PRELIM - The agency that licenses transmitters

and operators in the U.S. and abroad

U.S. registered ships and aircraft.
- Communication ground-base and airbase.
NAVIGATION-art and science of directing the
movement of a craft from one point to another
4. INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION
along a safe and efficient path.
(IATA)
- Montreal, Canada
- International association
BASIC NAVIGATIONAL TOOLS: representing scheduled airlines.

5. PHILIPPINES’ CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY

1. MAGNETIC COMPASS (CAAP)
- MARINERS COMPASS - Formerly: Air Transportation Office
- device used to find directions such as: (Tanggapan Ng Transportasyong
North, East, West, South Himpapawid)
- Agency in the Philippines under the
2. NAUTICAL CHART Department of Transportation and
- shows ocean area and landmarks Communications
- Implement policies on civil aviation
3. MARINE SEXTANT to assure safe economic and efficient
- determines altitude and inclination of air travel
a celestial body - Investigates aviation accidents
- Main office: Pasay City
4. ALMANAC
- Shows position, changes and movement  CATEGORY 2 countries – not compliant with
of celestial bodies ICAO standards, does not provide safety
oversight of its carrier operators in
5. CHRONOMETER accordance with minimum standards set by
- most accurate watch; precise in ICAO; operates at “heightened FAA
measuring time surveillance”

6. LIGHTHOUSE  The US FAA downgraded the Philippines from

- Serves as a landmark especially during Category 1 to Category 2 on January 4,
night travel 2008.

7. BUOYS  Expansion or changes in services to the

- Serves as warning when the water gets
deep, guidance for path and water waves
MAJOR NAVIGATIONAL AGENCIES
1. FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA)
- Washington, D.C.
- Responsible for the certification of
new aircraft
- Operates navigational aids and air
traffic control for both civil and
military aircraft in the US
- Core Mission: Safety Oversight
SAFETY OVERSIGHT-the process of ensuring
that airmen, airlines, aircraft,
manufacturers and a host of others who are
engaged in aviation perform their
functions safely and responsibly.
U.S. by carriers are not permitted,
although services will be permitted if
operated using aircraft wet-leased from a
duly authorized and properly supervised
US or foreign carrier from Category 1.
METHODS OF NAVIGATION:
1. CELESTIAL NAVIGATION
- ASTRONOMICAL NAVIGATION
- Needs: Marine Sextant, Chronometer,
Almanac
- Measures the angular elevation of the
celestial body with a sextant and notes
the precise time at which the
measurement is made with a chronometer,
these two measurements are enough to
fix the position of the craft on the
face of the globe

2. INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION 2. GEO-NAVIGATION

ORGANIZATION (ICAO) - Needs: Nautical Chart (mapping),
- Montreal, Canada compass (det. Direction/heading)
- U.N. agency that allocates recommended
practices, including navigational - TYPES:
aids, for all civil aviation.
 NAVIGATION BY PILOTAGE OR VISUAL
3. FEDERAL COMMUNICATION COMMISSION (FCC) CONTACT
- Washington, D.C.
 o Fixes position on the map by
observing known visible
landmarks provided that there
is good visibility
↓ ELECTRONIC PILOTAGE
 If the aid of airborne
RADAR is used
 the RADAR is used for this
purpose is generally a
microwave search RADAR provided
with a plan-position (PP)
display.
 NAVIGATION BY DEAD-RECKONING
o The position of the craft at
any instant of time is
calculated from previously
determined position, the speed
of the motion with respect to
the earth along the direction
of its motion (track angle) and
the time elapsed.
↓ INERTIAL NAVIGATION
 Sophisticated extension
of dead-reckoning
 Self-contained system
that can automatically
determine the position,
velocity, and attitude of
a moving vehicle by means
of the double integration
of the outputs of
accelerometers that are
either strapped to the
vehicle or stabilized
with respect to inertial
space.
3. RADIO NAVIGATION
- Based on the use of EM waves to find
the position of the craft.
- Systems employing this depend upon
transmitters and/or receivers working
in conjunction with them in the
vehicles.
SYSTEM FREQUENCY BAND
OMEGA 10-13 kHz
VLF 16-24 kHz
LORAN C/D 100 kHz
Marker Beacon 75 MHz
ILS Localizer 108-112 MHz
VOR 108-118 MHz
ILS Glide Slope 329-335 MHz
4. ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION
- a method of position fixing using radio
and electronic means. Types are:
• Passive Radio Navigation
• Ground Based Radio Navigation
• Active Radio Navigation
• Space Based Radio Navigation
ALTITUDE is the measure of height in reference
to mean sea level while ATTITUDE is the measure
of height in reference to the horizon (where the
sky and the land meet in eye level).
OBLATE SPHEROID-shape of the earth
Earth is tilted by 23 deg. in reference to the
True North.
STAR LOCATION is same in all latitude, use
chronometer to determine longitude, marine
sextant, Almanac.
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
- Systems of intersecting lines on the
maps that helps the navigators know
their location at any given moment
TWO FIXED REFERENCE POINTS ON THE EARTH:
- Used to begin the system of latitude
and longitude
1. NORTH POLE
2. SOUTH POLE
EAST-direction toward w/c the earth spins
WEST-direction from w/c the earth has spun
LINES OF LATITUDE-group of lines that circle the
globe in an East-West direction, 30 deg. apart.
-drawn parallel to the equator circles that span
the Earth’s surface
LINES OF LONGITUDE-group of lines that run in a
North-South direction from pole to pole, 15 deg.
apart, 24 lines
-numbered as:
 East of the prime meridian from 0 deg. to
180 deg. East Longitude
 West from 0 deg. to 180 deg. West
Longitude
LONGITUDE is more difficult to determine than
latitude because the Sextant and Almanac alone
do not yield enough information.
MANILA, PHILIPPINES: 𝟏𝟒°𝟐𝟏′ 𝑵(𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆);
𝟏𝟐𝟎°𝟑𝟓′ 𝟐𝟒′′ 𝑬(𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆)
EQUATOR-great circle of latitude, divides earth
midway between the poles
HEMISPHERE-a line that divides the earth in half
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE-half of the earth that lies
north of the equator, any location here lies in
the North Latitude (N. Latitude, N. Lat., N)
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE-half of the earth lying
south of the equator, locations here lie in a
South Latitude (S. Latitude, S. Lat., S)
MERIDIANS-lines of longitude, parts of the great
circles that pass through the earth’s poles.
- “MEDIUS” & “DIES”: “middle of the day”
PRIME MERIDIAN-0 deg. longitude, separates
Eastern and Western Hemisphere, half of a great
circle and extends from North pole to South pole
GREENWICH MERIDIAN-Prime Meridian, site of
England’s National Observatory (Royal Greenwich
Observatory), 0 deg. longitude.
 Travelers must change time by an entire
day when they cross the 180 deg. meridian.
The 180 deg. meridian is near the middle
of the Pacific Ocean.
 Time Keeping was an important reason for
the selection of the Greenwich Meridian
as 0 deg. longitude.
INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE-special line which dates
change. It swerves from the 180 deg. meridian
whenever the meridian crosses land.
 To avoid differing dates in various areas,
the nations of the world established the
International Date Line.
AXIS AND DIRECTION:
1. TRUE NORTH AXIS (GEOGRAPHIC AXIS)
- North Pole
- Axis around which earth rotates
2. MAGNETIC NORTH AXIS
- The fluid motion of the Earth’s outer
core generates magnetism such that its
magnetic field within the Earth creates
a magnetic axis which is an angle away
from the geographic or true axis
- The magnetic north pole is somewhere
in Arctic Canada (𝟕𝟖°𝑵, 𝟏𝟎𝟒°𝑾)
3. COMPASS NORTH AXIS
- Axis of reference of compass direction
is called compass meridian, the
magnetic field of which is the sum of
total of the ship’s magnetism and all
other magnetism on board.
COMPASS ERROR:
1. MAGNETIC VARIATION
- (VARIATION/DECLINATION)
- Error of the compass indicated by the
angle between the meridian of true
north and meridian of magnetic north
- Both the strength and direction of the
magnetic field will vary over the
years, this gradual change is called
the secular variation of the magnetic
field.
- Secular Variation is the change of
magnetic declination in time with
respect to both strength and direction
of its magnetic field.
- Therefore, variation changes not only
with time location of a vessel on the
earth but also varies in time.
- The correction for magnetic variation
for a location is shown on the nearest
nautical chart’s compass rose.
CORRECTING FOR VARIATION
𝒕𝒄 = 𝒄𝒄 + 𝒗𝒂𝒓
Where: cc=compass course, tc=true course,
var=variation
Note: to convert a true course into a compass
course we need first assign a “-“ to a Western
and a “+” to an Eastern variation.
2. MAGNETIC DEVIATION (Deviation)
- Error of the compass indicated by the
angle between the meridian of magnetic
north and the meridian of the compass
north.
- Deviation changes with the ship’s
heading, resulting in a deviation table
as shown below.
 The vertical axis states the
correction in degrees West or East,
where East is again positive.
 The horizontal axis states the
ship’s heading in degrees divided by
ten. Thus, when you sail a compass
course of 220 deg., the deviation
is 4 deg. West.
- Note: On most modern sailing yachts,
the deviation is usually not larger
than 3 deg.
CORRECTING FOR BOTH DEVIATION AND
VARIATION:
𝒄𝒄 + 𝒗𝒂𝒓 + 𝒅𝒆𝒗 = 𝒕𝒄
MAGNETIC COURSE (mc)
- The heading after magnetic variation
has been considered, but without
compensation for magnetic deviation
𝒕𝒄 − 𝒗𝒂𝒓 = 𝒄𝒄 + 𝒅𝒆𝒗 = 𝒎𝒄
MAGNETIC COURSES ARE USED FOR THREE REASONS:
1. To convert a true course into a compass
course.
2. On vessels with more than one steering
compass, also more deviation tables are
 in use; hence only a magnetic or true
course is plotted in the chart.
3. Bearings taken with a handheld compass
often don’t require a correction for
deviation, and are therefore useful to
plot in the chart as magnetic courses.
COURSES AND BEARING:
2. Let’s say the compass rose gives a
variation of 2◦50’ E in 2007, with a
correction of 0◦04’ E per year. In 2009
this variation is estimated to be ___,
almost ___. Now, if we sail 90◦ on the
chart, the compass would read ____.

1. COURSE (HEADING)
- Direction of travel
- The angular distance of a ship’s
direction of movement on the surface
of the earth, measured clockwise from
a reference north point (or three
references-true, magnetic and compass
north) through 360 deg. system on the
arc of the horizon
3. If we have steered a compass course of
HORIZON-line that separates earth from 200◦, we have to plot a true course of ____
sky in the chart if the variation is 3◦ East
or a true course of ___ if the variation
is 10◦ West.
𝒅 = √𝟏𝟑𝒉𝒎 𝒌𝒎 𝒅 = √𝟏. 𝟓𝒉𝒇𝒕. 𝒎𝒊

2. BEARING (direction)
- Angular distance of any terrestrial
object from an observer measured
clockwise from the same three points
of references through 360◦ system of
the compass, giving rise to the three 4. The compass course is 330◦, the deviation
bearings in one direction. is +3◦ (table) and the variation is +3◦
a. RELATIVE BEARING (chart); 330◦cc+3◦var+3◦dev=?◦tc
- angular distance of an object
measured clockwise through 360◦ from
the ship’s bow (intended line of
movement)
b. TRUE BEARING
- the angular distance of an object
5. The compass course is 220◦, the deviation
measured clockwise from the true
is -4◦ (table) and the variation is still
north
TB=H+RB +3◦ (chart).
c. 4-POINT BEARING 220◦cc+3◦var+-4◦dev=?◦tc
- the eye approximation of relative
bearing measured clockwise or anti-
clockwise from the ship’s bow, stern
or beams.

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:
6. The compass course is still 220◦,therefore
1. If we find a variation of 4◦15’ W in 2009, the deviation is still -4◦ (table) but
with an indicated annual correction of 0◦ let’s use a variation of -10◦ this time.
08’ E. Hence, in 2011 the variation is
estimated to be 3◦59’, almost 4◦ West. This
means that if we sail 90◦ on the chart (the
true course), the compass would read 94◦.

7. The true course from the chart is 305◦ and

the variation is +3◦ (chart), yet we don’t
know the deviation; ?
◦cc+3◦var+?◦dev=305◦tc

8. The true course from the chart is 150◦ and
we have a Western variation of 7 degrees.
9. Standing on a ground with a height of 1.5
m., the horizon is at a distance of:
10. Standing on a hill or tower of 150
m. height, the horizon is at a distance
of:
MEASUREMENT OF TIME:
The accurate measurement of time has always been
fundamental to navigation.
Clocks were invented that would remain accurate
throughout long ocean voyages. They were called
Chronometers.
Progress has led to the measurement of time
using fundamental properties of the atom. This
has resulted in a redefinition of the second as
being 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
(9,192,631,770 cycles of the Cesium resonance).
1. SOLAR DAY-a day defined by the rotation
of the Earth on its axis, 24 hrs.
2. EPHEMERIS TIME-time based on long-term
observations of the annual revolution of
the earth around the sun. It is the
uniform measure of time defined by the law
of dynamics.
3. SOLAR MEAN DAY-time in reference to a
particular point in Earth (Greenwich)
4. SIDEREAL TIME-the earth in reference to
Vernal Equinox, the earth rotates at 23
hours, 56 minutes and 1.409 seconds.
5. ATOMIC TIME-based on transitions in the
atom. It uses the frequency of the Cesium
atomic clock. This agrees closely with
Ephemeris second. Atomic second is the
unit in the international System of units
(SI).
6. INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC TIME-Atomic time
reference derived from averaging the
atomic time standards of several
countries.
7. UNIVERSAL TIME-Mean solar time on the
Greenwich Meridian. Used in the
application of astronomy to navigation.
8. COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME (UTC)-before
GMT, atomic time maintained by the Royal
Observatory and adjusted in steps (leap
seconds, so that it is synchronized with
the UT1 within 0.9 second). UTC is a high-
precision Atomic Time Standard.
9. UTO-determined directly from the
astronomical observation. It is non-
uniform due to irregular rotation of the
earth.
10. UT1- it is UTO corrected for the
polar motion hence more uniform than UTO.
UT1 is the same as GMT.
11. UT2-It is UT1 corrected for the mean
seasonal variations, hence more uniform
than UT1.
The Measurement of time in electronic navigation
is usually concerned with the lapse of time
between the occurrence of two events such as the
time between the transmitted and received pulses
of an echo sounder or the time between the
reception of master and slave pulses in Loran C
system.
Simplified illustration of measuring time
lapse in electronic navigation system
PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS OF AN ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATION SYSTEM:
1) An integral source of time which is
 precise and stable over the consider the many possible combination of
measurement interval. paired stations.

2) A means of measuring the time lapse.

One method of maintaining a stable oscillation Disadvantage:

frequency is to utilize the natural resonance
of quartz crystal.
The limitation of range-range navigation is the
requirement to maintain absolute time with a
high degree of precision. The clock stability
necessary for the duration of an ocean passage
would demand the use of a cesium frequency
standard.

RADIO RANGE BEACONS

TYPES OF ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEM:  Low-frequency radio range beacons may be

I. Hyperbolic Navigation System
- a method of using the propagation velocity to
determine the distance and position.
• Propagation velocity
 velocity at which EM energy (radio waves)
travel between their source and the point
of reception.
used to guide ships or aircraft along
predetermined and fixed courses.
 In this system, special transmitting
antennas are employed in w/c two or more
field patterns are combined to form a
straight line equisignal courses.
 The system employs five vertical towers
as radiators.

Types of Hyperbolic Navigation System:

1. Loran A and C
2. Omega
3. Decca Navigator

The inherent advantage of the hyperbolic system

is the need to make only a measurement of time
lapse.

II. Range-Range (or circular) Navigation System

 This differs from hyperbolic navigation in

that instead of measuring time difference, a
measure is made of actual signal propagation
time between the transmitter and receiver. The
resulting loci are therefore circles centered
on the signal transmitter (source) and with
radii corresponding to the distances which are
equivalent to the measured propagation time.

Advantages:

1. Only two stations are required to

determine the position.
2. It is an easier technique for processing
several signals, since each can be dealt
within isolation, rather than having to