the self capacitance of the
anode resistor, and the stray capacitance between the anode and the supply connections.
Careful layout of wiring, and the use of a resistor with a low self-capacitance, will keep this
value to a minimum. The discharge pulse is affected by the two stray capacitances C2 and C3
as though they were in parallel. Clearly, when the tube discharges, the capacitance C2 must be
charged before the voltage on the anode can fall. A significant value of C2 will therefore
cause a sharp current spike on the leading edge of the output pulse. As a result of this, tube
life may be reduced. Furthrmore, the operational dead time will be lengthened because, as the
tube de-ionises, capacitance C2 has to discharge through R1 before the working anode voltage
can be re-established.
(e) Anode-ground capacitance C3
For maximum performance, it is essential to keep to a minimum any stray capacitance
between the anode and the ground circuit. As mentioned previously, the anode resistor R1 in
figure 3.5 must be positioned as close as possible to the anode, and all other wirings must be
kept away from the anode. Even short lengths of wire from the anode resitor to the tube will
reduce the performance of the tube perceptibly, particularly at high counting rates. Since,
prior to the discharge of the tube, capacitance C3 will be changed to the supply voltage
through R1, C3 has to be discharged through the tube before the anode voltage can fall. This
modifies the tube response and its behaviour when counting.
(f) R2 and capacitor C4
When the output signal is taken from the cathode resistor R2 in the preferred way,
usually via screened cable, the signal connection to the counter will inevitably make some
additional capacitance appear across the resistor. As the capacitance C4 will bypass the higher
frequency components of the output pulse that would otherwise have developed a voltage
across R2, the effect is to slow down the leading edge of the pulse and also to lengthen the tail
slightly. Provided the value of C4 is not excessive (say <100 pF), it has little effect on the
operation of the tube as a counter.

25
3.3.7 Dead time and recovery time
The maximum counting performance of a tube is determined by two interrelated
characteristic times. These are known as ‘dead time’ and ‘recovery time’, and both are related
to the period immediately following a full-size discharge. The meaning of terms are defined
below in relation to figure 3. 6.
The dead time, which has a major influence on the total recovery time, is the very
brief period following a discharge, during which the Geiger Muller tube is incapable of
responding to any subsequent ionizing event. This short period lasts while the effective circuit
capacitance is recharged. Normally, most of the residual positive ions are collected by the
electric field during this period, but the field is nevertheless too low to allow another
discharge, even if further ionization events occur. The dead time after each ionization
discharge will limit the maximum count rate because events that occur in the dead period
cannot produce a count.
The relationship between dead time τ, the true count rate N1, and the measured count rate N,
is:
N
N1 = (3.10)
1 - Nt
This expression is valid only when Nt << 1

Figure 3.6 Possible heights of a second pulse as a function of time subsequent to a single
initial full-size pulse

At high dose rates the probability of an ionizing event occurring within dead time is high and
so a significant number of counts are lost. Tube dead time therefore has a more marked effect
on detector circuit performance at higher dose rates. This effect is usually seen as a non-
linearity in the tube characteristic relating dose rate to count rate. A typical example of this
slight but inherent non-linearity in the characteristic of the tube itself is shown in figure 3.7.

26
Certain kinds of inadequate circuit design can also cause an additional apparent exaggeration
of this non-linearity which is then called ‘foldback’. Circuits should be correctly designed to
minimize the foldback result.
Ionizing events repeated at close to the maximum count rate will produce output
pulses of limited amplitude. Because of this, as the count rate increases, the detector takes less
time on average to recover from each event, and so the effective dead time falls. The
difference between the true and observed count rate therefore increases. For large detectors
the change in effective dead time is slight, but for small detectors the change is significant.
Clearly, for optimum performance, circuit designers always use counting equipment or a
scalar circuit with a resolution time significantly shorter than the minimum attainable dead
time of the tube.

Figure 3.7 Count rate versus dose rate for a typical Geiger Muller tube

(a) Reduced dead time

Dead time can be reduced somewhat by decreasing the value of the series anode
resistor. This expedient can be used with either the non-preferred anode signal connection
method or the preferred cathode connection. In either case, however, the reduction in value of
the resistor might adversely affect the quenching and so the method should be used with
caution. Dead time can also safely be minimized by ensuring that the anode resistor is
connected directly to the anode clip on the tube, thus reducing the circuit capacitance that is
added directly to the anode. This also enhances the physical durability of the tube under
conditions of vibration or physical shock.
(b) Recovery time
Figure 3.6 shows the dead time and this can be seen to be initial part of the full
recovery time. After dead time, but before the field is completely restored, only a limited
discharge can be supported. If additional time elapses before a subsequent discharge occurs,

27
the voltage across the detector tube rises. The next ionizing event can then produce a more
substantial discharge and a larger output pulse. The amplitude of such subsequent pulses will
eventually rise to the normal maximum after a full recovery period. The recovery period is
defined as the ‘the minimum time between two successive normal pulses’, as shown in figure
3.6. Recovery time is approximately twice the dead time.
3.3 LEAF
Leaves are vital to the survival of plants. They help plants in a variety of ways,
including producing food and oxygen through photosynthesis, balancing water loss,
regulating gas exchange and transporting the products of photosynthesis. Because of the vast
array of jobs that leaves perform, there are many specialized structures.
3.3.1 Different parts of leaf
(a) The Cuticle and Upper Epidermis
The outermost layer that protects leaves is called cuticle. It is generally waxy to
protect the leaf and prevent water loss. Below the cuticle is the epidermis. On the top of the
leaf, this is known as the upper epidermis. This is a single layer of cells found directly below
the cuticle. It helps to protect the leaf by aiding in preventing water loss and providing an
extra layer between the outside and inside of the leaf.
(b) The Palisade Layer
Below the upper epidermis is the palisade layer. This is one or a few layers of
cylindrical cells that contain many chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are an important part of plant
cells because they are cell structures that allow for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the
process by which autotrophs convert light energy into chemical energy. The palisade layer is
therefore mainly responsible for producing food and oxygen for the plant through
photosynthesis.
(c) The Spongy Layer
Below the palisade layer is the spongy layer. This is an area with loosely packed cells
with many air pockets. The cells are more ball-shaped than cylindrical-shaped like the cells in
the palisade layer. The large air pockets allow for gas exchange between different areas of the
leaf. The cells in this layer contain few chloroplasts and are therefore not generally
responsible for photosynthesis. This makes sense, as the layer is further into the leaf and will
therefore not get as much sun as the palisade layer, which is closer to the leaf surface.
Within the spongy layer are a few other components of the leaf. Along with the air
pockets for the exchange of gasses are vascular bundles that contain xylem and phloem.
These vascular bundles are also called veins in a leaf. This is where the movement of water
and food occurs. Xylem moves water and dissolved minerals, while phloem moves food.
Collectively, the area that contains the palisade and spongy layers is known as the mesophyll

28
 Figure 3.8 Internal structure of leaf

3.3.2 Color
Plants make an amazing variety of pigment molecules. After all, plants are creatures
of light. They sense light to control their growth and rapid responses to the environment, and
they use light as their source of energy. Plants produce pigments to advertise rewards for
animals which pollinate flowers and disperse seeds. Thus, pigments may have physiological
and/or biological functions.
There are three types of pigments present in the leaves of plants, and their retention or
production determines the color of leaves before they fall from, molecules, beyond the simple
chemical formulas that describe the numbers of atoms of different elements making up the
molecule. Three types of pigments that are present during the aging of leaves: chlorophylls,
carotenoids, and anthocyanins.
(a) Carotenoids
Carotenoids are very long-chain water-repelling pigments that are synthesized in the
plastids of plant cells. In the sunflower, a common carotenoid, β-carotene (shown in figure
3.9), is produced in the chromoplasts of the ray flowers to produce bright yellow-orange
colors. These pigments primarily absorb in the blue wavelengths, allowing the longer
wavelengths to be scattered and producing the yellow color. In autumn foliage, the
carotenoids are left over in the chloroplasts and revealed from the loss of chlorophyll.

29
 Figure 3.9 β-carotene

(b) Chlorophylls
The chlorophylls, a and b, are the pigments of photosynthesis. Chlorophyll a is shown
in figure 3.10. They are produced in chloroplasts in the photosynthetic tissues of the leaf. The
chlorophyll molecules are very water repelling, partly because of the long phytol tail in the
molecule. The closed ring of the molecule is similar to the haemoglobin of our blood, but
holds a magnesium ion rather than iron. It is a large and expensive molecule to make, partly
because each ring contains four nitrogen atoms. Chlorophyll is normally broken down
towards the end of the leaf life span, and much of the nitrogen is resorbed by the plant.
(c) Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins are water-soluble pigments produced via the flavonoid pathway in the
cytoplasm of the colored plant cell. The attachment of the sugar molecule makes them
particularly soluble in the sap of the vacuole as shown in figure 3.11. These are responsible
for the pink-red colors of most flower petals, of most red fruits (like apples) and almost all red
leaves during the autumn. Anthocyanins absorb light in the blue-green wavelengths, allowing
the red wavelengths to be scattered by the plant tissues to make these organs visible to us as
red.
3.4 MOISTURE CONTENT
Leaf water status information is highly needed for monitoring plant physiological
processes. The internal water status of a plant represents the integrated interaction of the plant
with the environment, leading to the plant’s growth. The internal water status of plants is
commonly determined by the Diffusion Pressure Deficit (D.P.D.) method, the relative
turgidity method and the β-gauging technique (Mederski, 1961; Barrs and Weatherley, 1962).
The former two methods require a controlled environment, considerable time, and are not
useful for monitoring continuously the changes in plant water status. However, the β-
attenuation technique is being widely used to monitor continuously the water content of plant
leaves. The main advantage of this method is that it is a non-destructive method for measuring
water status of plant leaves.

30
 Figure 3.10 Chlorophyll a

Figure 3.11 Anthocyanin with sugar

3.5 RADIOACTIVE SOURCE

For experimental study of beta ray interaction in a material we require beta ray
sources of suitable energy, half life and strength. Radioactive source 204Tl has been used in the
present study.
???
3.5.1 Decay scheme of ????
204
Tl has a half life of 3.78 years and emits beta particles of energy 0.766 MeV.
Decay scheme of 204Tl is shown in figure 3.12.

31
 ???
????
-
2
E1
?? = ?. ? ?????
?

?? (97.9%)

E2
???
??? ?

E3
???
????
Figure 3.12 Decay scheme of 204Tl

3.6 METHOD OF MEASUREMENTS

3.6.1 Transmission study of 0.766 MeV beta particles through selected plant leaves.
Leaves of Brinjal, Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato were taken from fields of Punjab
Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Semi grown leaves were taken from the plants i.e. leaves
were taken from the half height of the plants. This is due to the fact that the thickness of these
leaves is almost constant at this height. Selected leaves were first washed with water and then
socked for a few minutes in layers of blotting paper. Circles of desired radius were cut from
the leaves and thickness of 7 to 12 such strips was determined by weighing them on
sophisticated balance having an accuracy of 10-4 gm. An aluminium sheet having 2.5 cm
diameter hole in centre serving as collimator was placed close to beta source to define the
beam. In each measurement the centre of source, collimator, window of G.M. counter and
absorber holder was aligned. The source-absorber-detector geometry was kept the same
throughout the experiment resulting in non varying scattering and air absorption effects.
204
A fresh leaf of Brinjal was taken and transmission of 0.766 MeV (using Tl) beta
particles was made through this fresh leaf. Then two fresh leaves of Brinjal were taken and
transmission was made through these two fresh leaves. This process was repeated with
increasing number of leaves till detector shows sensitivity for transmitted intensityThen leaf
strips of same sample were taken and dried under an infrared lamp until complete dryness was
204
ensured. Now transmission of 0.766 MeV (using Tl) beta particles was made through one
dry leaf of Brinjal. Then two dry leaves of Brinjal were taken and transmission was made
through these two dry leaves. This process was repeated with increasing number of leaves till
detector shows sensitivity for transmitted intensity. The relative transmission [I/I0 (%)] versus
thickness curves were plotted for Brinjal leaves in different state (fresh and dry). Same
procedure was repeated on Pumkin, Spinach and Tomato leaves.

32
3.6.2 Moisture content of plant leaves
The mass attenuation coefficient is theoretically defined as the slope of the curve
between logarithmic relative intensity and thickness of the absorber. Therefore, plots between
logarithmic relative intensity and thickness for each sample were plotted for fresh and dry
state of the leaves. The values of mass attenuation coefficient for 0.766 MeV beta particles for
different samples in different state (fresh and dry) were obtained using Origin Lab software.
The mass attenuation coefficients which were calculated using regression method were also
verified with the values that obtained from the Origin software. The detail of regression
method is given below:
(a) Least square fitting methods
The attenuation of beta rays through material is exponential. The plot between
logarithmic relative transmission ln (I / I0 ) against thickness of the absorber for a given set of
data is a straight line. The slopes of these curves were used to determine the mass attenuation
coefficients using Origin software. Also, the formulae used for the analysis of mass
attenuation coefficients are given by statistical regression method which takes up the form as:
Y = ab X
where a and b are constants, and Y = I / I O (%) and x is the absorber thickness
Taking logarithm
ln y = ln a + x ln b

This is a linear curve in ln y and x with ln a and ln b as constant. Clearly m is the slope of
this curve. Thus
m = - ln b
Let lnY1, lnY2, …… lnYn and x1, x2, …….xn be the experimental data. Then the estimated
line will be given by;
Ÿ
ln Y = ln a + x ln b
The vertical error ei is given by
Ÿ
e i = ln Yi - ln Yi

The principle of least squares requires ln a and ln b should be so chosen that Âe i

2
is as

small as possible. A necessary condition is that the partial derivatives of the sum with respect
to ln a and ln b should both be zero. Thus we have
2

Ê Ÿ
ˆ
Âe i
2
=  ÁË ln Y - ln Y ˜¯
i i

33
 n 2

= Â(ln Y - ln a - x ln b)
i =1
i i

Normal equations are given by

n n

Â
i =1
ln Yi = n ln a + ln b Âx
i =1
i

n n n

Â
i =1
x i ln Yi = ln a  i =1
x i + ln b Âx
i =1
i
2

Solving above set of normal equation simultaneously we get

n

Âx
i =1
i ln Yi
ln b = n

Âx
i =1
i
2

È ˘
which is the slope of curve Íln Y = ln a + x ln b ˙
Î ˚
(b) Moisture content determination
When a leaf is irradiated with beta particles, the intensity of the rays decreases as a
result of interaction with the leaf. The attenuation of beta radiation through a leaf depends
upon mass per unit area of the leaf. The intensity of attenuated beta radiation through a plant
leaf, If, is given as

If = I0 exp [ -mftf] (3.12)

The logarithmic constant e is 2.718, I0 is the unmodified intensity and if If be the intensity of
beta particles on passing through a fresh leaf. µf represents mass attenuation coefficient of
fresh leaf and tf is the thickness of fresh leaf in mg/cm2.
As the leaf consists of organic matter and water, thus:
tw = tf - td (3.13)
2 2
where tw is water in mg/cm and td is organic matter in mg/cm
From equation (3.8)
1 Ê Io ˆ
tf = ln Á ˜˜
m f ÁË I f ¯ (3.14)

Similarly,

1 Ê Io ˆ
td = ln Á ˜
md ÁË Id ˜¯ (3.15)

where µd is mass attenuation coefficient of dry leaf and Id is the intensity of beta radiation on
passing through dry leaf.

34
From equation (3.13), (3.14) and (3.15), we get

1 ÈÊ I o ˆ Ê I d ˆ˘
n

tw = ln ÍÁ ˜ ¥ Á ˜˜˙
m d ÍÁË I f ˜¯ ÁË I o ¯˙˚ (3.16)
Î
where n = µd/µf, If/Io = Relative transmitted intensity of fresh leaf, Id/Io = Relative transmitted
intensity through same dried leaf. Thus equation (3.12) can be used to determine the moisture
content in a plant leaf.
Percentage of moisture content by beta attenuation method is given by:
tw
Water content (%) = ¥ 100
tf

The values of moisture content obtained using above method were compared with direct
weighing measurements.
fresh - dry
Direct weighing (%) = ¥100
fresh

35
CHAPTER-IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter, the measurement, results and discussion of transmission study of beta
particles through selected plant leaves are reported. Before considering the study with leaves,
operating voltage of Geiger Muller counter is determined. The goodness of the detector is also
tested and the arrangement is standardized by studying transmission through standard
absorber Aluminium.
4.1 Determination of operating voltage of Geiger Muller counter.
A narrow beam of beta particles is attenuated to intensity I from incident intensity I0
in passing through a layer of material, with thickness as mass per unit area (T) according to
exponential law:
I =I0 e-μT (4.1)
where μ is the attenuation coefficient. All the attenuation measurements for selected leaves
for present study are performed with the Geiger Muller counter. Table 4.1 lists the counts
recorded by detector corresponding to various values of voltage. The obtained background
counts are 92±10. The corrected counts are obtained by subtracting the background counts
from the observed counts. The figure 4.1 is obtained by plotting voltage against corrected
counts i.e. transmitted intensity. The operating voltage of Geiger Muller Counter is evaluated
using the formula:
1
Operating voltage (V)=V1 + ?V2 -V1 ?volts (4.2)
3

where V1 is the voltage where plateau region starts and V 2 is the voltage corresponding to the
end of plateau region. The Geiger Muller counter operating at 450 V, slightly below the
middle of plateau is used for measuring the beta intensity. The beta source used in present
experiment is 204Tl with beta maximum energy of 0.766 MeV.
4.2 Calibration of Geiger Muller counter.
In this section, the accuracy and consistency in the performance of Geiger Muller
counter is examined. The goodness of the counter was tested by applying Chi-square test on
the Geiger Muller counter data (see Appendix-1). Table 4.2 shows the data taken on Geiger
Muller counter to check its behaviour. The values of ‘x’ are number of counts per 200
seconds. The probable error of measurement can be recorded as 96.5±10 counts per 200
seconds. As Q2 ≈ 1, it implies that dispersion of data is normal. For χ2 = 13.89, F=9 we get
P=0.1. It shows that in one out of ten similar tests, we would expect fluctuation greater than
those observed here. This is a satisfying result that the counter is behaving properly.

36
Table 4.1 Counts at varying voltage for Geiger Muller counter to evaluate the
operating voltage.
S.No. EHT (V) Observed counts Corrected Counts
(Observed counts-
Background Counts)
1 300 0 0
2 345 0 0
3 360 8463±92 8371±91
4 375 9297±96 9205±96
5 390 9516±98 9424±97
6 405 9581±98 9489±97
7 420 9782±99 9690±98
8 435 9750±99 9658±98
9 450 9746±99 9654±98
10 465 9775±99 9683±98
11 480 9636±98 9544±98
12 495 9825±99 9733±99
13 510 9765±99 9673±98
14 525 9738±99 9646±98
15 540 9966±100 9874±99
16 555 9825±99 9733±99
17 570 10003±100 9911±100
18 585 9898±99 9806±99
19 600 10217±101 10125±101
20 615 10334±102 10242±101
21 630 10393±102 10301±101

Table 4.2 Analysis of Geiger Muller counter data.

S.No. x (x-x?) (x-x?)2
1. 95 -1.50 2.25
2. 104 7.50 56.25
3. 101 4.50 20.25
4. 89 -7.50 56.25
5. 104 7.50 56.25
6. 93 -3.50 12.25
7. 117 20.50 420.25
8. 71 -25.50 650.25
9. 102 5.50 30.25
10. 89 -7.50 56.25

37
 12000

Transmitted intensity 10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650

Voltage

Figure 4.1 Plateau region.

The arrangement was standardized by studying the transmission of 0.766 MeV beta particles
from 204Tl through standard absorber Aluminium. The transmitted intensity was recorded as a
function of thickness of absorber foils. Table 4.3 lists the thickness, transmitted intensity and
logarithmic relative transmitted intensity of Aluminium absorber. The fitted curve of
logarithmic relative intensity vs thickness is given in figure 4.2. The obtained value of mass
attenuation coefficient for Aluminium is 21.75 g/cm2 which is in good agreement with earlier
measured values (Gleason et al (1951), Nathuram et al (1982), Thontodarya (1984), Singh et
al(1987)). This confirms the validity of experimental set up and procedure adapted to measure
‘µ’ of the selected leaves.
Table 4.3 Transmitted intensity; relative transmitted intensity, their logarithmic values
and different thickness of Aluminium with 9204±96 as incident intensity (I0).
S.NO. Thickness Intensity (I) I/I0 ln(I/I0)
(mg/cm2)
1. 13.4 6963±83 0.75652 -0.27903
2. 27.0 5539±74 0.60180 -0.50782
3. 40.5 3735±61 0.40580 -0.90189
4. 84.5 1250±35 0.13581 -1.99649
5. 219.0 70±8 0.00760 -4.87890
6. 243.0 25±5 0.00272 -5.90852
7. 324.0 12±3 0.00130 -6.64249

38
 Experimental data
Best-fit straight line
having equation:
0
Y = -0.05990 -0.02175 * X
-1

-2

-3
ln(I/I0)

-4

-5

-6

-7

-8
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.2 The fitted curve of logarithmic relative transmission versus thicknesses of
Aluminium using 204Tl.

4.3 Transmission study of 0.766 MeV beta particles through selected plant leaves.
Leaves of Brinjal, Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato were taken from fields of Punjab
Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Semi grown leaves were taken from the plants i.e. leaves
were taken from the half height of the plants. This is due to the fact that the thickness of these
leaves is almost constant at this height. Selected leaves were first washed with water and then
socked for a few minutes in layers of blotting paper. Circles of desired radius were cut from
the leaves and thickness of 7 to 12 such strips was determined by weighing them on
sophisticated balance having an accuracy of 10-4 gm. An aluminium sheet having 2.5 cm
diameter hole in centre serving as collimator was placed close to beta source to define the
beam. In each measurement the centre of source, collimator, window of G.M. counter and
absorber holder was aligned. The source-absorber-detector geometry was kept the same
throughout the experiment resulting in non varying scattering and air absorption effects.
204
A fresh leaf of Brinjal was taken and transmission of 0.766 MeV (using Tl) beta
particles was made through this fresh leaf. Then two fresh leaves of Brinjal were taken and
transmission was made through these two fresh leaves. This process was repeated with
increasing number of leaves till detector shows sensitivity for transmitted intensity. The
measured transmitted intensity, logarithmic relative transmitted intensity and thickness of
Brinjal fresh leaves are shown in Table 4.4. Similarly, data for Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato
fresh leaves is listed in Table 4.6, 4.8 and 4.10 respectively.

39
 Then leaf strips of same sample were taken and dried under an infrared lamp until
complete dryness was ensured as shown in figure 4.3. This procedure of drying the leaves
reduced considerably the shrinkage and wrinkling of dried leaves.

Figure 4.3 Aluminium plates under an infrared lamp.

Figure 4.4 Aluminium plates with one plate having equally spaced holes.

40
Table 4.4 Transmitted intensity, relative transmitted intensity, their logarithmic values
204
and different thickness of Brinjal fresh leaves using Tl with 10807±104 as
incident intensity (I0).
S.No. Thickness Intensity (I) I0/I ln(I0/I)
(mg/cm2)
1. 25.40 6120±78 1.76585 0.56863

2. 49.87 3581±60 3.01787 1.10455

3. 75.65 2182±47 4.95280 1.6000

4. 102.70 1087±33 9.94204 2.29677

5. 129.79 548±23 19.72080 2.98167

6. 156.26 286±17 37.78671 3.63196

Equally spaced small holes were drilled into the aluminium plate placed at the bottom
of leaf as shown in figure 4.4. This was done so that moisture released from leaves can
evaporate easily. It also reduced the time for dryness. Complete dryness was ensured when
weight of a leaf reached a constant value. Aluminium plates were employed here because they
uniformly distributing the heat. Thus, all parts of a leaf received equal heat. This procedure of
drying usually takes 3 to 4 hours to completely dry the leaves. Now transmission of 0.766
204
MeV (using Tl) beta particles was made through one dry leaf of Brinjal. Then two dry
leaves of Brinjal were taken and transmission was made through these two dry leaves. This
process was repeated with increasing number of leaves till detector shows sensitivity for
transmitted intensity. The measured transmitted intensity, relative transmitted intensity,
logarithmic relative transmitted intensity and thickness of Brinjal dry leaves are shown in
Table 4.5. Similarly, data for Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato dry leaves is listed in Table 4.7,
4.9 and 4.11 respectively.
The relative transmission [I/I0 (%)] of Brinjal leaves (Fresh and dry) versus their
thickness is plotted in figure 4.5. It can be clearly seen from this plot that β-particle
absorption follows an exponential law in plant leaves which agrees completely with the
theoretically expected trend. Same trend is observed for Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato leaves
(Fresh and dry) and their plots of relative transmission [I/I0(%)] versus thickness are shown in
figure 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8 respectively. For each sample, the transmission curve in the dry state
has more slope than that in fresh state. In other words µ value for dry leaf (organic matter) is
higher than that for fresh leaf (organic matter plus water). This result is in good agreement
with Bedi (1991) which reported the same exponential trend and higher mass attenuation
values for dry state in comparison to fresh state.

41
Table 4.5 Transmitted intensity, relative transmitted intensity, their logarithmic values
204
and different thickness of Brinjal dry leaves using Tl with 9940±100 as
incident intensity (I0).
S.No. Thickness Intensity (I) I0/I ln(I0/I)
(mg/cm2)
1. 6.90 8002±89 1.24219 0.21688

2. 14.55 6271±79 1.58507 0.46063

3. 18.62 5338±73 1.86212 0.62172

4. 24.97 4107±64 2.42026 0.88387

5. 32.70 3182±56 3.12382 1.13906

6. 37.71 2528±51 3.93196 1.36914

7. 44.92 1948±44 5.10267 1.62976

8. 49.90 1585±40 6.27129 1.83598

Table 4.6 Transmitted intensity, relative transmitted intensity, their logarithmic values
204
and different thickness of Pumpkin fresh leaves using Tl with 9781±99 as
incident intensity (I0).
S.No. Thickness Intensity (I) I0/I ln(I0/I)
2
(mg/cm )
1. 18.08 5413±74 1.80695 0.59164
2. 33.05 3020±55 3.23874 1.17518

3. 49.47 1647±40 5.93868 1.78149

4. 66.39 1024±32 9.55176 2.25672
5. 80.08 762±28 12.83596 2.55225

6. 92.19 526±23 18.59506 2.92290

4.4 Determination of moisture content of selected plant leaves.

The mass attenuation coefficient is theoretically defined as the slope of the curve
between logarithmic relative intensity and thickness of the absorber. Therefore, plots
between logarithmic relative intensity and thickness for each sample were plotted for fresh
and dry state of the leaves. The values of mass attenuation coefficient for 0.766 MeV beta
particles for different samples in different state (fresh and dry) were obtained using Origin
Lab software.

42
Table 4.7 Transmitted intensity, relative transmitted intensity, their logarithmic values
204
and different thickness of Pumpkin dry leaves using Tl with 9455±97 as
incident intensity (I0).
S.No. Thickness Intensity (I) I0/I ln(I0/I)
2
(mg/cm )
1. 6.20 6966±83 1.35731 0.30550
2. 15.52 5077±71 1.86232 0.62182
3. 23.75 3557±60 2.65814 0.97763
4. 30.93 2637±51 3.58551 1.27690
5. 38.58 2022±45 4.67606 1.54246
6. 46.31 1380±37 6.85145 1.92446
7. 53.04 1017±32 9.29695 2.22969

Table 4.8 Transmitted intensity, relative transmitted intensity, their logarithmic values
204
and different thickness of Spinach fresh leaves using Tl with 6021±76 as
incident intensity (I0).
S.No. Thickness Intensity (I) I0/I ln(I0/I)
(mg/cm2)
1. 39.92 2113±46 2.84950 1.04714
2. 70.82 1492±39 4.03552 1.39514
3. 106.00 597±24 10.08543 2.31109
4. 136.78 235±15 25.62128 3.24342
5. 174.36 83±9 72.54217 4.28417
6. 206.74 23±5 261.78261 5.56751

The mass attenuation coefficients which were calculated using regression method
were also verified with the values that obtained from the Origin software. The small statistical
errors were also determined for each value of mass attenuation coefficient to improve the
accuracy of results. The overall error on mass attenuation coefficient is obtained by
combining statistical error and error on measurement of thickness of leaves in quadrature.
The fitted plot of logarithmic relative intensity versus thickness of Brinjal fresh leaves
is shown in figure 4.10. Similar plots for Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato fresh leaves are
shown in figure 4.12, 4.14 and 4.16 respectively. The slope of these plots will give us the
mass attenuation coefficient for fresh state (µf). Similar plots for dry state of Brinjal,
Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato leaves are shown in figure 4.11, 4.13, 4.15 and 4.17

43
Table 4.9 Transmitted intensity, relative transmitted intensity, their logarithmic values
204
and different thickness of Spinach dry leaves using Tl with 9068±95 as
incident intensity (I0).
S.No. Thickness Intensity (I) I0/I ln(I0/I)
(mg/cm2)
1. 5.47 7940±89 1.14206 0.13284

2. 8.1 7206±85 1.25840 0.22984

3. 11.82 6334±80 1.43164 0.35882

4. 15.28 5642±75 1.60723 0.47451

5. 17.19 5363±73 1.69084 0.52523

6. 20.27 4872±70 1.86125 0.62125

7. 23.27 4562±68 1.98772 0.68700

8. 26.58 4032±63 2.24901 0.81049

9. 28.77 3808±62 2.38130 0.86765

Table 4.10 Transmitted intensity, relative transmitted intensity, their logarithmic values
204
and different thickness of Tomato fresh leaves using Tl with 9883±99 as
incident intensity (I0).
S.No. Thickness Intensity (I) I0/I ln(I0/I)
2
(mg/cm )
1. 32.9 4320±66 2.28773 0.82756
2. 63.25 2376±49 4.15951 1.42540
3. 93.04 1245±35 7.93815 2.07168
4. 129.78 495±22 19.96566 2.99401
5. 159.32 237±15 41.70042 3.73051
6. 195.46 66±8 149.74242 5.00892
7. 231.13 28±5 352.96428 5.86637

respectively. The slope of these plots will give us the mass attenuation coefficient for dry state
(µd).
Mass attenuation coefficients obtained for fresh leaves (µf) and dry leaves (µd) are
then used to evaluate absolute moisture content (tw) using the formula given below:

1 ÈÊ I o ˆ Ê I d ˆ˘
n

tw = ln ÍÁ ˜ ¥ Á ˜˜˙
m d ÍÁË I f ˜¯ ÁË I o ¯˙˚ (4.3)
Î

44
Table 4.11 Transmitted intensity, relative transmitted, their logarithmic values and
204
different thickness of Tomato dry leaves using Tl with 9959±100 as
incident intensity (I0).
S.No. Thickness Intensity (I) I0/I ln(I0/I)
(mg/cm2)
1. 6.67 8391±92 1.18687 0.17132

2. 11.37 7036±84 1.41543 0.34744

3. 17.52 5911±77 1.68482 0.52166

4. 21.98 4948±70 2.01273 0.69949

5. 26.60 4358±66 2.28522 0.82646

6. 31.59 3826±62 2.60298 0.95666

7. 36.67 3349±58 2.97372 1.08981

8. 44.07 2491±50 3.99800 1.38579

9. 48.72 2187±47 4.55373 1.51594

μ
where n = d ; the ratio of mass attenuation coefficients of completely dry leaves to those of
μf

fresh leaves. I0 is the intensity of the unattenuated beta radiation, If is the intensity of
attenuated beta radiation through a fresh plant leaf, Id is the intensity of attenuated beta
radiation through completely dry leaf.
The percentage of moisture content in leaves by β-attenuation was calculated using:
tw
Moisture content (%)= ¥ 100 (4.4)
tf

where tf is the thickness of a fresh leaf. The values of moisture content (%) obtained using
equation 4.4 method were also compared with that direct weighing measurements (given by
equation 4.5)
Fresh leaf - Dry leaf
Direct weighing (%) = ¥ 100 (4.5)
Fresh leaf

Table 4.12 lists the unattenuated and attenuated intensity and thickness for fresh and dry state
of each leaf sample. Table 4.13 lists the mass attenuation values for fresh and dry state of
each leaf sample whereas error on mass attenuation coefficient is obtained by combining
statistical error and error on measurement of thickness in quadrature.

45
 Fresh
Dry
Relative transmission (%) 100

80

60

40

20

-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.5 Relative transmission (%) of β-particles vs thickness of fresh and dry Brinjal
leaves using 204Tl as radioactive source.

Fresh
Dry
100
Relative transmission (%)

80

60

40

20

0 20 40 60 80 100
2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.6 Relative transmission (%) of β-particles vs thickness of fresh and dry
Pumpkin leaves using 204Tl as radioactive source.

46
 Fresh
Dry
100

Relative transmission (%) 80

60

40

20

0 50 100 150 200

2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.7 Relative transmission (%) of β-particles vs thickness of fresh and dry
Spinach leaves using 204Tl as radioactive source.

Fresh
Dry
100
Relative transmission (%)

80

60

40

20

0 50 100 150 200 250

2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.8 Relative transmission (%) of β-particles vs thickness of fresh and dry
Tomato leaves using 204Tl as radioactive source.

47
 Experimental data
4.0
Best-fit straight line
having equation:
3.5
Y = -0.08454 + 0.02352 * X
3.0

2.5
ln(I0/I)

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.10 The fitted curve of logarithmic relative transmission versus thickness of
Brinjal fresh leaves using 204Tl.

Experimental data
2.0 Best-fit straight line
1.8 having equation:
Y = -0.07294 + 0.03796 * X
1.6

1.4

1.2
ln(I0/I)

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.11 The fitted curve of logarithmic relative transmission versus thickness of
Brinjal dry leaves using 204Tl.

48
 Experimental data
Best-fit straight line
3.0 having equation:
Y = 0.13532 + 0.03086 * X
2.5

2.0
ln(I0/I)

1.5

1.0

0.5

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.12 The fitted curve of logarithmic relative transmission versus thickness of
Pumpkin fresh leaves using 204Tl.

Experimental data
2.5 Best-fit straight line
having equation:
Y = 0.00812 + 0.04116 * X
2.0

1.5
ln(I0/I)

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.13 The fitted curve of logarithmic relative transmission versus thickness of
Pumpkin dry leaves using 204Tl.

49
 Experimental data
Best-fit straight line
6
having equation:
Y = -0.38443 + 0.02744 * X
5

4
ln(I0/I)

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.14 The fitted curve of logarithmic relative transmission versus thickness of
Spinach fresh leaves using 204Tl.

Experimental data
Best-fit straight line
0.9 having equation:
0.8 Y = -0.01883 + 0.03111 * X

0.7

0.6
ln(I0/I)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

5 10 15 20 25 30
2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.15 The fitted curve of logarithmic relative transmission versus thickness of
Spinach dry leaves using 204Tl.

50
 Experimental data
Best-fit straight line
6
having equation:
Y = -0.21946 + 0.02593 * X
5

4
ln(I0/I)

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.16 The fitted curve of logarithmic relative transmission versus thickness of
Tomato fresh leaves using 204Tl.

Experimental data
Best-fit straight line
1.6 having equation:
1.4 Y = -0.02331 + 0.03150 * X

1.2

1.0
ln(I0/I)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
2
Thickness (mg/cm )

Figure 4.17 The fitted curve of logarithmic relative transmission versus thickness of
Tomato dry leaves using 204Tl.

51
Table 4.12 Thickness, Unattenuated intensity, attenuated intensity of fresh and dry
state of Brinjal, Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato plant leaves using 204Tl.
S.No. Leaves State Unattenuated Attenuated Thickness (T)
intensity intensity (mg/cm2)
1. Brinjal Fresh 10807±104 6120±78 25.40±0.75
Dry 9940±100 8002±89 6.90±0.37
2. Pumpkin Fresh 9781±99 5413±74 18.08±0.54
Dry 9455±97 6966±83 6.20±0.16
3. Spinach Fresh 6021±78 2113±46 39.92±1.18
Dry 9068±95 7940±89 5.47±0.80
4. Tomato Fresh 9883±99 4320±66 32.90±0.97
Dry 9959±98 8391±92 6.67±0.59

Table 4.13 Mass attenuation coefficient (cm2/g), absolute moisture content and %
moisture content by β-attenuation technique and direct weighing for
Brinjal, Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato plant leaves using 204Tl.
S.No. Leaves State µ±Δµ Absolute Moisture content (%)
2
(cm /g) moisture
content tw β-attenuation Direct
(g/cm2)×10-3 (tw/T)×100 weighing

1. Brinjal Fresh 23.52±0.56 18.47±1.15 72.71±5.01 72.83

Dry 37.96±0.52
2. Pumpkin Fresh 30.86±1.51 11.70±1.04 64.71±6.07 65.71
Dry 41.16±0.91
3. Spinach Fresh 27.44±1.92 33.76±2.98 84.57±7.87 86.30
Dry 31.11±0.61
4. Tomato Fresh 25.93±0.96 26.35±1.03 80.09±3.29 79.73
Dry 31.50±0.58

The error on absolute moisture content (tw) was calculated by combining error on
thickness, intensity and mass attenuation coefficient in quadrature. This is listed in column 5
of Table 4.13. The values of percentage moisture content for these leaf samples along with
that calculated from direct weighing are listed in Table 4.13. The percentage moisture content
obtained by beta attenuation for Brinjal, Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato plant leaves differs
from the direct weighing method by 2% at the most.

52
 The transmission curves for all the leaf samples are of the same nature i.e. logarithmic
plot of relative intensity versus thickness is linear. The moisture content (%) in Spinach and
Tomato is of the same order and their µ values for fresh and dry state are also close. The
moisture content (%) values obtained using beta attenuation technique and by direct weighing
are in close proximity. Therefore, once the measured mass attenuation coefficient µf and µd
are known for fresh and dry leaves of a particular kind of plant, the % moisture content of any
other fresh leaf of the plant may be obtained simply by measuring the relative β-intensity in
the given fresh leaf under the same experimental geometry and using equation 4.3. Thus beta
attenuation technique can prove to be a useful tool to determine the moisture content of
plants.
Water is one of the most important matters in plant. Water stress restricts
transpiration including closure of stomata and less water evaporating from the leaf surface.
Further, it reduces efficiency of photosynthesis and limits crop productivity. Thus, it has
important implications in agricultural management practices to detect the water content in
plant. Accurate water content estimation is needed to make irrigation decisions and predict
crop yields in the field of agriculture. Water status of plant can be indicated by the features of
tissues such as root, stem, and leaf or the whole canopy. Compared with other tissue of plant,
leaf analysis is the most important tool for evaluating nutrient and water status of plant, which
are used for guiding its fertilization and irrigation. Because leaf is metabolically very active, it
is the location of photosynthesis processing which is the most important biologic reaction.
Therefore, it is very important to predict the water content rapidly and non-destructively.
Thus beta attenuation technique can prove to be a useful tool to determine the moisture
content of plants. Furthermore, to prototype the method in field, simulation of the present
experiment with some suitable Monte Carlo Simulation code is required.

53
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY

Radiations have today become an inseparable part of living environment. Besides

radiations from natural sources we have manmade sources such as nuclear reactors,
radioisotopes, X-ray machine etc. Radiations are usefully employed in various fields such as
medicine, industry, hydrology and agriculture. It is on this background that the study of
interaction of beta radiations with the materials of common and industrial use, as well as of
biological and commercial importance has become major area of interest in the field of
radiation science. For a scientific study of interaction of radiation with matter a proper
characterization and assessment of penetration in the external medium is necessary. We can
define some parameters for such a quantitative evaluation, of which the 'mass attenuation
coefficient' of the material is one of the most important parameter. It is because of this that the
study of mass attenuation coefficient of various materials has been an important part of
research work in radiation chemistry and physics. The mass attenuation coefficient usually
depends upon the energy of radiations and nature of the material. As leaves plays vital role in
the process of photosynthesis. With these points in consideration the experiments for
measurement of mass attenuation coefficient have been carried out in the present research
work. These mass attenuation coefficients will further provide us information regarding
moisture content of selected plant leaves.
Of the three common types of radiation given off by radioactive materials, alpha, beta
and gamma, beta has the medium penetrating power. Beta particles interact with surrounding
via different mechanisms. Positrons being positively charged particles interact with electrons
from surrounding matter through the process called annihilation of radiation, producing
gamma rays. However, positrons are not of much interest since they do not last for very long
in matter before they are annihilated. In case of electrons i.e. beta particles, the interaction
between the electric field of a beta particle and the orbital electrons of the absorbing medium
leads to inelastic collisions that generate electronic excitation and ionization. The other
important mechanism of reducing energy of beta particles is "bremsstrahlung".
Bremsstrahlung is the emission of continuous electromagnetic energy which results when a
high-speed electron on passing through material undergoes a substantial nuclear scattering.
Beta radiation has many applications in the field of agriculture, industry and medicine. Beta
particles can be used to treat health conditions such as eye and bone cancer and are also used
as tracers. Beta particles are also used in quality control to test the thickness of an item, such
as paper or aluminium foils. Some of the beta radiation is absorbed while passing through the
product. If the product is made too thick or thin, a correspondingly different amount of
radiation will be absorbed.
 In the present experiment, the transmission study of 0.766 MeV beta particles from
204
Tl in leaf samples of Brinjal, Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato have been carried out in
different state (fresh and dry). For the present study, Geiger Muller counter detector was used
from which the relative transmission data was determined for all the leaf samples in fresh and
dry state. From that data, plots of logarithmic relative transmission versus thickness were
drawn. The least square fitting of these plots has been done using Origin software and has
been represented with a straight line in each plot.
It was found that transmission of beta radiation in selected leaf samples is exponential
in nature, i.e., plot between logarithmic relative transmitted intensity of beta particles against
thickness (mg/cm2) of selected leaves is linear which agrees completely with the theoretically
expected trend. The slope of this curve can be used to determine the mass attenuation
coefficients of these selected leaf samples in different state. The small statistical errors were
also determined for each value of mass attenuation coefficient to improve the accuracy of
results. The mass attenuation coefficients which were calculated using regression method
were also verified with the values obtained from the Origin software. The results obtained
from both the methods were same, which proved the validation of our study. The overall error
on mass attenuation coefficient is obtained by combining statistical error and error on
measurement of thickness of selected leaves in quadrature.
The transmission curves in dry leaf samples have more slope than those in fresh state.
In other words, mass attenuation coefficient μ values for dry leaves (organic matter) are
higher than that for fresh leaves (organic matter and water) in all the cases studied in this
study. Mass attenuation coefficients will be used to determine the moisture content in selected
plant leaves. Leaf water status information is highly needed for monitoring plant
physiological processes. The internal water status of a plant represents the integrated
interaction of the plant with the environment, leading to the plant’s growth. The internal water
status of plants is commonly determined by the Diffusion Pressure Deficit method (Meyer
1983), the relative turgidity method and the β-gauging technique (Mederski 1961; Barrs and
Weatherley 1962). The former two methods require a controlled environment, considerable
time, and are not useful for monitoring continuously the changes in plant water status.
However, the β-attenuation technique is being widely used to monitor continuously the water
content of plant leaves. The main advantage of this method is that it is a non-destructive
method for measuring water status of plant leaves.
Many other methods can also be used to determine the moisture content of leaves.
But, the radiation techniques have always been preferred over the other methods because it
does not require any direct contact between the material and the hardware including the
source and the detector. Also, the material does not get damaged by the measurement

55
hardware through corrosion, abrasion or other negative interaction. The second advantage of
using these radiation techniques for the present study is that it is the best possible non-
destructive method for performing beta transmission studies on composite materials like leaf.

56
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Chaudhari L M (2013) Study of Attenuation Coefficients of Leaves of Asoka Plant by Using

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Chen X, Han W and Li M (2011) Spectroscopic determination of leaf water content using
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Cheng T, Rivard B, Azofeifa A G S, Féret J S, Jacquemoud S and Ustin S L (2012) Predicting

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Cheng T, Rivard B, Feret J B, Azofeifa A G S, Jacquemoud S and Ustin S L (2011)

Spectroscopic determination of leaf water content using continuous wavelet analysis.
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Dhaliwal A S, Powar M S and Singh M (1991) Attenuation of 204Tl and 32P beta ray
bremsstrahlung in thick targets of Al, Cu, Sn and Pb. Int J Radiat Ap Instr 42:427-30.

Eksteen A, Singels A and Ngxaliwe S (2014) Water relations of two contrasting sugarcane
genotypes. Field Crop Res 168: 86-100.

Ermis E E and Celiktas C (2012) Determination of beta attenuation coefficients by means of

timing method. Ann Nucl Energy 4:115–18.

Fernandez A B G, Perez J R R, Marabel M and Toboada F A (2015) Spectroscopic estimation

of leaf water content in commercial vineyards using continuum removal and partial
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Hunt E R and Rock B N (1989) Detection of changes in leaf water content using near and
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59
60
 APPENDIX – 1

RANDOMICITY OF GEIGER MULLER COUNTER DATA

Table 1 shows the data taken on Geiger Muller counter to check its behaviour. The values of
x are number of counts per 200 seconds and are background counts. For goodness of the
equipment this data should be randomly distributed. Applying Chi-square test on this data
will provide the information that how well a data fits random distribution.
Table 1 Analysis of Geiger Muller counter data.
S.No. ? (? − ?) (? − ?)?
1. 95 -1.5 2.25
2. 104 7.5 56.25
3. 101 4.5 20.25
4. 89 -7.5 56.25
5. 104 7.5 56.25
6. 93 -3.5 12.25
7. 117 20.5 420.25
8. 71 -25.5 650.25
9. 102 5.5 30.25
10. 89 -7.5 56.25

n
1
Mean background counts/200 seconds ( x ) =
n
Âx
i
i

965
x= = 96.5
10
1 2
Standard deviation (σ)= ? ∑ni=1?xi -x?? = 12.20 (1.1)
n-1

Expected standard deviation (??) = √?̅ = 9.82 (1.2)

⁄
Standard error ??̅ = ?/√? (1.3)

⁄
??̅ = 12.20 √10 = 3.86
?
??̅ = 9.82 √10 = 3.10
∑ni=1(xi -x?)2
Divergence coefficient Q2 = ≅1
nx?
1340
?? = = 13.89
96.5
Degrees of freedom = 10-1 = 9
Probability = 0.1

i
61
The probable error of measurement can be recorded as 96.5±10 counts per 200 seconds. As
Q2 ≈ 1, it implies that dispersion of data is normal. For ?? = 13.89, F=9 we get P=0.1. It
shows in one out of ten similar tests, we would expect fluctuation greater than observed here.
This is a satisfying result that the counter is behaving properly.

ii
62
 APPENDIX – 2

ERROR CALCULATIONS
(a) Error in thickness
For calculating error in radius and weight, 9-10 readings of radius and weight were taken.
These values are listed in table 2.
Table 2 Radius and weight of a Brinjal fresh leaf
S.No. Radius (r) (r-r?)2 Weight (w) (w-w
?)2
(cm) (mg)
1. 2.4 0.01 628.5 329.06
2. 2.5 0.00 622.6 149.82
3. 2.6 0.01 617.5 50.98
4. 2.4 0.01 614.9 20.61
5. 2.4 0.01 612.1 3.03
6. 2.5 0.00 607.2 9.98
7. 2.4 0.01 605.2 26.62
8. 2.6 0.01 602.2 66.58
9. 2.6 0.01 599.3 122.32
10. 2.6 0.01 594.1 264.39

Using equation 1.1 and 1.3 (see appendix-A), error in radius and weight is calculated.
r ± ∆r=(2.5 ± 0.03)cm
A±∆A=(19.63 ±0.47)cm2
where ∆A=2πr∆r,
A= πr2
w ± ∆w = (610.36 ±10.77)mg
Weight 610.36
As Thickness (T) = = =31.09 mg/cm2
Area 19.63

Error in thickness of Brinjal fresh leaf is given by:

∆w 2 ∆A 2
∆T =T×? ? ? + ? ? = 0.92
w A
Therefore, T±∆T=31.09 ±0.92 mg/?? ?
Similarly, error in thickness of Brinjal dry leaf can be calculated.
(b) Error in mass attenuation coefficient
Mass attenuation value obtained from the slope of graph between logarithmic relative
transmission and thickness for Brinjal Fresh leaves is given by 23.52 ± 0.56 (cm2/g), where

63iii
0.56 (S.E) is the statistical error only. The overall error, Δµ, was obtained when statistical
error due to counting and error in the measurement of thickness were added in quadrature.
Thickness (g/cm2) of Brinjal fresh leaf is given by;
T ± ΔT = (25.40 ± 0.75) ×10-3
Overall error Δµ is given by;

∆μ= ?(S.E)2 +(∆T)2 = ?(0.56)2 +(0.00075)2 =0.56 (cm2/g)

Similarly, error in mass attenuation coefficient of Brinjal dry leaf can be calculated.
(c) Error in absolute moisture content (tw)
The error in intensities, thicknesses, mass attenuation coefficients when added in
quadrature gives us the error in absolute moisture content. Procedure is explained below.
As tw = tf – td, we will first calculate error in tf (Δtf) and td (Δtd)
Equations for error propagation are given by:
? ∆y 2 ∆z 2
For = , error in x (∆x)=x×? ? ? + ? ? (1.4)
? y z
∆y
For ? = ln ?, ∆x= (1.5)
y

1 I0
tf = ln =24.18×10-3 g/cm2
μf If
1 I0 ±∆I0
∆tf = ln
μf ±∆μf If ±∆If

1 10807±104
∆tf = ln
23.52±0.56 6120±78
Using equation (1.4)
1
∆tf = ln(1.76±0.03)
23.52±0.56
Using equation (1.5)
0.56±0.02
∆tf =
23.52±0.56
Again using equation (1.4)
∆tf =1.02×10-3 g/cm2
1 I
Similarily, td = ln 0 =5.71×10-3 g/cm2
μd Id

Δtd = 0.53 × 10-3 g/cm2

Absolute moisture content is given by:
tw= tf - td =18.47×10-3 g/cm2
Error in absolute moisture content (Δtw) is given by:
∆tw=?(∆tf )2 +(∆td )2

64
iv
 ∆tw=1.15 ×10-3 g/cm2
Absolute moisture content (tw±Δtw) = (18.47±1.15) ×10-3 g/cm2
(d) Error in moisture content (%) by β-attenuation
Moisture content (M) by β-attenuation is given by:
tw
M (%)= ×100
Tf

tw 18.47×10??
M= = =0.7271
Tf 25.40×10??

∆tw 2 ∆Tf 2
?
∆M=M × ? ? + ? ?
tw Tf

2 2
1.15×10-3 0.75×10-3
∆M=0.7271 × ? ? ? +? ?
18.47×10-3 25.40×10-3
∆M=0.7271×0.06891=0.0501
M±∆M=0.7271±0.0501
M (%)=72.71±5.01
Similar procedure is followed on Pumpkin, Spinach and Tomato leaves.
(e) Direct weighing
fresh - dry
Direct weighing (%) = ¥100
fresh
(25.40 - 6.90)mg / cm 2
= ¥ 100 = 72.83
( 25.40)mg / cm 2

v
65
66
TRANSMISSION OF BETA RADIATION THROUGH
GREEN LEAVES OF VARIOUS SAMPLES TO
DETERMINE THE MOISTURE CONTENT

Rough Draft of Thesis

Submitted to The Punjab Agricultural University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
PHYSICS
(Minor subject: Mathematics)

By

Sheenam Saxena
(L-2013-BS-284-M)

Department of Mathematics, Statistics and Physics

College of Basic Sciences and Humanities
PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
LUDHIANA-141004

2015

67
68
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE
PAGE NO.

I INTRODUCTION 1-5

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 6-13

III MATERIAL AND METHODS 14-35

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36-53

V SUMMARY 54-56

REFERENCES 57-59

69