Chapter IV

POPULATION AND CHANGE

Population in an area reflects the natural environment and resource base in

many ways. Human beings have brought about many changes on Earth surface. It is
in this light that population parameters of Kinnaur have been examined. In order to
comprehend the demographic personality, it is necessary that population attributes
are studied in totality I .

Resources and climatic conditions influence dynamics of population more so

in hills areas. These factors can make an area both attractive as well as unconducive
for human beings. Areas having favourable environment and good resource base are
generally densely populated. As against this, regions with harsh climate make the
living difficult and have inadequate economic development resulting in sparse
population. Kinnaur is one such Himalayan district of India where the population
density is low due to extreme cold and arid conditions and inadequate resource
endowment as well as infrastructure development. Environmental conditions
determine land utilization not only for economic pursuits but also for the way of
living. People have been employing their traditional knowledge acquired over
centuries to select places suitable to human habitation.

Previous chapter shows that culture of Kinnaur is simple and is closely

linked to harsh climate and rugged topography. These natural factors have so far
been the prime cause for isolation and resultant insufficient development.
Concentration of human settlements clearly indicates that gradual process of
peopling is mainly confined to areas those have gentle slope, relatively flat land
suitable for agriculture and other allied activities. Most of Kinnaur is moisture
deficient due to scanty precipitation. Therefore, along with physical parameters of
land and climate, water availability also influences settlement pattern and population
distribution. Relatively lower flat lands in river valleys and availability of water and
infrastructure development have influenced population distribution. Demographic
character of Kinnaur underwent change after the establishment of government
offices and implementation of development projects such as Satlej Jal Vidyut

105
 Nigam I and deployment of military and paramilitary personnels. Many government
offices have been set up in different valleys of Kinnaur. It resulted in setting of
many government employees. These offices generated needs of office buildings and
approach roads, thus, creating jobs for construction workers. Consequently, many
people moved towards these construction sites leading to growth of new settlements
along roads. Most of the government officials, project personnels and employees in
services were educated males. This raised literacy and affected sex-ratio.

Table IV.l.

Important Figures

Subject Total Persons/ % /

Village
No. of Villages 662
Inhabited Villages 234
Uninhabited villages 428
Total Area 623742 Hec.
Population Density 12 persons/Km2
Persons 78334
Males 42173
Females 36161
Growth (1991-01) 17.79
Number of households 18641
Sex Ratio Female/OOO m 857
Scheduled Tribe 56268 (71.83 % )
Scheduled caste 7625 (99.73 %)
Literates / Literacy Rate 51913 / 75.20
Male 42173 (84.30)
Female 36161 (64.40)
Source: Primary Census Abstract, 2001, Kinnaur .Census oflndia. Shimla, H.P

1 Formerly Nathpa lhakri Power Corporation Ltd.

106
11Z:1 Population Distribution:

Suitability of climate for human beings and for economIC activities

determine the habitability of an area, its population size and distribution pattern.
Difficult living conditions in Kinnaur have restricted population size to 78337
persons in 2001. This accounted for 1.27 percent of the total population of Himachal
Pradesh. Restrictive role of harsh climate and undulating terrain is highlighted by the
fact that Kinnaur is the second most thinly populated district of Himachal Pradesh
with a population density of 12 persons per square kilometers against the state
average of 109 persons per sq. km. Agriculture and allied activities are the main
source of livelihood in Kinnaur. Next are the government services, trade and
construction work etc. Most of the settlements and agricultural land are confined to
lower areas with relatively more flat land. River valleys are lower in altitude and
have relatively gentler slope, so settlements have come-up in valleys and most of the
undulating higher area of the district is uninhabited.

Density of population gives a good idea of population distribution. It is

expressed as human-land ratio. In other words,2 it is number of persons per unit of
geographical area. Though density does not give exact picture of pressure on land
yet it provides a generalized picture of the prevalent situation. In the light of this, it
is important to discuss density of population in the district.

Density of population of Kinnaur is 12 persons per sq. km. which is way

below 109 persons per sq.km for the state of Himachal Pradesh. Density varies a
great deal over space in an area like Kinnaur which have undulating topography and
experiences harsh environmental conditions. Major part of the district is at high
altitude and is barren. Out of 664 census villages in Kinnaur, 428 villages are
uninhabited; consequently, village-wise distribution of popUlation is highly varied.
All population being concentrated in a few villages with large area lying uninhabited
contributes to popUlation pressure on limited inhabited land.

Table IV.2 shows Hangarang sub-tehsil has lowest population density of 5

persons per square kilometers. As against this, Kalpa tehsil has highest population
density 45 persons per square meter. Hangarang is located in arid part, hence,

107
 experience very harsh environmental conditions. Consequently, there IS small
population in the' area.

Table IV.2

Tehsil-wise Density of Kinnaur

.
Tehsil
Area in
Population
Pop. Density
Hect. per sq kIn
Hangarang
(ST)
72781 4062 5
Pooh (T) 102168 7898 8
Moorang (T) 162860 10383 6
Kalpa(T) 390900 17630 45
Nichar(T) 1186210 26630 22
Sangla(T) 128222 11731 9
Source :Compute from Primary census abstract, Himachal Pradesh, 200 I

Pooh tehsil has higher population density because of the presence of many
companies of armed forces. Though, army is not enumerated as local population, but
people working in supporting services and to population of the area. Higher
population density of Pooh tehsil means it has more population pressure on land as
compared to Moorang. Kalpa tehsil has highest density of population due to better
environmental conditions. Though part of it lies in semi-arid zone but large area of
Kalpa is located close to humid zone. On account of it having district headquarters,
Kalpa witnessed establishment of many offices and enterprises of government and
non government organizations. This brought in a lot of people, thereby increasing
population density to 45 persons per square kilometers. Kalpa tehsil has gentle
slope, milder climate and better soil fertility. The highest population density of
Kalpa tehsil is followed by that of 22 persons per square kilometers in Nichar tehsil.
Nichar tehsil is located in humid part of Kinnaur and have comparatively gentler
slope, milder environmental conditions and better soil fertility. A part from this,
Nichar tehsil has Hydro Electric Projects such as Karchham-Wangtu and Bhabha
projects. These factors together have attracted many people to Nichar tehsil. Sangla
is also located in humid zone but lower density of population of 9 persons per square
kilometers. Sangla is remote tehsil with large uninhabited tracts.

Figure IV.1 shows largest number of villages numbering 57 in 1991and 61 in

2001 had population of less than 50 persons. Panwa and Humzumkai are the
smallest villages in Kalpa tehsil facing the Kinner-Kailash peak and are with two

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 inhabitants each. D.P.S-72 (B) (45) and D.P.F-C (46) are two forest villages also
with population of two persons. These villages are in Nichar tehsil and its
inhabitants are two forest guards. These two villages lie in Dhauladhar Range.
Nagassaring was the smallest village with 2 persons in 200 1 in Sangla tehsil. It is
situated in Dhauladhar Range and faces Great Himalayan Range. Somodayan village
with 3 persons is the smallest village of Morang tehsil. It lies in the semi-arid part of
the Great Himalayan Range. Village Up-Mohal Foche with four people is the
smallest village in Pooh tehsil and is situated in Great Himalayan Range facing the
Zanskar Range whereas Thang-Karma village lying in Zanskar Range is the smallest
village in Hangrang sub-tehsil with population of just six persons.

Figure"fV. l

Villages by Population Size-200l

250 ...,.
......
N

200

!50

1\)0

50

o
NO. OF VILLAGES PERCENT OF CUMULA TlVE %
VILLAGES
Less than 50 . 51 to 100 101 to 200 20lto300 301 to 400
40 I to 500 • 50 I to 1000 • above 100 I Total

Source: Computed from Primary Census Abstracl 200 1

It was observed that most of extremely small villages are, in fact, hamlets or
summer huts of families/family tilling land in or near lower pastures. Contrary to
this, forest villages have either forest guards or at place a nursery keeper. Some
farmers either seasonally migrates to such huts which are permanent structures at

109
 lower pastures and are inhabited only during summer and autumn or send their
servants to tend to their herds and agricultural fields.

Ten villages of Kinnaur had population more than one thousand in 1991.
Their number rose to twelve in 2001. None of these lie in the Trans-Himalayan area.
This is mainly on account of the harsh nature of environment in terms of extreme
cold winter and short growing season, acute moisture deficiency and low land
fertility. In other words, carrying capacity of the area is very low. This area has sub-
tehsil of Hangarang. The above mentioned factors led to sparse population and small
villages in Hangarag. Barring Pooh village with 1057 persons and Lippa-Khas
village of Moorang tehsil with 1104 persons which are located in the semi-arid zone,
the rest are either in Kalpa, Sangla or Nichar Tehsils. These villages are situated at
gentle slope in broader parts of valleys. Villages of these tehsils receive monsoonal
rain apart from the usual snowfall. Their advantageous locations result in better
agriculture potential and habitability, supporting rather large popUlations. Such
villages are located between Dhauladhar Range and Great Himalayan Range. These
villages are Yangpa, Dharrnaling, Sungra, Punagkhas of Nichar Tehsil; Pangi,
Khwangi, Kalpa, Rekong-peo and Kothi of Kalpa Tehsil; Sangla and Sapni-khas in
Sangla Tehsil. Sungra village with population of 3768 persons is the largest village
located in the Dhauladhar Range in Nichar tehsil. Sungra is an important village on
the ancient foot trail of Kinnaur which served as main link to Shimla, Dehradun,
Rampur and other important places towards the plains. Beside, reaching of
monsoonal rain bearing wind and its lower altitude contributed towards mild climate
and better availability of agricultural land, more soil moisture and longer growing
season. Thus, these made the place richer in pastoral and forest resources. These
positive aspects coupled with a deity of repute served as a nucleus around which
Sungra emerged, supporting large population even in earlier times. It grew further as
a nodal village with the initiation of Nathpa-lhakhri Project and became more
famous as it carne to be known as Bhabhanagar. This further led to its development
as a teeming market place.

Majority of the villages are situated along or near the older Hindustan-Tibet
Road. New National Highway-22 is a little away from many villages. The villages of
Kinnaur can be categorized into three types-

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 • Villages around a temple e.g. Kothi, Rogi, Chirgaon and Sungra villages.

• Villages around a monastery. Such villages are mainly found in arid parts of
Kinnaur e.g. Namgia, Sunam, Labrang, Kanam, Lippa, Shalkar, Tashigang
and Nako etc.

• Villages around a trade center like Nichar, Kalpa and Pooh.

Some villages have both temple as well as a monastery. Such villages

include Sangla, Kalpa and Bre-Lingi in middle Kinnaur and Chango, Pooh,
Namgia and Kanam in upper Kinnaur.

Above discussion suggest that villages with higher population density are
administrative and market centres with better connectivity. These villages are
located at comparatively lower altitude while villages with lower population
densities are the ones located towards head of valleys and are remote.

12·2 Settlements:

A settlement is the assemblage of persons settled more or less permanently in

a locality. A settlement denotes the area of interaction of a given group of people
and includes areas of residence and that for social and economic activities.
Therefore, the idea of a settlement includes permanence, habitation and interaction. 2 •
Site and situation are two important aspects of settlements. Site refers to the position
on the ground with reference to physical conditions while situation encompasses
greater meaning which covers economy, culture and political importance of a place.
The site of villages is the main factor affecting the growth of settlements rather than
the situation, because economy and morphology both are largely dependent on site.
It is more so in the rugged mountainous area like Kinnaur where the imprint of
natural constraints is more visible on settlements.

Most settlements in Kinnaur are located along Sat1ej river and its main
tributaries. Usually settlements are situated along the break points of southern and
western slopes. However, some settlements are sited at the confluence zone of
streams and on relatively gentle slope of higher reaches. In the valleys and other
areas of gentler slopes where terraced agricultural fields are found, houses initially

111
 occupy upper position in relation to fields. However, with increasing pressure on
land, people also start carving out newer terraced fields above settlements. Villages
are made up of a few small hamlets throughout Kinnaur except the trade centers and
tehsils/sub-tehsil headquarters such as Sangla, Nichar and Kalpa. Houses generally
face open side of valleys and are built as separate units and almost never share
common wall barring cases where a house has been divided into two.

N·3 Population Growth:

Population growth refers to change in the number of people living in an area

between two points of time. Growth rate shows greater change in remote and
isolated areas like Kinnaur because even a small change in population shows high
proportionate variations. Therefore, it becomes important to analyze the population
growth in Kinnaur.

Table IV.3

Population Growth since 1901

YEAR PERSONS % DECADAL V ARIA TIONS

1901 27232 -
1911 28470 (+) 4.55
1921 28191 (-)0.98
1931 30445 (+) 8.00
1941 33238 (+) 9.17
1951 34475 (+) 3.72
1961 40980 (+) 18.87
1971 49835 (+) 21.61
1981 59547 (+) 19.49
1991 71270 (+) 19.69
2001 78334 (+) 9.92

Source: Computed from District census handbook, Kinnaur, 1991 & Primary census abstract, Himachal Pradesh, 2001.

Kinnaur has registered a gradual increase in population ever since 1901

except during 1911-21. Population decreased marginally by 0.98 percent owing to
epidemics during 1911-21. Population data of Kinnaur show the growth of
population to be slow in the first half of the previous century. It recorded an abrupt
increase of 18.87 percent during 1951-61. The next decade (1961-71), registered a
phenomenal increase of 21.61 percent which is the highest decadal population

112
 growth ever recorded for the district. This sharp increase in the population was due
to various factors which included decline in polyandry and initiation of
developmental works. The district was carved out in 1960 resulting in better
enumeration of population. The Indo-China border dispute of 1962 was the major
factor of the change as it brought the district into strategic limelight. It resulted in
the opening up of the area and the starting of many developmental activities.
Consequently, a large number of Government departments were established. This
was followed by increased momentum in developmental activities including the
construction of National Highway-22. These changes led to in-migration of large
number of construction workers and government officials. This created opportunities
for influx of male workers from surrounding areas who were engaged in support
services. From 1981 onwards1 Kinnaur showed a trend towards stabilization of
population and a progressive downward trend. The probable reason for this lies in
the fact that construction of NH-22 made it easier for bulk of work force and
students to head for Rampur, Shimla, Solan, Chandigarh and Delhi in search of
better economic and education opportunities. Perhaps, growing awareness about of
family planning and preferences for smaller family is another factor behind slowing
down of population growth rate.

Table IV.4

Decadal Change in Distribution of Population

0/0 0/0 0/0

POPULATION POPULATION POPULATION
Tehsil/Sub DECADAL(7 DECADAL DECADAL
tehsil 1981 1-81) 1991 (1981-91) 2001 (1991- 2001)
VARIATION VARIATION VARIATION
Haugrang(ST) 3394 (+) 8.61 4002 + 17.91 4062 1.50
Poo (T) 6254 (+) 7.07 7414 + 18.54 7898 6.53
Morang (T) 8784 (+) 17.95 9856 + 12.20 10383 5.35
Kalpa (T) 12730 (+)17-99 15397 + 20.96 17630 14.51
Sangla (T) 9454 (+)12.17 10740 + 13.60 11731 9.23
Nichar (T) 18931 (+) 33.27 23861 + 26.04 26630 11.61

Kinnaur 59547 (+) 19.49 71270 + 19.69 78334 9.92

NOTE: ST:Sub-tehsil, T: Tehsil

Source: Computed from Primary Census Abstract, 1981, 1991 and 2001.

Table IV.4 shows that Nichar tehsil with largest population recorded highest
population growth during 1971-81 and 1981-91 of 33.27 percent and 26.04 percent

113
 respectively. However, Kalpa Tehsil registered highest population growth rate of
14.51 percent during 1991-2001. High growth rate of population in Nichar Tehsil is
probably due to construction related activities of Bhabha and Nathpa-lhakhrai
Hydro Electric Projects. These brought in large number of construction workers.
Further, the concentration of construction workers gave rise to various subsidiary
economic activities which also attracted migrants.

Pooh Tehsil and Hangrang sub-Tehsil registered low population growth rate
partly due to severity of climate, which made people move out seasonally to other
tehsils of Kinnaur. Lack of job opportunities and more ruggedness of land are other
factors for slow growth of people. There was considerable increase in population
growth rate from 7.07 percent during 1971-81 to 18.54 percent during 1981-91. It
was mainly due to resettlement in the district in 1985 and 1987. Prior to it, a vast
area of the district particularly in upper Kinnaur had not been cadestically surveyed
due to its difficult terrain. Beside, on account of being closer to the epicenter of 1975
earthquake, Hangrang and Poo areas suffered considerable damages to life and
property which contributed to lowering of population growth rate of these two areas
between 1971-81.

Kalpa tehsil shows steady population growth in all the three decades because
of district headquarters being located there. It has been receiving a number of
government officials. Along with this, new offices were set up here which also
attracted support services. It is to be noted that some people from cold arid parts of
Kinnaur have migrated to Kalpa. This has served two purposes for the people of cold
arid regions; first, to realize greater economic opportunities and second, to escape
inclement climate.

Population growth figures in Kinnaur highlight that:

1. Administrative Centre with government offices and related institutions are

experiencing higher growth of population.

2. Villages near construction sites such as hydroelectric power projects

experience higher population growth.

114
 3. Trade and service centers at road junctions have higher population growth
rate.

4. More rugged and far-off areas experienced low growth of population.

N· 4 Sex-Composition:

The sex composition of population of a particular place is expressed in terms

number of females per thousand males. Biological, economic, social and religious
aspects of an area influence sex ratio. Economic factors are most important among
these particularly in hill areas which have recently been opened up. People are
attracted to areas offering greater economic opportunities. In order to avail these
opportunities, mostly males migrate to such areas, thus bringing about change in sex
ratio of both the places of out-migration and of in-migration. Unfavourable sex ratio
is considered to be an important indicator of inequality between males and females
in a society. But at the same time, it is also related to development in the earlier
phases.

Table IY.5

SEX RATIO (1901-2001)

YEAR AS PER 100 MALES CHANGE IN NO. OF FEMALES 1'000 MALES
1901 911 --
1911 935 +24
1921 922 - 13
1931 941 + 19
1941 910 -31
1951 1070 + 160
1961 969 -101
1971 887 - 82
1981 885 -2
1991 856 - 29
2001 884 +28

Source: Computed from Primary Census Abstract, 1991 & 2001.

Like many other districts of India, sex-ratio has been unfavourable in

Kinnaur except in 1951 where females out numbered males (Table IV.5). The steady
downward trend of female proportion ever since 1961 (Graph IV.3) is probably due
to the entire district being rural and there are no facilities for higher education for the

115
 wards of Government employees. Thus, government officials mostly live without
their families. Apart from the government officials, it is also a non-family station for
army and paramilitary personnels as well as migrant labourers. That is why sex-ratio
has been declining since 1961 onwards even after marked increase in population.
However, sex ratio registered an increase of 28 females per thousand males in 2001
compared to 1991. It is probably because of improvement in infrastructural facilities
for education which seems to have attracted many lady teachers. Moreover, many
officials have started bringing their families due to recently gained economic
development and improved transport facilities.

Figure IV.3

Sex Ratio by villages-2001

250

...;.
'"
200
C
GI
~
GI 150
A.
oil
....
GI
.Q
100
E 50
:s
z
0
NO. OF VIUAGES %OFVIUAGES

• > 800 800 - 900 900 -1000 . 1000 -1100 . 1100 -1200 • Above 1200 Total

Source: Computed from Primary Census Abstract, 200 1.

Thirteen villages namely Taling, Toktoi Lapo, Thuwaring, Kutian, Swaling,

Lambar, Kunokhas, Charang Pheyag Choden, Mebar, Burang, Busharang, Rock-
Charang, Homte, D.P.F-78 and Goroden had more than 1200 females per thousand
males in 2001. Only seven of such villages have population of more than 100
persons. Most of these villages are located in remote areas and have experienced
male selective out-migration. This is supported by the fact that Kutian, Charang,
Baiyee and Goroden have registered a decrease in total population during 1991-
2001. The reason of high sex ratio with increase in population in Thuwaring and
Homte villages are slightly different. Thuwaring village has relatively more
population of artisans belonging to lower castes and has been poor in comparison to

116
 Shilling and other nearby settlements while Homate has been a remote village of
Bhabha valley devoid of road connectivity. Due to these factors,2 Thuwaring and
Homte experienced male selective out-migration, hence, have better sex ratio.
Lumbar village in Morang tehsil had the highest sex ratio of 4000 females per
thousand males. It has total population of 30 persons with 24 female and 6 males.
Other villages with high sex ratio are also generally small in population size. This is
so because Lumbar is a small and remote village which got linked by road recently.
It had very limited economic opportunities. The villagers used to visit nearby Thangi
village even for schooling and healthcare. So most of males out-migrated for work
and to study while females stayed back to look after houses and farms. About 40
villages had sex ratio between 1000 to 1100 females per thousand males and 20
villages had sex ratio between 1100 to 1200 females per thousand males. These
villages are of small to medium size. Porang-Kanda village of Morang tehsil had the
lowest sex ratio of 121 female per thousand males. This village has 5 females in a
total population of 46. Porang Kanda is a seasonal village of Tokto and Asrang
villagers, where shepherds and migrant workers are housed. Agricultural activities in
areas like Kinnaur have traditionally been carried mainly by female work force.
Many poor households still rely on their family labour for agricultural operations.
Such households do spare middle aged females who are mostly unmarried or
widows to look after their extended higher farms. Such seasonal sojourn of these
women to their distant agricultural. fields ultimately turns out to be villages of high
sex ratio because Census classified many seasonal villages with permanent housing
structures as permanent villages.

Thang-Karma, Foche, Gyamil, Yangti Kanda, Panso, Dundumka, and

Mastrang villages have no females. These villages have small population of migrant
workers from Nepal and lharkhand who work as domestic help along with besides
working in agricultural fields and tending to herds of natives. All these villages are
located high above their parent villages and grow only one crop in a year. Houses of
these villages are abandoned during winters and workers go down to their
employers' houses. As pointed out earlier, these villages, though classified as
permanent villages by census have only seasonal population even though owners
maintain their houses. D.F.P-73 C is a forest village but with only forest guards and
nursery attendants staying there.

117
 Study of sex ratio of Kinnaur suggests that villages with higher sex ratio are
usually found in upper parts of valleys of tributaries of Satlej River. Such valleys
have higher altitude and are narrow with rugged terrain and inhospitable climate.
Effect of these natural factors limits dependency on natural resources. Driven by
natural compulsions, young males out-migrate for livelihood to construction sites
and administrative centres and in cases for higher education. No clear pattern of
villages with high sex-ratio in Kinnaur is observed as these are haphazardly spread.
However, there is a rather contiguous string of villages with low sex ratio along
National Highway-22 and other prominent roads linking administrative centres. It is
because such villages host labourers, construction workers and government officials.
These workers usually stay single as tenants in villages on or close to the NH-22
and rarely bring in their families.

Villages located at higher altitude and towards head of valleys have higher
sex ratio. Sangla, Shiashu, Chitkul, Ropa, Nako and Charang villages have sex ratio
with more females over males. With exception of Sangla, such villages are very
remote and have relatively short growing season. Besides, these are mostly located
in moisture deficient zone. Therefore, there is more male selective out-migration for
economic pursuits and studies. Though, Sangla is a nodal village receiving in-
migrants, it is also a prosperous village and almost every household have some of
their family members out-migrated to town/cities like Rampur, Shimla, Solan,
Chandigrah and Delhi for employment or education.

As discussed in chapter Three, women are the mainstay of agriculture;

females stay back to take care of farms while male members migrate for better
opportunity to administrative/ nodal villages or even out of the district. Highest sex
ratio is found in Charang village which is located towards the head of Tirung valley.
The village is yet to be connected by road, telephone and electricity grid. Physical
and infrastructural isolation compounds effects of ecological constraints; hence,
there is greater male out-migration in search of better economic opportunities.

Lower sex ratio of Shilling and Namgiya is due to two different factors.
Offices of Moorang tehsil headquarter are located in Moorang village which is
contiguous with Shilling village. Thus, apart from other factors common to the area,
Shilling experiences in-migration. Namgiya has always been a prosperous village on

118
 account of being the Gateway to Tibet via Shipki-la pass. In recent decades people
turned to education and government jobs, many constructed their second house
either at Reckong-peo or Rampur. Thus, the pull factor of economic prosperity and
better life left its mark on sex-ratio. Till very recently Leo has been an
administrative village, hence it has slightly lower sex-ratio. Proximity to Reckong-
peo and Kalpa resulted in lower sex-ratio of Bre-lingi village. Better road
connectivity of langi village and apple orchards as well as other farm produce based
economic prosperity resulted in greater movement of people. This movement is bi-
directional, i.e., natives going out for better economic and educational opportunities
while farm labourers and construction workers moving in. Therefore langi has
slightly lower sex ratio too.

Recently, Kinnaur has seen labourers both males and females coming from
states like D.P., Bihar and lharkhand. But in-migration of such workers did not
affect much the sex ratio ofthe district because:

i) Female workers are not in large numbers.

ii) Such workers are seasonal and highly mobile unlike, construction
workers who stay for longer period in the district until the projects are
completed.

The discussion shows that:

(a) More remote a village, higher is the sex ratio.

(b) Villages near construction sites and main roads have lower sex ratio.

(c) Villages around administrative centers also have low sex ratio.

N.·5 Literacy and Education:

Development of a regIOn brings in slow but definite transformation in

thinking, perception, values and abilities of people. Literacy is one such attribute
that flows out from development as well as reinforces it. Literacy follow suit in early
stages of transformation of a society when people start their march of development.
However, it is literacy and education of inhabitants of an area that ensure

119
 development in the later stage. Thus, vehicle of transformation of society keeps
moving.

Planned Development ensured considerable rise in literacy since 1961 as

seen in Figure IVA. Mere 15.35 percent of popUlation was literate in 1961. There
was a considerable gap in gender specific literacy. Male literacy of 26.45 percent
was much higher than female literacy of 3.90 percent. There was increase in literacy
by 12.6 percent taking the total literacy of Kinnaur to 27.7 percent in the next decade
of 1961-1971. About 16.85 percent rise was recorded in literacy of males. It rose to
43.3 percent in 1971. However, female literacy grew only by 7.5 percent to female
literacy of 10.4 percent in 1971.

Figure 1V.4

Kinnaur: Literates (percent)

90
80
70 ....
N

OJ
..... 60
"'>-
a: 50
M
""!
.-f
11\

... rti
U N

$"'
40 o:r oo:t

:::i 30 ....
N ....
20 c:i
N
oo:t
10 c:i
.-f

0
TOTAL LITERACY % MALE LITERACY % FEMALE LITERACY %

I_ 1961 1971 1981 1991: : 2001 I

Source: Computed from Primary Census Abstract, 1991& 2001.

Steady progress in literacy rate of Kinnaur makes study of distribution

pattern of literates pertinent. General literacy ofKinnaur was 75.27 percent in 2001.
Male and female literacy was 84.44 percent and 64.77 percent respectively.

Graph IV.5 shows noticeable variations in literacy across villages of

Kinnaur. There are 41 villages with literacy of less than fifty percent. Lapo village in
Morang tehsil had lowest literacy of 6.67 percent. This is a remote village with small
population of fifteen persons out of which only one person is literate. This is

120
 probably because of out-migration of educated persons as high sex ratio of 1500
females per thousand male suggests. Zero literacy of D.P.F-72 is because it is
another forest village with two illiterate forest guards. Horang Kanda is another such
village with no literate person among its three inhabitants out of which two are two
migrant Nepali workers and are an elderly native. Villages with literacy below 50
percent have extremely small population size. Generally, such villages are camps of
construction workers, labourers and other such workers or are forest villages.

Figure IYS

Distribution of Village According to Literacy, 2001

III
250
Q.J
lID

-
.!!!
5= 200
0
Vl
Q.J
DO
....'"c: 150
..
Q.J
u
Q.J
Q. 100
oCS
~
Q.J
.D 50
E
:>
z
a
NO. OF VILLAGES % OF VILLAGES

• Less than 50 50 to 65 65 to 75 • More than 75 :: Total

Source: Computed from Primary Census Abstract, 200 1.

Graph IV.5 shows noticeable variations in literacy across villages of

Kinnaur. There are 41 villages with literacy ofless than fifty percent. Lapo village in
Morang tehsil had lowest literacy of 6.67 percent. This is a remote village with small
population of fifteen persons out of which only one person is literate. This is
probably because of out-migration of educated persons as high sex ratio of 1500
females per thousand male suggests. Zero literacy of D.P.F-72 is because it is
another forest village with two illiterate forest guards. Horang Kanda is another such
village with no literate person among its three inhabitants out of which two are two
migrant Nepali workers and are an elderly native. Villages with literacy below 50
percent have extremely small population size. Generally, such villages are camps of
construction workers, labourers and other such workers or are forest villages.

121
 Largest chunk of villages i.e., 100 villages have literacy rates between 50
percent to 65 percent. These villages are scattered throughout Kinnaur and analysis
does not reflect any specific reason behind low literacy status of these villages.
Therefore, it needs further investigation. Twenty-four villages lie in the highest
bracket of literacy, that is, more than seventy five percent literate population. These
villages are either administrative centers or have better educational facilities and in
some cases have both. Apart from this~ some of villages of migrant workers with
very small population size also show high literacy. Up Mohal Foche in Poo tehsil is
one such village. It has a total of 4 people out of which 3 are literates. Mastrang
village in Sangla tehsil and Paring-Khor as well as D.P.F.-73 C villages of Nichar
tehsil have highest literacy that is cent percent. Mastrang and Paring Khor are
extremely small villages and are relatively newer as villagers of Rakchham and
Chitkul situated their newer farms and houses there and some young and middle
aged members from households shifted to these villages. Whereas D.P.F.-73 C is
forest village consisting of two government employed guards. These villages have
no females except Paring-Khor which has very low sex ratio of 500 females per
thousand males.

Literates are highly concentrated in villages, which have come up as

administrative centres or are situated around these centres. There are also a few
other villages with higher literacy, which might have resulted from the earlier
presence of educational facilities in these villages. Villages having low literacy
usually have labour camps or Kanda villages (new villages in pastures) which have
mainly migrant labourers or middle aged unmarried women. However, some such
villages show high literacy if these have young educated inhabitants.

Male literacy in 60 percent of villages i.e. in 141 villages (graph IV.6) is

between 50 to 65 percent. Twenty-four villages fall in the lowest literacy category of
less than 50 percent male literates. In contrast to total literacy, lowest numbers of
villages do not fall in highest or lowest literacy bracket but under the category of 65
percent to 75 percent literate males. This group has twenty-three villages in all.
Villages having literacy above seventy five percent number 46. Such villages are
administrative centers and its adjacent villages or those which have educational
facilities in their vicinity.

122
 Figure IV. 6

Distribution of Villages According to Percent Male Uteracy,

2001

... 250
i
..
1:
G/
200
u
:. 150

..
all
III
G/
100

~ 50
;:,
z
o
No. of Villages Percent of Vi II ages

• Less than 50 50 to 65 65 to 75 • More than 75 Total

Source: Computed from Primary Census Abstract, 200 I.

Some villages with very small population either show cent percent or zero
male literacy. Villages with one hundred percent literacy have small population of
less than ten persons. Some villages are Mebar, Panwa, D.P.F.-187 and 188, Goli
and Dumdumka. Similarly, villages with zero male literacy also have population
below ten persons. D.P.F.-187 and 188 are forest villages while Meber, Panwa,
Dumdumka are remote villages from which most of the younger population has
shifted to lower altitudes. In the case of Meber, almost entire village has shifted to
newer and lower site at Shongtong and only some elderly illiterate persons stayed
back. Nakal Kuwa is a small village in Morang tehsil. It has only one literate that
happens to be a female because of out-migration of young literate males for better
economic prospects.

The analysis shows that villages in and around administrative centres have
higher male literacy. Remote villages and villages near construction sites have low
male literacy.

There is considerable gap between male and female literacy (Graph IV.6 and
IV.7). About 73 percent of villages of Kinnaur have female literacy below 45

123
 percent and about 30 percent of the villages, i.e. 71 villages fall in the lowest
category of female literacy of below 35 percent. Twenty two villages in this group
have no literate female. Out of these, Gyamil, Up Mohal Foche, Thang-Kanna,
Yangti-Kanda, Panwa, Mastrang, Dumduka, D.P.F-73C villages have no females.
These villages are very small in population size and are located either close to or on
lower pastures. These are the villages where families maintain permanent houses
and farms. They send some male members or servants to these villages during
summers to tend to farms and animal herds. Dabling, Nakal-Kuwa, Swaling,
Lambar, Kuno-khas, Hebar, Kagsthal, Charang-Khas forms another group of small
villages but with high female literacy.

Graph IV.7

Distribution of Villages According to Percent

Female Literacy, 2001

250
'"<II
llP
..... 200
c:
<II
~
<II
150
0..

~... 100
<II
..c
~ 50
z

No. of Villages Percent of Villages

• Less t han 35 . 35 t o 45 45 to 55 • More than 55

Source: Computed from Primary Census Abstract, 200 I.

Out of these villages, Nakal-Kuwa village has cent percent female literacy
because only one female inhabitant out of six persons living there is literate. All
these villages are remotely located and have small population with some education
facilities. Empirical observations in Kinnaur show that the main reason of low
female literacy is because most young girls are engaged in household work and have

124
 high participation in farm activities. However, of late, people have. become more
receptive to modem education for their wards.

]l: b Educational Facilities:

Number of new schools was established in Kinnaur during 1960-61 to 1972-

73 (Table IV.4). This accelerated the growth of literacy in Kinnaur. The number of
schools rose from 66 in 1960-61 to 108 in 1972-73. This also led to more than
doubling enrolment in schools during this period. Result of this was noticed in
subsequent decades. There was not only near ten percent increase in male literacy
but female literacy also grew by same proportion in Kinnaur. This was the period
when Tribal Sub-Plan was formulated for Kinnaur and other scheduled tribe areas of
Himachal Pradesh which focused on education sector along with some other
facilities for the well being of inhabitants of such areas.

Table IY.6.

Progress of Education in Kinnaur District, 1960-1973

1960-61 1965-66 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1972-73 1994 2003

Institutions Schools & Schools & Schools & Schools & Schools & Schools & Scho Scho
Students Students Students Students Students Students ols ols

High School 00 385 4 539 6 1046 7 1174 8 1198 8 1236 25 40

Middle School 3 171 II 869 14 707 15 734 15 812 17 969 27 33

Primary
including Pre- 153 190
62 1252 78 2386 80 1725 78 1646 29 1832 83 1884
Primary School

Total 66 1808 93 3794 100 3478 100 3554 52 3842 108 4089 205 263

Sources: (I) Raha, M. K., The Kinnaurese in the Himalayas, Anthropological Survey oflndia.

(2) Statistical outline of Tribal Areas, 1995.

(3) Institutions Report, Office of Deputy Commissioner, Reckong-peo, June 2003.

The initiative bore fruits in the form of nearly 21 and 22 percent increase in
male and female literacy respectively and increase in the total literacy rate by the
same proportion during the decade 1981-91. Sustained efforts by the government
ensured progress in literacy level further which is seen in the figures of 2001.
Gender specific disparity in literacy has been about 25 to 30 percent right from 1961
to 1991 that declined only in 2001. This can be noted from the fact that difference
between male and female literacy rate of 2001 is of 20.33 percent. This was the

125
 result of various plans and programmes fonnulated and implemented for girl child
during the last two decades oflast twentieth Century.

Table IV.5 shows that there were 66 schools in Kinnaur in 1961.0ut of these,
only three were middle schools and one was upto matric level. There was
considerable increase in number of school in 1971 as 13 new middle schools and
seven new high schools were set-up. However, there was no senior secondary school
till then.

Sharp increase in the number of primary schools was registered in 1993-94

when the number of primary schools rose to 153. By this time1 Kinnaur had four
senior secondary schools. The only college of Kinnaur at Rekong-peo was
established in 1996. Twelve senior secondary schools were registered in Kinnaur in
2003. This increase in senior secondary schools suggests the increasing acceptability
of higher education among Kinnaurese.

N·"1 Migration:

Even though people are emotionally attached to their native land yet there
has been migration from and to a place. Direction of migration is detennined by
variety of factors which are both natural and society related. Human reasons for
migration may be social, cultural, economic or political while natural factors like
calamities, remoteness and harsh environmental conditions can also trigger
migration. In other words1 migration is a response to uneven distribution of
opportunities. Migration affects the demographic, economic, social and sometimes
even environmental aspects of not only the destination of in-migration but also of
the source place of out-migration. In remote areas like Kinnaur which have
relatively small population, studying migration helps in the better understanding of
various socio-economic aspects.

Table IV. 7 shows that highest number of migrants III Kinnaur are from
Shimla and Mandi districts of Himachal Pradesh. Shimla is a large bordering
district, some of places in the district are remote with difficult accessibility.
Infrastructure development and new found prosperity from cash crops and
horticulture in Kinnaur seems to have attracted labourers and petty merchants as
well as artisans. Proportion of female migrants from Shimla to Kinnaur is greater

126
 compared to males because of marriage migration. Many Kinnaurese men are
married to women from adjacent places of Shimla district like Rampur, Theog,
Kotgarh and Rohru. This migration from Shimla to Kinnaur ~lone accounts for about
54 percent of all female in-migrants from rest of Himachal Pradesh. Shimla is not
only an adjacent district but also have common cultural traits acquired during the
days of Bushair rule.

Table IV.7
INTER-DISTT.IN-MIGRATION TO KINNAUR FROM DIFFERENT DISTRICTS
OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
Migrants %AGE of Migrants
Birth place
Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

Chamba 238 206 32 4.13 5.27 1.72

Kangra 508 392 116 8.81 10.04 6.24
Lahul & Spiti 114 47 67 1.98 1.20 3.60
Kullu 425 299 126 7.37 7.65 6.78
" , ,

Mandi ;.
.. 989 772 ' ,
2j7
;t· ,~
.-
17:16 4 ; 19.76 ··li.67
Hamirpur 501 413 88 8.69 10.57 4.73
Una 172 141 31 2.98 3.61 1.67
Bilaspur 208 159 49 3.61 4.07 2.64
Solan 133 96 37 2.31 2.46 1.99
Sirmaur 161 115 46 2.79 2.94 2.47

Shil'l'!l~:. '; ;; 2,266' 1;245 1,021 39.31 31.87. ; '.54.92

U nclassifiable 50 21 29 0.87 0.54 1.56
Total 5,765 3,906 1,859 100.00 100.00 100.00

Source: Computed from 07 tables of Census ofIndia, 2001.

Beside, after marriage due to age:old tradition of a bride moving to her

husband's house, Kinnaurese give preference of marriages within their culturally
similar area. Culturally homogenous area includes large part of Shimla district
which earlier formed part of easrtwhile Bushair state. Mandi too have considerable
migrants in Kinnaur because, many parts of the district are still economically not
developed forcing workers to move to Kinnaur to work as agricultural labouers,
artisans and sometimes as construction workers. Many agricultural labouers from
poorer areas of Kullu also move to Kinnaur in search of work. Some people from
lower districts of Kangra and Hamirpur have migrated to administrative centers of
Kinnaur to set up shops, to run Dhabas, and for transport and as artisans. Kangra
and Hamirpur together contribute about 20 percent of male migration to Kinnaur of
total male migrants from rest of Himachal Pradesh.

127
 Table IV.8 shows in-migration to Kinnaur from different parts of India.
Punjab, Haryana, Uttarankhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand are the main
states in terms of sending migrants to Kinnaur. Jharkhand among the Indian states
has the highest number of migrant workers in Kinnaur. The personal interaction with
many such migrant labourers brought out the fact that lack of economic
opportunities and danger of forceful recruitment in Maoist ranks, force many
teenagers to head for the hills to peacefully earn a living. These workers are mainly
employed in construction activities. Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are two other
prominent states from where workers migrate to Kinnaur. Workers from Bihar are
employed mainly in construction and agriculture. In a village as remote as Chango,
majority of migrant workers employed as domestic servants are from Bihar.

Migrants from Uttar Pradesh work mostly as artisans and construction

workers. Uttarkashi district of Uttarankhand has cultural linkages, so apart from
work, there is marriage based migration also from Uttarankhand.

Migrants from Punjab and Haryana are mostly businessmen, shop-owners,

transporters and contractors etc. Many migrants from Jammu and Kashmir and
Kerala are employed in various HEP projects in Kinnaur and in some government
departments.

Table IV.8
IN-MIGRATION TO KINNAUR FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF INDIA
IN-MIGRANTS PERCENTAGE
BIRTH PLACE INSIDE INDIA
Total Total
States Persons Males Females Persons Males Females
;,tJammu .&, Kasfjmir .. ;,~

.121.; ;> l'e

, )~

98.? . . 23 3.02 3.18 2.49

Himachal Pradesh a a a 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pu",jC;l~~ ... 476 .. ,·384:>;... , 92 11.90 12.48 9.97

Chandigargh 63 44 19 1.57 1.43 2.06

~ "';'''>'' •.... 364 2.~ ." 74 9.10 9.42 8.02

~:Haiyana ••• :.::t •. 205 I 109 96 5.12 3.54 ..... io:~o';'
Delhi 34 20 14 0.85 0.65 1.52
Rajasthan 27 21 6 0.67 0.68 0.65

~ pl<ldes~:;;
:~r
0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,,"

1".. ·1.2~ 16.35 17.06 13.98

:~'~~ID!r;}!.:r:;r~+;~Y0;'}~·~?c c
~5()9 . ' ..~~1:'.
; .:,:: ' j"
[: "'12
""':" >
12.72 14.20 7.80

Sikkim a a a 0.00 0.00 0.00

Arunachal Pradesh 2 2 a 0.05 0.06 0.00

Nagaland 4 1 3 0.10 0.03 0.33
Manipur 4 2 2 0.10 0.06 0.22

128
 Mizoram 1 0 1 0.02 0.00 0.11
Tripura 5 4 1 0.12 0.13 0.11
Meghalaya 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
Assam 24 23 1 0.60 0.75 0.11
West Bengal
. Jharkhand :'.::,
':<Y"o:; ..'"
'/"'~,;;
.... .. ,
88
1;"i)59 :;t~'
;,,',
72
i:~i87'
16
272
2.20
26:47
2.34
25;57
1.73
29.47
Orissa 50 38 12 1.25 1.23 1.30
Chhatisgarh 44 34 10 1.10 1.10 1.08
Madhya Pradesh 58 49 9 1.45 1.59 0.98
Gujarat 7 7 0 0.17 0.23 0.00
Daman & Diu 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
Maharashtra 34 24 10 0.85 0.78 1.08
Andhra Pradesh 21 12 9 0.52 0.39 0.98
Karnataka 17 15 2 0.42 0.49 0.22
Goa 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
Lakshadweep 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
';'Ke~j~; .;:., /> 111 65 46 2.77 2:11 4.98
Tamil Nadu 18 14 4 0.45 0.45 0.43
Pondicherry 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
A& N Islands 1 1 0 0.02 0.03 0.00
Total 4,001 3,078 923 100.00 100.00 100.00

Source: Computed from 0 II tables of Census of India, 2001 cont. from previous page

Many families in Kinnaur employ Nepalis as servants to take care of

agricultural activities. Cultural proximity and the fact that these workers are
themselves highlanders enable them to get preference over labourers from other
states of India who are primarily from plains.

Table IV.9
IN-MIGRATION TO KINNAUR FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD
IN-MIGRANTS PERCENTAGE
BIRTH PLACE OUTSIDE INDIA Total Total
Persons Males Females Persons Males Females
Born Abroad 4,035 3,028 1,007 100.00 100.00 100.00
Countries in Asia beyond India 4,026 3,022 1,004 99.78 99.80 99.70
Bhutan 3 1 2 0.D7 0.03 0.20
China 21 15 6 0.52 0.50 0.60
·~j~i~~~i;~. <;t
...... 4,001 3,005 996 '.' 99.16 99.~~ . .. ,98.91
}' ;

Pakistan 1 1 0 0.02 0.03 0.00

Countries in America 9 6 3 0.22 0.20 0.30
Canada 9 6 3 0.22 0.20 0.30

Source: Computed from 0 II tables of Census ofIndia, 2001.

129
 In the course of the lield suneys, the researcher learnt that therL' I" d

cultural perception that :\epali \\orkers are more loyal. This is another l~lctor (hut t

Kinnaurese prefer :\eapli workers. Table IV.9 sho\\s that about ninety-nine
of immigrants from outside India to Kinnaur are from :\epal. Apart from \\Orhll11,' CIS

domestic sen ants. the :\epali labourers work as construction \\orker;, :1

occasional I) male :\epali migrants malT) local \\ omen and settle d(l\\ n ill t

district. The researcher came across few such marriages only in cases where a Ildt I \ L'
t~lmily does not hme a male olTspring. Immigrants from China arc a fe\\ Ii
lamas (monks) in different monasteries of Kinnaur and some Tibetans 0\\11 ;,lll<lii

shops in Reckong-peo.

It is e\ident from tables IV.~ and IV.9 that :\epalese are pref :1;,

workers. Workers from :\epal alone arc as much as migrant workers in KlI1l1:1llr

from rest of India.

- - - - ~---~~-

I ahle- I \ I (I
TOTAL IN·MIGRATION FROM ALL RURAL AREAS TO KINNAUR (BY AGE
GROUP)
I Age-group I, Total RURAL migrants Total RURAL migrants (%)

Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

0-9 i 1,747 ~-r 910 837 i 11.1

I 10-19 2,452 1,359 1,093

l
15.5 14.4 17.3

20-29 6,067 3,083 2,984 38.5 32.7 47.1

I 30-39 3,306 2,326 980 21.0 24.6 15.5

I 40-49 1,337 1,107 230 8.5 11.7 3.6

9-'-6---1--3-~6---+--5.-1~~~ -~~~~~----I---l-.5~~-~~~- ~ ~~.-~~~
50·59 573 477
118 1.2 0.8

1_
---~~-------~~---

3_5 _ L38 I 0~5

16 16 0.2 ~---l---

5 0.1 0.1 0.1

I
----~--

U()
 I able: 1\ II
TOTAL IN-MIGRATION FROM URBAN AREAS TO KINNAUR
(BY AGE GROUP)

Age-group Total URBAN migrants ~--Total URBAN migrants (%)

10-9
Persons
181------1 96-
Males Females
---r--;;-;:--
85 .-r------.----t-I
Persons
11.11
Males
8.0
Females
--~~.-
20.1 i
i 10-19 1 7 7 ! 104 73 10.87 8.6 17.3
I 20-29 484 331 153 29.71 27.4 36.2
i
I 30-39 428 342 86 26.27 28.4 20.3
[

i 40-49 209 194 15 12.83 16.1 3.5 I

-----+-;-:;-;:;---1-:--;-;:---1-;;---- .-1-=-=-:--+---1---::-:::----1
,5~-59__ __L~~
60-69 21 16
____
~ _-'--::3______,._7:-.2=~4.-....-.....+-9-.5~~- _.1
5 129 1.3 1.2

70-79 6 6 o 0.37 0.5 0.0

80+ 5 2 ··031 0.2 0.7

Age not stated 0 o -000 0.0 00

All ages 423 10000 100.0 100.0

I able 1\ I)
TOTAL IN- MIGRATION TO KINNAUR (BY AGE GROUP)
--~------------~---- -------
Total migrants Total migrants (%)
Age·group
Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

i -~·0-9-T1.970
I
I 1.027 943 11.0 9.3 13.7 "-1
10-19 2,715 1,511 1,204 15.2 13.7 17.4
20-29 6,711 3,525 3,186 37.4 32.0 46.2

I 30-39 3,846 2,754 1,092 21.5 25.0 15.8

40-49 1,591 1.343 248 8.9 12.2 3.6

5059 731 628 103 4.1 \ 5

60-69 213 154 59 12 1.4 0.9

70-79 86 4b 41 OS Oil 0.6

_.L..._
80+ 40 21 19 02 0.2 03

Age not stated 12 5 0.1 0.1 01

All ages 17920 11.020 6.900 100.0 1000 1000

-.~---

SOllrre: C,lInpulcd III 1III IJ II) lahk "I ('(n,u, "I India. ~IIIII

Iahles IV.1 () to IV.1:2 shO\\ in-migrants to Kinnaur according to agc grot!

fhese tahles re\l~aI that persons I~lliing under \\orking age groups are more
and the) form main chunk or in-migrants to Kinnaur. In-migrants in 0-9 age
to Kinnaur constitute ele\en percent or all migrants to the district. Ihis age grulli'
constitutes elc\en percent or hoth all migrants to rural areas as \\1..'11 as to 1I

131
 areas. The reason behind this is pretCrence for young domestic sen ants. SOllle
children work in Dhabas across the district. Children do not usually lea\l~ \\ork
unless asked by the O\\ner whereas gnmn up workers are more mobile. Besides.
natives have greater comfort Inel \\ ith younger children as they an~ fast learners and
quick at adjusting according to the needs of employers. Apart from this. some of
these young migrants may be children of employers and of labourers.

Table IV.13 sho\\s that most of out-migrants from Kinnaur have gone to
Shimla. Solan and Kullu districts in that order. Rampur is the nearest to\\l1 in Shimb
district and has better infrastructure for education and business and expericncl'
milder climate. It attracts many Kinnaurese. Beside. Rampur. Shimla city being till'
state capital serves as another attraction for migrants from Kinnaur. Due to thi:--.
Shimla district alone received about 54 percent of all Kinnaurese migrants going to
other district of the state.

---
I "ble I v I ;
,-----~~-"-- -

I INTER.DISTRICT OUT·MIGRATION FROM KINNAUR TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH

I~---'--' - -----
Total Rural Urban
!
District Iperso I Perso I Male i Femal I Perso I Person I Male I Femall Person I Person Male Femal
I ns ·ns I s es ns s ('!o) I s I es I s_ I s(%) i s es
Chamb I I 046
34 47 131 i 18 29 12 7 5
------'O----r----_____.--'-_____"____ _;.._ -"____ _ --L-----------I-_~.L __ --.----!----+---
220 6 17 ! 134 I 86 I 44 i '7 2:

0 G

64 46

31

Bilaspur 1,86 36 79 88 245 I 24 I 27 i 12 1S

, -41--~--+_--~-~--~
~-S-ol-an-+_-96-4--+_1-5_5~=1~44-1-"------~--~---~-_4
-"
442 12.29 227 215 1 _ _ '522
20.18
296 I~;~
267
Sirmaur 219 3 54 I 111 i 108 I 150 4.17 69 81 69 42
-
C--- -;m-l-a-+--3-,3-3-4-+-S-3-,92 rTT-1,-7-- - t - - - - - t - - - - , - - - - , - - - - - - t - - - - t - - - =
6579
sh 38 1,632 45,38 643 989 1,702 953 [-;4:
i
0.00
Total 6~ __~0.:CJ..~2~67 ! 3,216 3,596 10000 1,512 2,084 2,587 :,455 :.;
~--,- i I
"';age 100 00 100 00 ' 47 99 52 07 3371 4185 23 S4
_-----'--I_ _ ~I_~ •. _ _-------.1 _ _ _ .. ~J. _ _ _ _

Sourcc. ( (llllputcd I'rolll III tahk e\1' (C'''lb or India. 211111

Fven though larger share or Kinnaurese out-migrants go to rural areas. thcrl'

is no definite pattern of migration between rural and urhan areas across all districts
of Himachal Pradesh. It is e\ident from table IV.S that most of Kinnauresc llut-
mil2.rants '"--.......
"--
l2.oin£ to Shimla and Solan districts ......l2.t) to urban areas. After Shimla. Solul1
is next important center for education. business and other economic acti\ities lor

132
 Kinnaurese. Shimla alone accounts for 65.79 percent of all the Kinnauri migrants to
urban areas across all districts of the state. The figure of same going to rural areas of
Shimla is 45.38 percent. Female Kinnaurese migrants going to rural area of Shimla
are more both in terms of number and proportion while in urban area e\'en though
proportion of females arc more. males dominates in absolute numbers. The urban
areas of Solan ha\e male dominance both in terms of absolute number and
proportion. 110\\e\er. the Kinnaurese female out-migrants to rural areas of Solan
dominate in terms of proportion. ~1()st of the mo\ement of female out-migrants is

related to marriage migration.

Apart from Shimla and Solan. Kullu and :vlandi also hme noticeable number
of Kinnaurese migrants. These migrants mostly lin~ in rural areas and arc dominated
b\ females. These are also mainly related to marriage migration.

Kangra and Sirmaur registered about four and three percent of KinnaurI
migrants respectiwl). Besides. marriage based migration. religious is another t~lctor
which attracts migrants in case of the Kangra district. Some Kinnauresc h(l\ C

migrated to Dharamshala in Kangra district for religious purpose specially [amd:-,

and ::\uns from upper Kinnaur. Sirmaur is closer to plains and has industrial centre:-,
where some Kinnaurese are employed.

% OF TOTAL
ABSOLUTE FIGURES
BIRTH PLACE POPULATION
Persons Males Females Persons Males Females
Total native population ofthe state

Born within the district of enumeration ,

I I

iAt the place of enumeration (Non-

50,108 28,697 21,411 71,28 79.56
I 62.55
Migrant Population) -,
I Elsewhere within the district of 14,425 3,464 10,961 20.52
!
9.60 32,02
enumeration
I Born outside the district of 5,765 3,906 1,859 8,20 10.83 5.43
enumeration within the state

~Total native population of the state : iO~298 ~.-36~67~': 3423~8974-~'. 85.52----94-66

"In-migrants to Kinnaur from rest of-------:-- 4001
India (out of Himachal) __ ~ __ '
,
3,078 923
~!: ___~ __~~9 __ ~~~_
In-migrants from outside India 4035 3028 1007, 5.15 7.18 2.78
--- --;--,-+--~~--~.----~--- ----;..--- ---
Total Population 78334 .+2173: 36161 100,00 100.00 100.00

Source: ('Ollljllltcd li'om \ ariolh migratioll tahle, oj' Ccn;,lI\ oj· India. :W() I

133
 The table IV.14 shows that out of total Kinnaurese enumerated in llimachal

Pradesh. 91.8 percent li\e in Kinnaur. Out of these. about 71 perccnt reoplc 1i \ e

where they were born \\hile 20.52 percent migrated within the district. Person" horn

outside the district of enumeration but within the state comprises about 8.20 percent

of population.

The abo\C discussion highlights that:

a) Most of male migration is for better economic and educational opportunities.

b) Most female migration is marriage based.

c) Male migrants co\er longer distances: inter-district migration IS mon.~. I cillale

migration is mostly intra-district or to nearby districts.

d) Nepali labourers are preferred and they account for larger number than \\orkers

from other Indian states.

e) Domestic ser\ants of younger age arc rreferred.

The anal) sis of the demographic character of Kinnaur highlighh the

inlluence of the harsh natural el1\ironment and the low a\ailabilit\ of natlll,lI

resources as well as limited range of economic acti\ities. Porulation is Illore

concentrated in lower areas with gentle slope which ha\e milder climate and arc

more suitable for agriculture. Ho\\e\er. de\elopmental acti\ities ha\e brought ahout

some transformation in this pattern by generating economic opportunities not rehlll'd

to agriculture. Such works have made males more mobile thereby bringing about

changes in literacy. sex ratio and other parameters of population. India-China border
dispute turned out to be the watershed e\ent for Kinnaur as it led to construction or

National Higln.yay-22 thereby paying the way for mo\ing in and out men and

materials for development initiati\ es. Newer offices and enterprises were opened up.

Lxternalities generated by these led to changes in population distribution and

impro\ement in literacy as well as educational facilities.

134
REFERENCES:

Broek, Jan O.M. (1965): Geography: Its scope and Spirit, Columbus, Ohio: C.E. Merrill
Books. Cited in S.S. Chib (1991). 'Population regions of a Trans-Himalayan Tribal
Tract, etc.', Indian Journal of Regional Science, Vol. XXIII (2): 58.

Ghosh, Sumita (1998). Introduction to Settlement Geography. Hyderabad: Orient

Longman.

135
Chapter V

PASTORAL RESOURCES: PASTURES AND LIVESTOCK

Higher pasture grounds are a significant component of mountain ecosystem.

High altitude Himalayan pasture land with its rich source of grasses and associated
varieties of plants has always been directly or indirectly economically significant to
remote mountainous communities. Healthy alpine grasses have attracted herds of
domestic animals from across mountain ranges and beyond since time immemorial.
Further, medicinal herbs from alpine meadows have supplemented mountain
economy in some way or other. Though most of the land use classifications include
these in the wasteland, yet pastureland forms quite a significant chunk of Himalayan
landscape. These pasture grounds have supported nomads at least for four to five
months in a year for generations.
People of Kinnaur have always been dependent on domestic animals.
Besides, their harsh environmental conditions made it imperative that they maintain
large herds of sheep, goats and other animals to supplement their subsistence. With
modem communication links reaching Kinnaur, people have largely given up annual
nomadic beats of migration across high mountain ranges from pastures to pastures.
Primary sector economic activities are still dominant in the district but now
Kinnaurese are settled agriculturists. Nevertheless, herds of animals still comprise an
important component of economy. Difficult environmental conditions require people
to have adequate supply of wool for clothing and ready source of protein in diets
during harsh winters when economic activities almost come to a standstill due to
extremely low temperature. Besides, every family maintains bull or Dzo to plough
agricultural fields and pack animals like mules and horses for transporting goods to
distant agricultural fields, pastures and road-head in case settlement is not linked by
road. Quite often pack animals are offered for hire. The fact that mountain soil in
general is poor and immature, it renders rearing of animals all the more significant
because these provide manure for agricultural fields.
People send their animals to higher pastures during summer and spring
seasons. They collect grass from pastures nearest to their villages in order to stall-
feed animals during winters. Maintaining animals herds have been part of economic

136