Introduction to

Acoustics
Part 1
Part 1 - Introduction
• Acoustics is the study of the properties and
characteristics of sound.

• In the modern definition, the study of acoustics is no

longer limited to audible "sounds," nor is it limited to
"sound" in air.

• The term "SOUND," or acoustic waves, is now used to

describe any wave that has a mechanical support.

• Physicists have discovered other types of sounds. The

most ordinary is characterized by changes in stress.

• Although other types of sounds are being studied, such

studies are generally not called acoustics, results are not
generally published in journals bearing the name
"acoustics“.
Acoustics – study of sound
What is sound?
• A longitudinal wave motion consisting of
rarefaction and condensation produced in
air or other medium by a vibrating body.
• It is an alternation of stress, pressure,
particle velocity and particle
displacement that is transmitted through
air or other medium by a vibrating object.
 Requirements to perceive sound

1. Presence of a vibrating body

2. There should be a transmitting
medium and it must be must be
elastic
3. Receiver or end user of the sound
energy
Interpretation of sound

1) Objectively - a phenomena
consisting of wave motion in
air or any transmitting
medium

2) Subjectively - the sensation

produced by outside
stimulation on the ear
Classification
Sounds are usually classified in terms
of frequency. There are three (3)
main divisions listed below
depending on the nominal
frequency range. Opposite is each
divisions specialized studies related
with them

a) < 20 Hz = Infrasound (Infrasonics)

b) 20Hz - 20 kHz = Audible acoustics
c) > 20 kHz = Ultrasound (Ultrasonics)
Areas of Study
In addition to frequency, the
study of sound is conventionally
divided according to
propagation medium:

a) Aero-acoustics
b) Solid acoustics
c) Underwater acoustics
Speed of Sound

@ 20o C vs = 343.4 m/s

= 1,236.24 km/h
Speed of Sound
• Solids

Y = Young's Modulus of Elasticity

ρ = density of the solid Y

VS 

Example: Speed of sound in steel
 Speed of Sound
• Liquids

B = Bulk's Modulus of Elasticity

ρ = density of the liquid

B
VS 

Example: Speed of sound in water
Speed of Sound
• Gas

λ= specific heat constant

P
P= steady pressure of the gas and
VS 
ρ = density of the gas 
Speed of sound in ideal gas:
Part 2 – Human Hearing

• How is sound perceived?

• How does the human ear sense the

presence of sound?

• Why are some people born deaf?

• How hearing aids work?

Ear and Hearing

Major functional parts of the human ear

The Outer Ear
• Sound energy spreads out from its sources. For a point source
of sound, it spreads out according to the inverse square law. For
a given sound intensity, a larger ear captures more of the wave
and hence more sound energy.
• The outer ear structures act as part of the ear's preamplifier to
enhance the sensitivity of hearing.
• The auditory canal acts as a closed tube resonator, enhancing
sounds in the range 2-5 kiloHertz.
The Tympanic Membrane
The tympanic membrane or "eardrum" receives vibrations
traveling up the auditory canal and transfers them
through the tiny ossicles to the oval window, the port into
the inner ear. The eardrum is some fifteen times larger
than the oval window, giving an amplification of about
fifteen compared to the oval window alone.
The Ossicles
The three tiniest bones in the body form the coupling
between the vibration of the eardrum and the forces
exerted on the oval window of the inner ear.
With a long enough lever, you can lift a big rock
with a small applied force on the other end of
the lever. The amplification of force can be
changed by shifting the pivot point.

The ossicles can be thought of as a

compound lever which achieves a
multiplication of force. This lever
action is thought to achieve an
amplification by a factor of about three
under optimum conditions, but can be
adjusted by muscle action to actually
attenuate the sound signal for
protection against loud sounds.
 Ossicle Vibration
The vibration of the eardrum
is transmitted to the oval
window of the inner ear by
means of the ossicles,
which achieve an
amplification by lever
action.
The lever is adjustable under
muscle action and may
actually attenuate loud
sounds for protection of the
ear.
The Inner Ear
• The inner ear can be thought of as two organs: the
semicircular canals which serve as the body's balance
organ and the cochlea which serves as the body's
microphone, converting sound pressure impulses from the
outer ear into electrical impulses which are passed on to
the brain via the auditory nerve.
• The basilar membrane of the inner ear plays a critical role
in the perception of pitch according to the place theory.
The Semicircular Canals
The semicircular canals are the body's balance organs, detecting
acceleration in the three perpendicular planes. These
accelerometers make use of hair cells similar to those on the
organ of Corti, but these hair cells detect movements of the fluid
in the canals caused by angular acceleration about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the canal. Tiny floating particles aid
the process of stimulating the hair cells as they move with the
fluid. The canals are connected to the auditory nerve.
The Cochlea
The inner ear structure called the cochlea is a
snail-shell like structure divided into three fluid-
filled parts. Two are canals for the transmission
of pressure and in the third is the sensitive
organ of Corti, which detects pressure impulses
and responds with electrical impulses which
travel along the auditory nerve to the brain.
The Fluid Filled Cochlea
The pressure changes in the cochlea caused by
sound entering the ear travel down the fluid filled
tympanic and vestibular canals which are filled
with a fluid called perilymph.

This perilymph is almost identical to

spinal fluid and differs significantly
from the endolymph which fills the
cochlear duct and surrounds the
sensitive organ of Corti. The fluids
differ in terms of their electrolytes
and if the membranes are ruptured
so that there is mixing of the fluids,
the hearing is impaired.
Organ of Corti
The organ of Corti is the sensitive element in the inner ear and can
be thought of as the body's microphone. It is situated on the
basilar membrane in one of the three compartments of the
Cochlea. It contains four rows of hair cells which protrude from
its surface. Above them is the tectoral membrane which can
move in response to pressure variations in the fluid- filled
tympanic and vestibular canals. There are some 16,000 -20,000
of the hair cells distributed along the basilar membrane which
follows the spiral of the cochlea.

The place along the basilar

membrane where
maximum excitation of the
hair cells occurs
determines the perception
of pitch according to the
place theory. The
perception of loudness is
also connected with this
organ.
Place Theory
• High frequency sounds selectively vibrate the basilar membrane
of the inner ear near the entrance port (the oval window). Lower
frequencies travel further along the membrane before causing
appreciable excitation of the membrane. The basic pitch
determining mechanism is based on the location along the
membrane where the hair cells are stimulated. A schematic view
of the place theory unrolls the cochlea and represents the
distribution of sensitive hair cells on the organ of Corti. Pressure
waves are sent through the fluid of the inner ear by force from
the stirrup .
• The place theory is the first step toward an understanding of
pitch perception. But considering the extreme pitch sensitivity of
the human ear, it is thought that there must be some additional
"sharpening" mechanism to enhance the pitch resolution.
The Auditory Nerve
Taking electrical impulses from the cochlea and
the semicircular canals, the auditory nerve
makes connections with both auditory areas of
the brain.
Part 3 – Sound Phenomena
• Acoustic pressure
Sound exerts a pressure on any
object in its traveling path, that
force is termed as acoustic
pressure
• Sound pressure
The term "sound pressure" is the
pressure in the medium of the wave
propagation.
Characteristics of Sound
Sounds may be generally characterized by:

Pitch = Frequency
Loudness = Intensity
Quality = Timbre
Pitch
Pitch = frequency of sound

• The perceived pitch of a sound is just the ear's response

to frequency, i.e., for most practical purposes the pitch is
just the frequency.
• Perfect pitch or absolute pitch is a rare auditory
phenomenon characterized by the ability of a person to
identify or re-create a given musical note without the
benefit of a reference tone.
• The just noticeable difference in pitch is conveniently
expressed in cents, and the standard figure for the
human ear is 5 cents.
Absolute Pitch
For example, an AP possessor can accurately reproduce a
heard tone on a musical instrument without "hunting" for the
correct pitch. Researchers estimate the occurrence of AP to
be 1 in 10,000 people.
Generally, absolute pitch implies some or all of the following
abilities, achieved without a reference tone:
• Identify by name individual pitches (e.g. F♯, Ab, G, C)
played on various instruments.
• Name the key of a given piece of tonal music.
• Reproduce a piece of tonal music in the correct key days
after hearing it.
• Identify and name all the tones of a given chord or other
tonal mass.
• Accurately sing a named pitch.
• Name the pitches of common everyday sounds such
as car horns and alarms.
Relative Pitch
• Relative pitch is the ability of a person to identify or re-
create a given musical note by comparing it to a
reference note and identifying the interval between those
two notes.
Relative pitch implies some or all of the following abilities:
• Determine the distance of a musical note from a set point
of reference, e.g. "three octaves above middle C"
• Identify the intervals between given tones, regardless of
their relation to concert pitch (A = 440 Hz)
• the skill used by singers to correctly sing a melody,
following musical notation, by pitching each note in the
melody according to its distance from the previous note.
Cents
• Cents
• Musical intervals are often expressed in cents, a unit of
pitch based upon the equal tempered octave such that
one equal tempered semitone is equal to 100 cents. An
octave is then 1200¢ and the other equal tempered
intervals can be obtained by adding semitones:
Musical Scale
- Diatonic Scale
- etc.
Details About Pitch
• Although for most practical purposes, the pitch of a sound
can be said to be simply a measure of its frequency, there
are circumstances in which a constant frequency sound
can be perceived to be changing in pitch.
• One of most consistently observed "psychoacoustic"
effects is that a sustained high frequency sound (>2kHz)
which is increased steadily in intensity will be perceived
to be rising in pitch, whereas a low frequency sound
(<2kHz) will be perceived to be dropping in pitch.
• The perception of the pitch of short pulses differs from
that of sustained sounds of the same measured
frequency. If a short pulse of a pure tone is decaying in
amplitude, it will be perceived to be higher in pitch than
an identical pulse which has steady amplitude.
• Interfering tones or noise can cause an apparent pitch
shift.
Loudness
Loudness is not simply sound intensity!

Sound loudness is a subjective term describing the

strength of the ear's perception of a sound.
It is intimately related to sound intensity but can by
no means be considered identical to intensity.
The sound intensity must be factored by the ear's
sensitivity to the particular frequencies contained
in the sound.

This is the kind of information contained in equal

loudness curves for the human ear.

To more realistically assess sound loudness, the

ear's sensitivity curves are factored in to produce
a phon scale for loudness.
Equal Loudness Curve
• Fletcher-Munson Chart
Dynamic Range of Hearing
In addition to its remarkable sensitivity, the human
ear is capable of responding to the widest
range of stimuli of any of the senses.
The practical dynamic range could be said to be
from the threshold of hearing to the threshold of
pain:
"Rule of Thumb" for Loudness
A widely used "rule of thumb" for the loudness of a
particular sound is that the sound must be
increased in intensity by a factor of ten for the
sound to be perceived as twice as loud.
A common way of stating it is that it takes 10
violins to sound twice as loud as one violin.
Another way to state the rule is to say that the
loudness doubles for every 10 phon increase in
the sound loudness level. Although this rule is
widely used, it must be emphasized that it is an
approximate general statement based upon a
great deal of investigation of average human
hearing but it is not to be taken as a hard and
fast rule.
Phons
Two different 60 decibel sounds will not in general
have the same loudness.
• Saying that two sounds have equal intensity is
not the same thing as saying that they have
equal loudness.
• If 1000 Hz is chosen as a standard frequency,
then each equal loudness curve can be
referenced to the decibel level at 1000 Hz. This
is the basis for the measurement of loudness in
phons. If a given sound is perceived to be as
loud as a 60 dB sound at 1000 Hz, then it is said
to have a loudness of 60 phons.
• 60 phons means "as loud as a 60 dB, 1000 Hz
tone"
• The loudness of complex sounds can be
measured by comparison to 1000Hz test tones.
Sones
The use of the phon as a unit of
loudness is an improvement over just
quoting the level in decibels, but it is
still not a measurement which is
directly proportional to loudness.
Using the rule of thumb for loudness,
the sone scale was created to
provide such a linear scale of
loudness.
It is usually presumed that the standard
range for orchestral music is about
40 to 100 phons. If the lower end of
that range is arbitrarily assigned a
loudness of one sone, then 50 phons
would have a loudness of 2 sones,
60 phons would be 4 sones, etc.
Sound Intensity
• Sound intensity is defined as the sound power per unit
area. The usual context is the measurement of sound
intensity in the air at a listener's location. The basic units
are watts/m2 or watts/cm2 . Many sound intensity
measurements are made relative to a standard threshold
of hearing intensity Io :

• The most common approach to sound intensity

measurement is to use the decibel scale:

• Decibels measure the ratio of a given intensity I to the

threshold of hearing intensity , so that this threshold takes
the value 0 decibels (0 dB). To assess sound loudness, as
distinct from an objective intensity measurement, the
sensitivity of the ear must be factored in.
Sound Pressure
Since audible sound consists of pressure waves, one of the
ways to quantify the sound is to state the amount of
pressure variation relative to atmospheric pressure caused
by the sound. Because of the great sensitivity of human
hearing, the threshold of hearing corresponds to a pressure
variation less than a billionth of atmospheric pressure.
The standard threshold of hearing can be stated in terms of
pressure and the sound intensity in decibels can be
expressed in terms of the sound pressure:
The pressure P here is to be understood as the amplitude of
the pressure wave. The power carried by a traveling wave
is proportional to the square of the amplitude. The factor of
20 comes from the fact that the logarithm of the square of a
quantity is equal to 2 x the logarithm of the quantity.
Timbre / tæmb r/
• Sound "quality" or "timbre" describes
those characteristics of sound which
allow the ear to distinguish sounds which
have the same pitch and loudness.
Timbre is then a general term for the
distinguishable characteristics of a tone.
• The primary contributors to the quality or
timbre of the sound of a musical
instrument are harmonic content, attack
and decay, and vibrato.
 Harmonic Content
• For sustained tones, the most important of these is the harmonic content,
the number and relative intensity of the upper harmonics present in the
sound.
• Some musical sound sources have overtones which are not harmonics of
the fundamental. While there is some efficiency in characterizing such
sources in terms of their overtones, it is always possible to characterize a
periodic waveform in terms of harmonics - such an analysis is called
Fourier analysis. It is common practice to characterize a sound waveform
by the spectrum of harmonics necessary to reproduce the observed
waveform.
Attack and Decay

The illustration above shows the attack and decay of a plucked

guitar string. The plucking action gives it a sudden attack
characterized by a rapid rise to its peak amplitude. The decay is
long and gradual by comparison. The ear is sensitive to these
attack and decay rates and may be able to use them to identify
the instrument producing the sound.

This shows the sound envelope of striking a cymbal with a stick.

The attack is almost instantaneous, but the decay envelope is
very long. The time period shown is about half a second. The
interval shown with the guitar string above is also about half a
second, but since its frequency is much lower, you can resolve
the individual periods in that sound envelope.
Vibrato/Tremolo
• The ordinary definition of vibrato is "periodic changes in the pitch
of the tone", and the term tremolo is used to indicate periodic
changes in the amplitude or loudness of the tone. So vibrato
could be called modulation of frequency and tremolo could be
called modulation of amplitude of the tone. Actually, in the voice
or the sound of a musical instrument both are usually present to
some extent.
• Vibrato is considered to be a desirable characteristic of the
human voice if it is not excessive. It can be used for expression
and adds a richness to the voice. If the harmonic content of a
sustained sound from a voice or wind instrument is reproduced
precisely, the ear can readily detect the difference in timbre
because of the absence of vibrato. More realistic synthesized
tones will add some type of vibrato and/or tremolo to produce a
more realistic tone.
 Electro-Acoustic
Effects and Devices
Part 2 - Acoustics
  v  vO 
f P  fO  
Doppler Effect  v  vS 
• The Doppler Effect is the shift in frequency and wavelength
of waves which results from a source moving with respect
to the medium, a receiver moving with respect to the
medium, or even a moving medium.

• if the source and observer are moving towards each other the
perceived frequency is greater than the actual frequency.
• if the source and observer are moving away from each other the
perceived frequency is lower than the actual frequency.

perceived frequency (fp)

actual frequency (fo)
+vo if observer moving towards source
speeds of the source (vs) -vo if observer moving away from source
speed of observer (vo) +vs if source moving away from observer
speed of waves (v) -vs if source moving towards observer
 Vo > Vs = supersonic
Transonic Speed Vo ≈ Vs = transonic
Vo < Vs = subsonic

Mach Number = Speed of object / Speed of Sound

Speed= Mach 0 Speed = Mach 0.7

= stationary = 240 m/s
= 0 kph = 864 kph
Supersonic Speed
Speed = Mach 1.0 Speed = Mach 1.5
= 343 m/s = 515 m/s
= 1235 kph = 1864 kph
Shock Waves
A shock wave is a strong perturbation propagating at
supersonic speeds. At transonic speeds the
shock wave is described as a discontinuity of the
aero-thermodynamic variables (pressure,
density, velocity) in the flow. The actual shock
thickness is of the order of one micron.

At sonic conditions the source will be coincident with

the front end of the wave. At supersonic speed the
source will always be ahead of its sound. The waves
radiate from the source along characteristic lines
making an angle, where:

"c" = speed of sound

"u" = speed of object
  cos 1 u c  
 Fastest Plane
The Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird is, to date, the fastest
airplane ever to streak across the sky, even though
it's more than 30 years old. Capable of speeds over
3,540 kph -- that's more than three times the speed of
sound.
F-18 showing shock waves

An F-18 traveling at approximately equal to Mach 1

Acoustical phenomena
1) Echo - reflection or repetition of sound. Echo is apparent to an
observer if the time interval between direct and indirect waves
is equal or greater than 1/17th of a second or 59 milliseconds.
2) Reverberation - gradual decay of sound energy
3) Flutter - uneven decay of sound, normally because of inter-
reflection between opposing parallel or concave surfaces
4) Interference - uneven or unequal distribution of sound energy
due to cancellation and addition of sound energy
5) Mask effect - ability to stay focused on a specific sound source
6) Vacuolization effect - When the sound intensity is extremely
large in a fluid, bubbles may form as a result.
7) Acoustic luminance - light being emitted from liquid under high
intensity sound
8) Acoustic levitation - high intensity acoustic pressure can be
sufficient to counter gravity so object can be lifted
9) Haas effect - our hearing mechanism integrates the sound
intensities over short time interval
10) Sonic Boom - the sound heard on the ground produced by
shockwaves of an object moving at transonic or supersonic
speeds
Part 4 – Sound Measurements
• dB-SPL (Sound Pressure Level)

The level of sound/noise is measured objectively

using a Sound Level Meter. This instrument has
been specifically developed to mimic the operation
of the human ear.
The range of pressure variations associated with
everyday living may span over a range of a million
to one.
Instead of expressing pressure in units ranging from
a million to one, it is found convenient to
condense this range to a scale 0 to 120 and give it
the units of decibels.
dB-SPL (Sound Pressure Level)
typical levels of everyday sounds

0 dB The faintest sound we can hear

30dB A quiet library or in a quiet location
45 dB A typical office space or ambience in the city at night
60 dB Canteen at lunch time
70 dB The sound of a car passing on the street
80 dB loud music played at home
90 dB the sound of a truck passing on the street
100 dB sound of a rock band (sound of Concorde at take off)
115 dB limit of sound permitted in industry
120 dB Deafening (Threshold of Pain)
SOUND MEASUREMENTS
Sound Pressure – RMS value of the pressure
variation in air
Pmax
pRMS 
2
Standard Atmospheric Pressure
= 1 atm
= 101,325 Pa
= 29.92 inHg
= 760 mmHg (Torr)
= 1013.25 mbar (hPa)
= 14.6959 psia or 0 psig
SOUND MEASUREMENTS
Sound Pressure Level (SPL)
• measure of sound pressure to a certain
reference
• RMS sound pressure expressed in dB

Where: Px = RMS sound pressure

Po = reference sound pressure level

PX Po = 0.00002 N/m2
dB-SPL = 20 log = 0.0002 ubar
PO = 2.089 lb/ft2

PT  ( P12  P22  P32  .....  PN2

 SOUND MEASUREMENTS
Sound Intensity - average rate of transmission of
sound energy in a given direction through a cross
sectional area

W P 2
I I
A v
Where: Where:
W = acoustic power (Watts) P = sound pressure (N/m2)
A = Cross sectional area ρ = air density
For unobstructed omni-directional source: v = sound velocity
A = 4πr2
For source in flat and non-absorbing surface: ρv = 410 rayls in air
A = 2πr2

IT  I1  I 2  I 3  I 4  .....  I N
ρv = 410 rayl ??
Acoustic impedance - the opposition that a
system presents to the acoustic flow resulting
from an acoustic pressure applied to the system.
Importance of Z

Application in Medical Ultrasound

Each tissue in the human body has its own acoustic
impedence (Z) that is equal to the density of the tissue
multiplied by the speed of sound.

These are some of the acoustic impedence values for

body tissues:
• fat 1.34 × 10 rayl
• water 1.48 × 10 rayl
• liver 1.65 × 10 rayl
• kidney 1.63 × 10 rayl
• muscle 1.71 × 10 rayl
SOUND MEASUREMENTS
Sound Intensity Level (SIL)

• measure of sound intensity to a certain

reference
• absolute sound intensity expressed in dB

Where: Ix = sound intensity

Io = reference sound intensity
level
IX
dB-SIL = 10 log Io = 1.0 x 10-12 W/m2
IO
SOUND MEASUREMENTS
• Sound Power Level (PWL)
- the amount of acoustic power of a
given sound
Where: WX
Wx= sound power (watts) dB-PWL = 10 log
Wo= reference sound power WO
= 1x10-12 watts

• Reference Acoustic Power (RAP)

- minimum sound power density that is
barely audible to the human ear
Where: DX
Dx = sound power density (watts/cm2) dB-RAP = 10 log
Do = reference sound power density DO
= 1x10-16 watts/cm2
Sample Problems
1.) The RMS pressure of sound is 200 N/m2. 8.) Calculate the SPL of a sound at a
What is the sound pressure level? distance of a 10m from a uniformly radiating
Ans. 140 dB source of 1 watt power? Ans. 92 dB
2.) What is the intensity of a sound whose
RMS pressure is 200 N/m2?
Ans. 98 W/m2 9.) A compressor with a sound power level of
3.) What is the sound pressure level in dB of 104 dB is radiating uniformly over a flat non-
a sound whose intensity is 0.01 W/m2? absorbent surface. Calculate the sound level
Ans. 100 dB at a distance of 10m. Ans. 76 dB
4.) What is the increase in sound pressure
level in dB if the intensity is doubled? 10.) Find the optimum reverberation time at
Ans. 3 dB 500 Hz of a living room 20ft long, 13 ft wide,
5.) If three identical sounds are added, what is and 8 ft high, with plaster ceiling (ai=0.02),
the increase in sound pressure level in
dB? Ans. 4.77 dB carpeted floor (a2=0.30), wood paneled side
6.) Two cars are producing individual sound wall (a3=0.12), an opposite glass wall
pressure level of 77 dB and 80 dB (a4=0.03), an end wall of medium drapery
measured at the pavement. What is the (a5=0.40), a brick fireplace (a6=0.02) for the
resultant sound pressure level when they other end wall, with no additional furnishings
pass each other? Ans. 84.65 dB
7.) In a certain factory space, the noise level or occupants. Ans. 0.68 sec
with all the machines running is 101 dB.
One machine alone produces a level of 99
dB. What would the level be in the factory
with all except this machine running?
Ans. 96.67 dB
ROOM ACOUSTICS

• Essential Parameters of a Room

a) internal volume of the room

b) internal surface area of the room
c) absorption coefficient of the interior
materials of the room
Absorption coefficient
Absorption coefficient (α)
• the fraction of the total sound energy absorbed
by a particular surface
• range: 0 < a < 1
• each type of material has a different value of α
• Sabine (A) - unit of absorption
A=αs
where:
α = absorption coefficient
s = surface area of the material

• The average absorption of a person is 4.7

sabines
RT60
Reverberation Time (RT60)
• the time required for the mean square sound pressure of a
given frequency in an enclosure, initially at steady state, to
decrease after the source has stopped to one-millionth of
its initial value, (i.e. the time for a 60 dB decay)

• Reverberation time is different for different frequencies. For

high frequencies shorter reverberation time, mainly due to
better high frequency absorption in the surface.

• Reverberation can be "good" or "bad" depending on its

degree or on the circumstances.
Examples:
Symphony orchestra was recorded in an anechoic
room and it sounded
terrible (thin, weak, without resonance).
Conclusion: Music requires reverberation.
Speech is more intelligible in rooms having lower
reverberation times
Sabine's Equation
Reverberation time (T, seconds) is directly
proportional to the volume of the room (V-
m3,ft3) and inversely proportional to the room
surface area (S-m2,ft2) and the average
coefficient of sound absorption (αave):
V V
RT60  0.160 RT60  0.049
A A
V = volume (m3) V = volume (ft3)
A = total absorption units (sabine) A = total absorption units (sabine)

Domestic Living Room RT60 = 0.3 – 0.5 sec

Lecture Hall RT60 = 0.7 – 1.0 sec
Chamber Music RT60 = 1.4 – 1.7 sec
Opera RT60 = 1.3 – 1.8 sec
Classical RT60 = 1.8 – 2.2 sec
Organ music RT60 = 2.5 – 2.8 sec
What is the ideal RT60?

RT60 of the world’s best Music Halls

Vienna, Musikvereinsaal : 2.05 seconds
Boston, Symphony Hall: 1.80 seconds
New York, Carnegie Hall: 1.70 seconds
Sample Sounds
Speech RT60 = 0 sec
Speech RT60 = 0.6 sec
Speech RT60 = 0.8 sec
Speech RT60 = 1.3 sec
Speech RT60 = 2.0 sec
Speech RT60 = 5.0 sec

Music RT60 = 0 sec

Music RT60 = 0.6 sec
Music RT60 = 1.0 sec
Part 5 – Electro-acoustic Devices

"transducer - a device that converts the input

energy into output energy usually differing in
kind but bearing a known relation to the input.

examples:
• Microphones - converts sound (mechanical)
energy to electrical energy
• Loudspeakers - converts electrical energy into
sound (mechanical) energy
• Photoelectric cells - converts light energy to
electrical energy
• Motor - converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy
 MICROPHONES
General Classification:
b) Contact type - the conversion depends on the
1) According to Power magnitude of the transmitted mechanical vibration
a) Generator Type (Active) - one which does not require c) Velocity type - the conversion depends on the
an external power source. Applicable for low velocity of the sound wave on the active element
impedance: (Zo<1kΩ) 4) According to Directivity
b) Modifier Type (Passive) - one which requires an a) Directional
external power source for the generation of b) Omnidirectional
energy or biasing current. Applicable for high
impedance: (Zo>1kΩ) c) Cardiod
5) According to Elements used
2) According to Internal Impedance
a) Dynamic or Moving-coil
a) Low Impedance - the internal impedance is
below 50 Ω to 1 kΩ b) Carbon
c) Condenser
b) Medium Impedance - the internal impedance is
between 5 kΩ to 15 kΩ d) Magnetic
c) c) High Impedance - the internal impedance is e) Ceramic or Crystal
above 20 kΩ f) Ribbon or Velocity
3) According to Manner of Coupling
a) Pressure type - the conversion depends on the
amount of sound pressure acting on the
microphone
General Principles of Operation
Microphones convert any real sound wave into an
electrical audio signal. In order to do so, they
have a small, light material called the
diaphragm.
When the sound vibrations through the air reach
the diaphragm, they cause the diaphragm to
vibrate. This in turn will cause an electrical
current in the microphone to vary, whereupon it
is sent out to a mixer, preamplifier or amplifier
for use.

• Essential Characteristics:
– Frequency response – range of frequencies over
which the microphone will pick up the sound
– Sensitivity – ability to pick-up high and low sound
levels (dBm)
– Directivity – the direction or the pick-up pattern
Specific Types
• Dynamic microphones
• Condenser microphones
– Large diaphragm condenser mic
– Electret mic
– Back-electret mic
• Ribbon microphones
• Carbon Microphones
• Crystal Microphones
Loudspeakers
The loudspeaker involves
electromechanical processes
where the amplified audio signal
must move a cone or other
mechanical device to produce
sound like the original sound
wave.
Loudspeakers (drivers)
• Tweeter
– Used to reproduce sound at high frequencies
with higher clarity and better efficiency
– Frequency: 8kHz – 20kHz
• Mid-range
– Used to reproduce sound at middle
frequencies with higher clarity and better
efficiency
– Frequency: 500 Hz – 8 kHz
• Woofer
– Used to reproduce sound at very low
frequencies with better efficiency
– Frequency: 20 Hz – 500 Hz
• Full-range
– can reproduce sounds with a wider range
compared to ordinary loudspeakers
– Frequency: 300 Hz – 12 kHz (average)
Coupling with air
How hard can you punch a
handkerchief? Not very hard,
because it offers so little
resistance. A loudspeaker has
a similar problem when it
tries to punch sound energy
into the air. The usual
language is that the speaker
has a poor "impedance
match" to the air.

A loudspeaker without an enclosure does a very poor

job of producing sounds whose wavelengths are longer
than the diameter of the loudspeaker. For an 8-inch
speaker, diameter of speaker equals wavelength at
about 1700 Hz. Even for a 16-inch speaker, the
diameter equals the wavelength at 850 Hz.
Loudspeaker Enclosures
(Baffles)
• An wall/board/enclosure supporting the
loudspeakers and providing acoustical
enhancement to the reproduced sound for
maximum range
• Used to separate the back and front radiation
from the diaphragm which would otherwise
cancel each other
General Types of Baffles
Crossover Networks

A cross-over network is an electronic circuit that

separates the different frequency components of
sound to be delivered to different types of
loudspeakers.
 Passive Crossover
Networks
Most loudspeakers use
multiple drivers and employ
crossover networks to route
the appropriate frequency
ranges to the different
drivers.