Disciplinary policies

Data from the U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights suggests that black students
face disproportionately high rates of suspension and expulsion from school. For instance, in K-
12 schools, black male students make up only eight percent of enrollees but account for 25
percent of suspensions.8So, many people believe that some teachers are applying the rules of
discipline in a discriminatory way and are thus contributing to what has been termed the
"school-to-prison pipeline." That's because research has demonstrated that students who are
suspended or expelled are significantly more likely to become involved with the juvenile justice
system.9
In 2014, the U.S. Department of Justice and the Department of Education issued guidelines for
all public schools on how to develop disciplinary practices that reduce disparities and comply
with federal civil rights laws. The guidelines urged schools to limit the use of exclusionary
disciplinary tactics such as suspension and expulsion and adopt more positive interventions
such as counseling and restorative justice strategies. The guidelines also specified that schools
could face a loss of federal funds if they carried out policies that had a disparate impact on
some racial groups.
Opponents argue that banning suspensions and expulsions takes away valuable tools that
teachers can use to combat student misbehavior. They maintain that as long as disciplinary
policies are applied the same way to every student regardless of race, such policies are not
discriminatory. In fact, one major study found that the racial disparities in school suspension
rates could be explained by the prior behavior of the students rather than by discriminatory
tactics on the part of educators.10
In 2018, the Federal Commission on School Safety (which was established in the wake of the
school shootings in Parkland, Florida) was tasked with reviewing and possibly rescinding the
2014 guidelines. According to a survey taken shortly after the announced review, only 27
percent of Americans support federal policies that limit racial disparities in school discipline.

School Safety
Over the past several years, a string of high-profile mass shootings in U.S. schools have
resulted in dozens of deaths and led to debates about the best ways to keep students safe. In a
poll conducted shortly after 17 people were killed in the shootings at Marjory Stoneman Douglas
High School in Parkland, Florida, 57 percent of teenagers said they were worried about the
possibility of gun violence at their schools.4
Figuring out how to prevent such attacks and save the lives of students and school personnel
are problems faced by teachers all across America.
President Trump and other lawmakers have suggested that allowing specially trained teachers
and other school staff to carry concealed weapons would make schools safer. The idea is that
adult volunteers who are already proficient with a firearm could undergo specialized training in
how to deal with an active shooter situation until law enforcement can arrive. Proponents argue
that armed staff could intervene to end the threat and save lives; in addition, potential attackers
would be less likely to target a school if they knew that the school's personnel were carrying
weapons.5
Critics argue that more guns in schools will lead to more accidents, injuries, and fear. They
contend that there is scant evidence supporting the idea that armed school officials would be
effective in countering attacks. Some data suggests that the opposite may be true: An FBI
analysis of active shooter situations between 2000 and 2013 noted that law enforcement
personnel who engaged the shooter suffered casualties in 21 out of 45 incidents.6 And those
were highly trained professionals whose primary purpose was to maintain law and order. So it's
highly unlikely that teachers, whose focus should be on educating children, would do any better
in such situations.
According to the National Education Association (NEA), giving teachers guns is not the answer.
In a March 2018 survey, 74 percent of NEA members opposed arming school personnel, and
two-thirds said they would feel less safe at work if school staff were carrying guns. To counter
gun violence in schools, the NEA supports measures like requiring universal background
checks, preventing mentally ill people from purchasing guns, and banning assault weapons.7
Sexual assault

Sexual assault is a serious problem on American campuses. According to a study by the U.S. Department of Justice
and the National Center for Education Statistics, the number of reported on-campus forcible sex offenses grew from
2,200 in 2001 to 6,700 in 2014.34 A separate report from 2015 found that close to 12 percent of all college students
experienced unwanted sexual penetration or touching through force (i.e., being physically overcome or threatened
with a weapon) or incapacitation (i.e., being unable to consent due to being drunk, high, or asleep). 35

It's estimated that almost two-thirds of sexual assaults are not reported to law enforcement, so the actual number of
incidents could be much higher.36

And the way that colleges and universities deal with sexual assault is undergoing changes. In 2011, the Obama
administration set out guidelines that schools were to follow in order to comply with Title IX rules that prohibit sexual
discrimination in education. The guidelines broadly defined sexual harassment as "unwelcome conduct of a sexual
nature" and required administrators to investigate all cases of student-on-student sexual misconduct that occurred
either on or off campus, regardless of whether any party lodged a formal complaint.

Administrators were also required to adjudicate such cases based on a preponderance of evidence, meaning that
they had to believe that it was more likely than not that an accused was guilty in order to proceed with disciplinary
action. The "clear and convincing" evidentiary standard, which required that administrators be reasonably certain that
sexual violence or harassment occurred, was deemed unacceptable.

Critics argued that the guidelines failed to respect the due process rights of those accused of sexual misconduct.
Research has found that the frequency of false sexual assault allegations is between two and 10 percent. 37

In 2017, the Trump administration rescinded the Obama-era guidelines and signaled its intent to institute new
regulations on how schools should handle sexual assault allegations. The proposed rules, which have not yet been
formally published or finalized, would define sexual harassment more narrowly and would only require schools to
investigate formal complaints about on-campus incidents that are officially filed with designated authorities, such as
Title IX coordinators. The proposed rules would also allow schools the option of using the clear and convincing
standard for conviction.

Victims' rights advocates say that such an approach would deter victims from coming forward and provide less
protection. It remains to be seen what the final rules will be.

Social-emotional learning
There is a growing consensus that schools have a responsibility to foster students' social and
emotional development along with their cognitive skills. Social-emotional learning (SEL) focuses
on helping students develop the abilities to identify their strengths, manage their emotions, set
goals, show empathy, make responsible decisions, and build and maintain healthy relationships.
Research has shown that such skills play a key role in reducing anti-social behavior, boosting
academic achievement, and improving long-term health.44
Every state has developed SEL competencies at the preschool level, and the number of states
with such competencies for higher grades is growing. And according to the Collaborative for
Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), at least 16 states should have SEL
competencies articulated for K-12 by the end of 2019 (up from just one state in 2011).45
Academic Outcomes

Although many studies focus on the importance of early teacher-student relationships, some
studies have found that teacher-student relationships are important in transition years; the years
when students transition from elementary to middle school or middle to high school (Alexander
et al., 1997; Cataldi & KewallRamani, 2009; Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989). Studies of
math competence in students transitioning from elementary to middle school have found that
students who move from having positive relationships with teachers at the end of elementary
school to less positive relationships with teachers in middle school significantly decreased in
math skills (Midgley et al., 1989). For students who are considered at high risk for dropping out
of high school, math achievement is significantly impacted by the perception of having a caring
teacher (Midgley et al., 1989). Furthermore, students who went from low teacher closeness to
high teacher closeness significantly increased in math skills over the transition year, from
elementary to middle school (Midgley et al., 1989). These studies show that relationships with
teachers in the later years of schooling can still significantly impact the academic achievement
trajectories of students (Midgley et al., 1989).
Another example of the importance of teacher-student relationships in high school students
stems from intervention studies aimed at improving academic outcomes for low-income
students (Murray & Malmgren, 2005). In one intervention study that aimed to increase positive
relationships between low-income high school students and their teachers, results showed that
students who participated in the intervention significantly improved their GPA over the course of
five months (Murray & Malmgren, 2005). Such research shows that positive teacher-student
relationships can improve academic skills in students as early as middle school and as late as
high school (Midgley et al., 1989; Murray & Malmgren, 2005). In addition to positive teacher-
student relationships, students’ motivation to learn is another factor that influences social and
academic outcomes.

A possible reason for the association between academic improvement and positive teacher-
student relationships is students’ motivation and desire to learn (Wentzel, 1998). Motivation may
play a key role in the relationship between teacher-student relationships and academic
outcomes (Bandura, 1997; Fan & Willams, 2010; Pajares & Graham, 1996; Ryan, Stiller, &
Lynch, 1994; Wentzel, 2003; Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Pons, 1992). Motivational
theorists suggest that students’ perception of their relationship with their teacher is essential in
motivating students to perform well (Bandura, 1997; Fan & Willams, 2010; Pajares & Graham,
1996; Ryan, Stiller, & Lynch, 1994; Wentzel, 2003; Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Pons,
1992). Students who perceive their relationship with their teacher as positive, warm and close
are motivated to be more engaged in school and to improve their academic achievement
(Hughes, Cavell, & Jackson, 1999). Students’ motivation to learn is impacted positively by
having a caring and supportive relationship with a teacher (Wentzel, 1998).

Motivation is closely linked to student’s perceptions of teacher expectations. Studies of middle

and high school students have shown that students shape their own educational expectations
from their perceptions of their teachers’ expectations (Muller, Katz, & Dance, 1999). Students
who perceive that their teachers have high expectations of their academic achievement are
more motivated to try to meet those expectations and perform better academically than their
peers who perceive low expectations from their teachers (Muller et al., 1999). Due to the
influence of expectations on motivation, expectations can be an important factor on a students’
academic achievement.

Furthermore, teacher-student relationships have an impact on the academic self-esteem of

students (Ryan et al., 1994). High-poverty students often have low academic self-esteem and
low confidence in their academic and vocational futures (Wentzel, 2003). Thus, positive
relationships with teachers are important in supporting higher levels of self-esteem, higher
academic self-efficacy, and more confidence in future employment outcomes (Ryan et al., 1994;
Wentzel, 2003). Self-confidence and future aspirations have a significant impact on students’
interest in school, their academic self-efficacy and in turn, their academic achievement
(Wentzel, 2003). In addition to academic achievement, positive teacher-student relationships
provide important social outcomes for students.