 Cell walls

o Plants - cellulose
o Bacteria - peptidoglycan
o Fungi - chitin
 Cell Resp
o Glycolysis - 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate
o Pyruvate Oxidation/Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex - 2 CO2, 2 NADH, 2 Acetyl CoA
o Krebs Cycle - 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP, 4 CO2
o Total - 36 ATP, H2O
 Genes: portion of DNA that carries instructions for protein synthesis only
 Mitosis in plant cells occurs in the meristems.
o Apical meristem found on tip of stem and tip of root
 Anaphase: fasted phase of mitosis; when homologs split, cell briefly has 92 chromosomes
 Spermatogenesis
o Diploid sperm cell is spermatogonium
 Located in the seminiferous tubules, in the testes
 Oogenesis
o Initial cell - primary oocyte, found in ovaries;
o Produces 2 polar bodies and 1 ovum
 Egg is fertilized ovum
o Polar bodies: no cytoplasm, no organelles, disintegrate
o 1 ovum per month, beginning at puberty and ending at menopause
 x-linked: hemophilia, colorblind, baldness
o Mole males affected than females: x-linked
o Fathers don’t pass X to sons, mothers do; pass X to daughters
 o

 Recessive traits - skip generations

 Origin of life
o Heterotroph hypothesis
 life began first as anaerobic 7heterotrophs. As they ran out of food, anaerobic
autotrophs emerged, producing O2
 Autotrophs caused O2 revolution
 Not accepted
 Speciation is extreme form of divergent evolution
 Analogous structures - same function, different basics - bird/insect wings
 Homologous structures - different function, same basics - forelimbs of mammals
 Binomial format - Genus species
 Bacteria
o 1 kingdom - Eubacteria
 Ex. Cyanobacteria
o Most are heterotrophs
o No genetic recombination by binary fission, but by
 Transformation: DNA from extracellular environment
 Conjugation: replicates DNA and donates it through a bridge called pilus
  Transduction: virus transfers DNA
o Strain of bacteria notation: drugrdrugs, where r is resistant and s is sensitive
Organism O2 O2
available unavailable
Obligate aerobes Live Die
Obligate anaerobes Die Live
Facultative anaerobes Live Live
o Wild type bacteria - can synthesize all their food; grow in petri dish, agar plate, or liquid
medium with glucose
o Auxotroph: can't synthesize all food; most need some amino; ex. notation - leu- arg+ his-
auxotroph; must add substance to growth medium (auxotrophic to substance)
 Determine which amino missing from medium
 See if bacteria grow on medium
 Yes: +
 No: -
o Supply nitrogen to legumes in mutualistic way. Excess nitrogen fixed can allow of crop
rotation to replace the legume with non-legume to use the extra nitrogen in soil
 Archaea
o No organelles/nucleus
o 1 kingdom - Archaebacteria
o Extreme halophiles - live in salty
o Extreme thermophiles - live in hot
o Methanogens - anaerobes that release methane as waste
 Eukarya
o Kingdom Protista
 Unicell, multicell, organelle, nucleus
 Widest variety of organisms
 3 main phyla
 Protozoa - animal-like
 Phylum Amoeba: unicell, pseudopodia, soil/freshwater/marine,
amoebic dysentery (disease)
 Phylum Sporozoans: animal parasites, sexual and asexual life that
needs two hosts
 Ex. Plasmodium
 Phylum Ciliates: unicell, cilia
 Ex. Paramecium
 Algae - plant-like
 Phylum Diatoms: glass wall, leave behind diatomaceous earths,
producers in phytoplankton
 Phylum Brown algae: seaweed, largest and most complex plant-like
protists
 Phylum Euglena: unicell, photosynthetic algae; flagellum
 Fungal protists
 Phylum Slime Molds: overgrown amoeba, many nuclei
o Kingdom Plantae
 For plants, use "division" instead of phylum
  Vascular - tracheophytes
 Seedless
 Division Pterophyte (Ferns) : spores instead of seeds, which can
be scattered by wind
 Seed
 Gymnosperms - nonflowering, naked-seed, cones that carry
seeds, adaptations to prevent water loss - Division
Coniferophyte (Conifers)
 Ex. Pines, firs, cedars, sequoia, redwoods, yews
 Angiosperms - flowering, pollen, fruit, nut - Division
Anthophyte
 Class Monocots: single-seeds leaves (cotyledons), parallel
veins, complex vascular tissue, fibrous root, flowers in
multiples of 3s
 Class Dicots: two cotyledons, netlike veins, ring-like
vascular tissue, taproot system, flowers in multiples of 4s
and 5s
 Nonvascular - lacks xylem or phloem (vascular tissue)
 Division Bryophyta: damp areas; water for fertilization
 Ex. Mosses, liverworts, hornworts
o Kingdom Fungi
 All multicell, except yeast
 Absorptive feeding of decaying material by hydrolytic enzymes
 Cell walls or not (multinucleate)
 Division Zygomycota: sexual reproduction
 Ex. Mold, mycorrhizae
 Division Club Fungi: 25,000 members
 Ex. Mushroom, shelf fungi, puffballs
 Reproduction
 Asexual pores: drop off on ground to grow into new fungus
 Sexual pores: combine to grow fungus
 Vegetative growth: portion drops off to grow into new fungus
 Budding: new fungus grows on side of old one
o Kingdom Animalia
 Phyla
 Sponges (Porifera): sessile (nonmoving), food in water trapped when
absorbed, 2 cell layer
 Coelenterates/Cnidarians: invertebrate; 2 cell layer; central, sac-like
digestion; radial symmetry; polyp (vase shaped) or medusa (upside-down
bowl shaped); cnidocytes with nematocysts (stinging cells with stingers)
 Ex. Hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones
 Flatworms (Platyhelminthes): bilateral symmetry; moderate head, one
opening; diffusion
 Ex. Planaria flukes (nonparasitic), tapeworms (parasitic)
 Roundworms/Unsegmented worms (Nematodes): bilateral symmetry;
parasitic
 Trichinella, C.elegans
  Mollusks: soft-bodies; shell; head-foot (sensory/motor organs), visceral
mass, mantle (covers visceral); open circulation
 Ex. Snail, oyster, clam, slug, octopus
 Segmented Worms (Annelids): bilateral; closed circulation, mouth, anus,
excrete waste through metanephridia
 Ex. Earthworm, leech
 Arthropods: most diverse phylum in animalia and largest and most diverse
in all phyla; joint appendages, chitin exoskeleton
 Ex. Crustaceans, insects, arachnids
 Echinoderms: slow moving; bilateral when young, radial when adult; spiny
exoskeleton; water vascular system for feeding, gas exchange, and
movement
 Ex. Sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars
 Chordates: notochord, dorsal nerve cord, gill silts, and tail; mostly
vertebrates (FARBM)
 Class Cartilaginous Fishes: flexible skeletons, made of cartilage
 Ex. Sharks, sting rays
 Class Bony Fishes: bone skeletons, lots of eggs without shell
 Ex. Bass, tuna, trout
 Class Amphibians: eggs lack shell, water to land growth, breathe
through lungs/skin
 Frogs, salamanders
 Class Reptiles: thick, scaly skin for water loss; eggs have shells or bear
live young
 Crocs, lizard, snake
 Class Birds: endothermic; homeothermic
 Class Mammals: endothermic, homeothermic
 Lytic cycle
o Enters host, replicates, forms many proteins, new viruses lyse cell as they escape; as
they leave, they develop envelope
 Lysogenic cycle
o Virus dormant in host, replicates with host, passed to daughters
 Viruses rely on host cell enzymes
 RNA viruses must have a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to replicate their RNA
o Retroviruses go through lysogenic life cycle, so need RNA-dependent DNA polymerase
(reverse transcriptase) to make DNA copy of viral genome
 Restriction enzymes
o Add methyl group to bacteria's own DNA
o Named after bacterial strain in which it is found in (ex. EcoRI)
o Sequence is palindrome: reads same from both sequence
o Cut
 Staggered: sticky ends that can be reattached to DNA cut with same enzyme
 Blunt: straight across; can be attached to DNA cut with different enzymes
 Plasmids - reproduce independently, have restriction sites
 PCR (recombinant technology)
o Use restriction map: shows location of various restriction sites within a piece of DNA
o Cut specific DNA site with specific restriction enzyme in staggered cut
o Use that same enzyme to cut same site in plasmid
 o Combine cut out DNA with that of plasmid
o When bacteria reproduces, so does the plasmid
o Promoter regions can be added before DNA so cell's protein can be used in bacteria
 Vector: moves DNA between species
o Plasmids, viruses (usually lysogenic harmless)
o Can be used to amplify DNA
 Nervous System
o Soma: cell body
o Resting Membrane Potential (-70 mV) created by Na/K ATPase and K leak channel
 Na/K ATPase - 3 Na out for 2 K in (1 ATP used)
 K leak channels - allow K to leak out
 Negatively charged stuff stays inside (ex. DNA, RNA)
o Voltage-gated channels
 -50 = threshold
 35 = Na channels close, K channels open
 -90 = K channels close
 Na/K ATPase and K Leak channels restore polarity
o Schwann cells (myelin sheaths) allow impulse to jump from node to node
o A 2nd action potential can't be fired until membrane potential reset
o Sodium channels on receptors on second neuron can cause another action potential
through depolarization
o Sensory and motor neurons - PNS; motor neurons - CNS
o Frequency action potentials determine strength of stimulus
o Spinal Cord: reflex
o Cerebrum: conscious activities
o Medulla: unconscious activities
o Cerebellum: muscle movement and coordination
o Hypothalamus: homeostasis
o Somatic: voluntary - only skeletal muscles
o Autonomic: involuntary
 Sympathetic: fight/flight - uses norepinephrine
 Parasympathetic: rest/digest - uses acetylcholine
o Nervous system of arthropods and annelids (segmented worms) are made up of a
ventral nerve cord and brain. There are a series of ganglia along nerve cord and neurons
branch from the ganglia
 Endocrine System
o Peptide hormones operate faster than steroid hormones
o Ant. Pituitary: GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, Prolactin - all controlled by "releasing hormone"
from hypothalamus
 GH - responsible for cell-turnover rate: adult cells turned into new cells
 FSH - targets gonads (ova maturation, release of estrogen, sperm production)
 LH - targets gonads (corpus luteum development/ovulation, release of
testosterone)
o Post. Pituitary: Oxytocin, ADH/Vasopressin
 Oxytocin: uterus contraction, mammary glands production of milk
o Thyroid - releases thyroxine (made of iodine) and calcitonin - made in hypothalamus
and transported to posterior pituitary
 Thyroxine: increases overall metabolism
  Calcitonin: removes blood calcium to build bones
o Parathyroid - releases parathyroid hormone/parathormone (opposite of calcitonin)
o Thymus - thymosin, which stimulates T cells
o Adrenal Glands
 Adrenal medulla - releases 20% norepinephrine and 80% epinephrine
 Present in blood for lot longer than at synapse; prolongs effects of
sympathetic NS
 Adrenal cortex - glucocorticoids (cortisol), mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), sex
steroids
 Glucocorticoids - gluconeogenesis, anti-inflammatory
 Mineralocorticoids - kidneys, retain sodium and water
 Sex steroids - little effect
o Pancreas - insulin and glucagon (islets of Langerhans), digestive enzymes
o Gonads - testes and ovaries - produce gametes and hormones
 Testes - androgens (test)
 Ovaries - estrogens (estradiol) and progesterone, which regulate menstrual cycle
 Estrogen allows growth of uterine lining in 1st half; progesterone maintains
lining in 2nd half
 Circulatory System
o Closed circulatory systems - blood in vessels
o Open systems - blood (hemolymph) in body cavities (ex. Arthropods)
o RBCs have no nucleus, only hemoglobin
o 50% plasma, 45% RBC, 5% WBCs/platelets
 HIV kills helper T cells
o Platelets converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin; require Ca, vitamin K
o All blood cells made in bone marrow first
o Veins - no muscular walls, passive receivers
o Artery side of capillary - high pressure forces fluid (plasma) into tissue
o Vein side of capillary - low pressure forces fluid back into capillary; some fluid left
between tissue (lymph) - gets transported back to blood by lymphatic system
o Lymphatic system - begins at tissue and ends at veins
 Lymph nodes: concentrated areas of WBCs
o Atrioventricular valves: between atria and ventricle (mitral, tricuspid)
o Semilunar valves: between arteries and ventricles (pulmonary, aortic)
o Fish - 2 chambers, single blood circuit
o Amphibians, turtles, snakes, lizards - 3 chambers, 2 circuits
o Crocs, alligators, birds - 4 chambers, 2 circuits
o Arthropods breathing
 Water - gills
 Terrestrials - tracheae: connect inside and outside of body for exchanging gas
 Respiratory System
o Conduction zone - no gas exchange, starts at nose
 Larynx: throat
 Pharynx: voice-box
 Trachea: windpipe
 CO2 doesn’t dissolve in blood, so converted to carbonic acid, which is converted
to bicarbonate
 Too acidic - lower CO2 - hyperventilate
  Too basic - increase CO2 - hypo ventilate
 Medulla oblongata monitors pH and adjusts respiratory rate
 Forced expiration - abdominal muscles contract
 Digestive System
o Accessory organs: play a role in digestion, but not part of alimentary canal - mouth,
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
o Exocrine secretions: released into body cavities or onto body surface
o Mouth - ingestion
o Stomach - HCl activates pepsinogen into pepsin
o Small intestine
 Bile
 Pancreas - protease/amylase/lipase and bicarbonate to neutralize acid from
stomach
 Hepatic portal system: capillaries near small intestine form portal veins which go
to the liver
o Large intestine/colon - reabsorbs water from chyme, creating feces
 E.coli = vitamin K
o Crocs, alligators, birds - have a crop to store food and a gizzard to grind it
o Vitamins and minerals
 A - sight
 B - cell respiration/replication - skin disorders, mental confusion, anemia
 C - collagen
 E - cell membrane protection - anemia
 Calcium - muscle contraction - rickets (in children)
 Urinary System
o Found in urine:
 Urea: amino acids
 Uric acid: nucleic acids
 Creatinine: muscle metabolism
o Nephron
 Afferent arteriole - glomerulus - efferent arteriole - vasa recta - renal vein
 Bowman's capsule (glomerulus - filtrate) - proximal convoluted tubule - loop of
Henle - distal convoluted tubule - collecting duct - ureter
 Convoluted tubules: most reabsorption and secretion
 Loop: most water and sodium reabsorption; creates concentration gradient of
sodium in kidney - medulla more saltier
 Longer loops - more water that can be reabsorbed (desert animals)
 Distal convoluted tubule: aldosterone; fine tuning of urine
 Aldosterone increases sodium/water reabsorption
 Collecting duct: ADH
 ADH make walls permeable to water. Makes urine more concentrated as
water leaves the duct
 Healthy filter rate: 125 ml/min
 Kidneys release renin, which converts to angiotensin II - constricts blood vessels
(high BP) and also releases aldosterone, which causes increased sodium/water
reabsorption - higher blood volume
 Skeletal and Muscular system
o All vertebrates have endoskeletons
 o Actin and myosin filaments - myofibrils - muscle cells - fascicles - whole muscle
 Skin
o Epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
o Sebaceous glands - hair follicles
 Reproduction
o Scrotum keeps testes cools
o Seminiferous tubules merge to form larger ducts called vas deferens
o Ovarian cycle: Ovaries produce the gametes and is controlled by FSH and LH (ovarian
cycle).
 Follicular phase: development of a follicle (maturing oocyte); secretion of
estrogen; controlled by FSH; 1-13
 Ovulation: release of oocyte from follicle into uterine (Fallopian) tube; controlled
by LH; 14
 Luteal phase: some of the follicle remains and matures into the corpus luteum,
which secretes progesterone; 2 weeks
o Uterine cycle: Uterus sustains pregnancy and is controlled by estrogen and
progesterone from ovaries (uterine cycle)
 Menstruation: shedding of the endometrium; low estrogen and progesterone
levels; 5 days
 Proliferative phase: new uterine lining inside uterus built by estrogen; Day 6-13
 Secretory phase: uterine lining maintained and enhanced by progesterone; Day
14-28
o If fertilization and implants occur on Day 14, the resulting embryo secrets Human
Chorionic Gonadotropin, which prolongs life of corpus luteum and progesterone levels
never fall (missed period)
 hCG levels stay high for first 3-4 months of pregnancy until placenta can control
production of progesterone
 Fertilization, Embryology, and Fetal Development
o Gametes
o Egg fertilized
o Zygote
o Cleavage: rapid mitosis with no growth; zygote turns into a ball of cells called a morula
that travels down fallopian tube towards uterus
o Implantation in uterus - forms blastocyte in uterus lining
 Blastocyte has inner cell mass (embryo) and outer ring of cells (placenta)
o Embryonic stage -
 Gastrulation: inner cell mass divides into 3 primary germ layers
 Endotherm: inner lining of respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive
system; forms glandular organs
 Mesoderm: bones, blood vessels, muscles, heart, non-glandular organs
(kidneys, gonads)
 Ectotherm: external structures and nervous system
 Neurulation
 Nervous system forms
 Organogenesis of every other organ
 Fetal stage - baby just grows until birth
o Extraembryonic membranes
  Yolk sac: humans have little because nutrition provided by placenta; yolk used to
make RBCs
 Amnion: clear membrane filled with amniotic fluid; shock absorber
 Allantois: umbilical cord connecting embryo to placenta
 Chorion: outermost membrane; embryo's part of placenta
 Plants
o Leaf structure
 Cuticle: layer of wax on top of epidermis and bottom of leaf of leaf; protects from
attack and water leakage
 Palisade layer: most photosynthesis
 Spongy cells: photosynthesis, gas exchange; air pockets
 Stomates: openings of bottom surface for gas exchange; opened and closed by
guard cells
o Light Dependent Reaction - along thylakoid membrane
o Dark Reactions - occur in stroma
 Starts with regenerative molecule called ribulose biphosphate - added a carbon
and split into two molecules of G3P
 G3P used to make carbs and regenerate ribulose
 Use ATP and NADH due to Light reactions (Carbon fixation)
o Transport - done by two vein tissues, xylem and phloem
 Xylem transports water from roots to rest of plant; made of tracheid and vessel
elements
 Phloem transports food to rest of plant; made of sieve (carry out transport) and
companion (for metabolic function) cells
o Flowers - angiosperms
 Stamen: male part; consists of anther and filament
 Anther: makes pollen from little cells called microspores; 1 mature pollen =
2 sperms
 Filament: supports anther
 Pistil: female part; consists of stigma, style, ovule, and ovary
 Ovule: inside ovary; forms megaspores, which divide to form eggs and polar
bodies
o Reproduction
 Pollen falls on stigma and germinates
 Pollen tube grows and sperm fall down tube into ovule
 Egg fertilized to be embryo
 Polar bodies fertilized to be endosperm/cotyledon (3n): food-containing tissue
that surrounds plant embryo
 Ovule becomes seed and ovary becomes the fruit that surrounds it
 Behavior
o Fixed action patterns and imprinting (instinctive behaviors) occur even if the stimulus is
not the real stimulus encountered in nature
o Habituation: non-harmful stimulus repeated over and over and organism learns to
ignore it
o Conditioning/associative learning: stimulus associated with particular behavior
 Classical conditioning: neutral signal that leads to reflex
 Operant conditioning: learning due to a reward or punishment
  Insight learning/reasoning: approaching new situations and figuring out how to
deal with them; highest form of learning
o Plant and Animal behavior
 Tropism: turning behavior due to stimulus
 Phototropism: plant bends toward sunlight
 Positive gravitropism: roots grow downward because the earth provides
minerals
 Negative gravitropism/geotropism: plant stems grow away from earth
 Thigmotropism: plants grow along surface
 Circadian rhythm: only for daily basis
 Commensalism: egrets and buffalo
 C4 - minimize water loss and maximize sugar production; corn, sugarcane, crabgrass
 Exoskeleton - doesn’t grow with animal, must be shed
 Ectotherm - cold-blooded
 Endotherm - warm blooded
 Excretions
o Ammonia - water-dwelling organisms
o Urea - humans, worms
o Uric acid - insects, reptiles, birds
 Nitrogen cycle
o Nitrogen fixing bacteria in legume root nodules - N2 to NH4+
o Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil - N2 to NH4+
o Nitrifying bacteria - N2 to NO2- to NO3-
o Denitrifying bacteria - NO3- to N2
o Decomposers - dead matter TO NH4+