Biopotential Electrodes4

Bio Electrode / Biopotential Electrode –
Acts as an interface between biological

structure and electrical system.
Senses (measures) passively or stimulates

actively electrical potentials within biological
structure.
Converts ionic potentials within our body to

electric potentials for subsequent measurement.
Able to conduct small current across the

interface between the body and the electric
measuring circuit.
Oxidation is dominant when current flows from

electrode to electrolyte.
Reduction is dominant when current flows

opposite.
The net current that crosses interface from

electrode to electrolyte consists of:
Electrons moving in a direction opposite

to the direction of current in electrode.
Cations moving in the same direction of

current.
Anions moving in a direction opposite to

that of current in electrode.
Electrode – Skin / Tissue Interface
Metal Electrolyte
Lead
Electrolyte Electrolyte Skin Tissue
wire
Interface Interface
Electrolyte comes in the form of a gel.

Properties of Bioelectrodes –
Good conductors.
Low impedance.
Should not polarize when a current flows through them.
Establish a good contact with the body and not cause motion.
Should not cause itching, swelling or discomfort to the

patient.
Non-toxic metal.
Mechanically rugged.
Easy to clean.
the interface...
metal electrolyte
M+ To sense a signal
a current I must flow !
I
e-
A-
the interface problem
metal electrolyte
M+ To sense a signal
a current I must flow !
I
e-
? A - But no electron e- is
passing the interface!
metal cation
leaving into the electrolyte
No current
What’s going on?

metal cation
leaving into the electrolyte
Current flow from electrode to electrolyte : Oxidation (Loss of e-)
Current flow from electrolyte to electrode : Reduction (Gain of e-)
No current
One atom M out of the metal

is oxidized to form
one cation M+ and giving off
one free electron e-
to the metal.
metal cation
joining the metal
No current
What’s going on?

metal cation
joining the metal

No current
One cation M+
out of the electrolyte
becomes one neutral atom M
taking off one free electron
from the metal.
Electrode – Electrolyte Interface
Electrode Electrolyte (neutral charge)
C C+, A- in solution
Current flow
C C+
e- C
A- C+
e-
A-
C+ : Cation A- : Anion e- : electron
Fairly common electrode materials: Pt, Carbon, …, Au, Ag,…

Electrode metal is use in conjunction with salt, e.g. Ag-AgCl, Pt-Pt
black, or polymer coats (e.g. Nafion, to improve selectivity)
Electrode – Electrolyte Interface
General Ionic Equations
n = valence of C a) C ↔ C n + + ne −
b) Am − ↔ A + me − m = valence of A
a) If electrode has same material as cation, then this material gets
oxidized and enters the electrolyte as a cation and electrons remain
at the electrode and flow in the external circuit.
b) If anion can be oxidized at the electrode to form a neutral atom,

one or two electrons are given to the electrode.
The dominating reaction can be inferred from the following :

Half Cell Potential
When an object is exposed to a fluid, a surface charge (either
positive or negative), is accumulated on the surface of the body.
The object might be a solid particle, a gas bubble, a liquid droplet

or a porous body.
The surface charge forms the first layer of charge surrounding the
object. It consists of ions adsorbed onto the object due to chemical
interactions.
Over this a second layer is formed by ions attracted to the surface

charge via the Coulomb force, electrically screening the first layer.
This second layer is loosely associated with the object. It is made

of free ions that move in the fluid under the influence of electric
attraction and thermal motion than being firmly anchored.
Half Cell Potential
Thus a double layer (DL, also called an electrical double
layer, EDL), called Helmholtz double layer, appears on the surface
of an object when it is exposed to a fluid.
Half Cell Potential
A half-cell is a structure that contains a conductive electrode and

a surrounding conductive electrolyte separated by a naturally
occurring Helmholtz double layer.
electrode double layer
No current
18
Half Cell Potential
The potential difference that is caused by the ability of electrons
to flow from one half cell to the other is Half Cell Potential.
Electrons are able to move between electrodes as the chemical

reaction is a redox reaction.
Half cell potential is altered when there is current flowing in the

electrode due to electrode polarization.
When the metal comes in contact with solution, the electrolyte

surrounding the metal is at different electric potential from rest of
the solution.
half-cell voltage
No current
Half Cell Potential
Half cell potential cannot be measured without a second electrode.
The half cell potential of the standard hydrogen electrode has

been arbitrarily set to zero.
Hydrogen electrode is based on the reaction: H 2 ↔ 2 H ↔ 2 H + + 2e −
Other half cell potentials are expressed as a potential difference with

this electrode.
Measuring Half Cell Potential
Note: Electrode material is metal + salt or polymer selective membrane

Some half cell potentials
Standard Hydrogen electrode
Note: Ag-AgCl has low junction

potential & it is also very stable ->
hence used in ECG electrodes!
current influence
• with current flowing
the half-cell voltage changes
• this voltage change is called
overpotential or polarization:
•
Vp = Vr + Vc + Va
activation, depends on direction of reaction
concentration (change in double layer)
ohmic (voltage drop)
24
Polarization
If there is a current between the electrode and electrolyte, the
observed half cell potential is often altered due to polarization.
Overpotential
Difference between observed and zero-current half cell potentials
Resistance Concentration Activation

Current changes resistance Changes in distribution The activation energy
of electrolyte and thus, of ions at the electrode- barrier depends on the
a voltage drop results. electrolyte interface direction of current and
determines kinetics
Vp = VR +VC +VA
Note: Polarization and impedance of the electrode are two of the most
important electrode properties to consider.
Half Cell Potential
Half Cell Potential is determined by
Metal involved.
Concentration of its ion in solution.
Temperature.
Nernst Equation in context with
Half Cell Potential
When two aqueous ionic solutions of different concentration are
separated by an ion-selective semi-permeable membrane, an electric
potential exists across the membrane.
For the general oxidation-reduction reaction
αA + βB ↔ γC + δD + ne −
The Nernst equation for half cell potential is
γ δ
RT  aC aD

E=E +
0
ln  α β 
nF  a A a B 
where E0 : Standard Half Cell Potential E : Half Cell Potential
a : Ionic Activity (generally same as concentration)
n : Number of valence electrons involved
Nernst Equation in context with
Half Cell Potential
ionic activity:
May be defined as the availability of an ionic species in solution to enter
into a reaction.
In dilute solutions, ionic activity is approximately equal to ionic
concentration.
At higher concentrations, intermolecular effects become significant and
ionic activity is less than their concentration.
γ δ
RT  aC aD

E=E +
0
ln  α β 
nF  a A a B 
where E0 : Standard Half Cell Potential E : Half Cell Potential
a : Ionic Activity (generally same as concentration)
n : Number of valence electrons involved
Polarizable and Non-Polarizable
Electrodes
Perfectly Polarizable Electrodes
These are electrodes in which no actual charge crosses the electrode-
electrolyte interface when a current is applied. The current across the
interface is a displacement current and the electrode behaves like a
capacitor. Example : Platinum electrode (noble metal)
Electrodes
Perfectly Non-Polarizable Electrode

These are electrodes where current passes freely across the electrode-
electrolyte interface, requiring no energy to make the transition. These
electrodes see no overpotentials. Example : 1) Ag/AgCl Electrode
2) Mercury/mercurous chloride
(Hg/Hg2Cl2) (calomel)
Electrodes
Example:
Ag-AgCl is used in recording.
Pt is used in stimulation of tissue as it has minimal chemical

reaction with electrolyte while handling large current.
Stimulators –
Cardiac pacemakers
Cardiac defibrillators
Other functional electric stimulators
Ag/AgCl Electrode
Relevant ionic equations
Ag ↔ Ag + + e −
Ag + + Cl − ↔ AgCl ↓
Cl2 Governing Nernst Equation

Solubility
RT  K s 
-
Ag+Cl
E = E Ag
0
+ ln   product of
nF  aCl −  AgCl
Fabrication of Ag/AgCl electrodes

1. Electrolytic deposition of AgCl
2. Sintering process forming pellet electrodes
electrical behaviour
equivalent circuit
33
Equivalent Circuit
Cd : capacitance of electrode-eletrolyte
interface
Rd : resistance of electrode-eletrolyte
interface
Rs : resistance of electrode lead wire
Ecell : cell potential for electrode
Rd+Rs
Corner frequency
Rs
Frequency Response
Electrode Skin Interface
Biopotentials are recorded from skin.
Electrode
The transparent gel serves as a

100
Gel coupling medium between skin and
µ electrode to establish good contact.
Stratum Corneum
Epidermis Gel acts as an electrolyte and contains
Cl- as the principal anion.
100 Dermis and
µ
subcutaneous layer
Two interfaces appear:
Nerve 1) Electrode-electrolyte (gel)
endings Capillary
2) Electrolyte-skin
Rs = Effective resistance due to
Ehe interface of gel between skin &
electrode
Electrode Cd Rd
Sweat glands
Gel Rs and ducts
100
µ
Ese EP
Stratum Corneum
Epidermis Ce Re CP RP
100
µ
Dermis and Ese = P.D. (given by Nernst Equation) due
subcutaneous layer
Ru to ionic concentration across the
Nerve membrane, i.e., epidermis, atleast its
endings Capillary stratum corneum.
The membrane is semipermeable to ions.
Ehe
Electrode Cd Rd Epidermal layer is

sensitive to high
Sweat glands frequency and behaves
Gel Rs and ducts
100 as parallel RC circuit.
µ
Ese EP
Stratum Corneum
100 Dermis and

µ
subcutaneous layer
Ru
Nerve
endings Capillary
The fluid secreted by sweet glands
contain Na+, K+ and Cl- with their
Ehe
concentration different from
extracellular fluid.
Electrode Cd Rd
They behave as parallel RC circuit.
Sweat glands
Gel Rs and ducts
100
µ
Ese EP
Stratum Corneum
100 Dermis and

µ
subcutaneous layer
Ru
Not considered in measurement other
Nerve than electrodermal response or GSR
endings Capillary
(Galvanic skin Reflex).
Ehe
Electrode Cd Rd
Sweat glands
Gel Rs and ducts
100
µ
Ese EP
Stratum Corneum
100 Dermis and

µ
subcutaneous layer
Ru
Skin impedance for 1cm2 patch:
Nerve 200kΩ @1Hz
endings Capillary
200 Ω @ 1MHz
Motion Artifact
Blurring of radiographic image, produced by respiratory, muscular or
other movement of the patient.
Movement of electrode with respect to electrolyte disturbs the

distribution of charge at their interface that results in a momentary
change in the half cell potential until equilibrium is reached again.
Signal due to motion has low frequency and hence can be filtered out
while measuring high frequency biological signals like EMG and Axon
Action Potential (AAP).
Non-polarizable electrodes undergo minimum motion artifact and

hence can be used to measure low frequency biological signals like ECG,
EEG or EOG.
Motion artifact appears due to –
Ehe
Electrode half-cell potential Ehc
Electrode Cd Rd
Electrolyte-skin potential Ese
Sweat glands
Gel Rs and ducts
100
µ
Ese EP
Stratum Corneum
100
µ
Dermis and The artifact can be reduced by –
subcutaneous layer
Ru
Nerve
Using non-polarizable electrode
endings Capillary
Removing stratum corneum by
mechanical abrasion with abrasive paper
Types of Electrodes
Recording Electrodes
Body Surface Recording Electrodes

Internal Electrodes
Fetal ECG Electrodes
Implantable Electrodes
Electrode Arrays
Microelectrodes
Semiconductor based Microelectrodes
Stimulation Electrodes
Body Surface Recording Electrodes
Electrode metal
Electrolyte
Subtypes:
1. Metal Plate Electrodes
(historic)
2. Suction Electrodes
(historic interest)
3. Floating Electrodes
4. Flexible Electrodes
Commonly Used Biopotential Electrodes
Metal plate electrodes
– Large contact surface: Ancient, still used
– Contact surface covered with electrolyte gel
– Traditionally made of German silver (a nickel-silver
alloy)
– Terminal attached to the lead wire to electrocardiograph
(a) Metal-plate electrode used for application to limbs.

– Metal disk
– Used as chest electrode for recording ECG
– Also used in long term cardiac monitoring
– Disk is made of Ag with / without electrolytically
deposited layer of AgCl on its contacting surface
– Contact surface covered with electrolyte gel, then
pressed against chest wall with surgical tape
(b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape.

Metal plate electrodes (Another application)
– Contact surface covered with electrolyte gel
– Disk made of stainless steel; platinum or gold coated
– These materials produce polarizable electrodes
– Motion artifact is a problem for active patients
– Used for surface recording of EMG, EEG
– smaller diameters
– As disposable foam-pad, it is made of metal foils (silver foil)
(b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape.

– Silver-plated disk as electrode is mounted in a larger disk of
foam pad that acts as bottom disk
– The top disk contains a silver-plated snap attached to lead
wire
– Disk may be coated with AgCl layer
– Disk covered with a layer of electrolyte gel
– Used for surface recording of EMG, EEG
(c) Disposable foam-pad electrodes, often used with ECG

Suction electrodes
-Electrolyte gel placed on contact surface
- After bulb is squeezed, electrode is placed on chest wall
- On releasing bulb, suction is applied against the skin
- Used for short periods to avoid irritation on contact surface
- Has higher source impedance than limb electrodes
- No straps or adhesives required
- Used as precordial (chest) lead in ECG
Floating electrodes
- metal disk is recessed in a cavity to avoid contact with skin
- swimming in the electrolyte gel
- not in contact with the skin
- reduces motion artifact
- Use of non-polarizable electrodes, such as Ag/AgCl greatly
diminishes motion artifact
(a) Recessed electrode with top-hat structure.

(b) Cross-sectional view of (a).
Floating electrodes
- metal disk is recessed in a cavity to avoid contact with skin
- swimming in the electrolyte gel
- not in contact with the skin
- reduces motion artifact
- Use of non-polarizable electrodes, such as Ag/AgCl greatly
diminishes motion artifact
(c) Cross-sectional view of a disposable recessed electrode of

the same general structure.
Flexible electrodes
- Body contours are often irregular
- Regularly shaped rigid electrodes may not always work.
- Special case : infants
- Material will be woven, stretchable:
- Polymer or nylon impregnated with silver particles
- Carbon filled silicon rubber (Mylar film)
(a) Carbon-filled silicone rubber electrode.

Flexible electrodes
- Especially, conventional electrodes do not conform to the
shape of infant’s chest
- Flexible thin-film electrodes are suitable for premature infants
- Material will be woven, stretchable:
- Polymer or nylon impregnated with silver particles
- Carbon filled silicon rubber (Mylar film)
(b) Flexible thin-film neonatal electrode.

(c) Cross-sectional view of the thin-film electrode in (b).
Internal Electrodes
Needle and wire electrodes crosses skin for percutaneous
measurement of biopotentials.
May be entirely internal in the form of implanted electronic

circuit.
Having no skin-electrode interface, it’s free from associated

limitations.
Instead, behaves as electrode-electrolyte interface.
Presence of extracellular fluid eliminates the use of

electrolyte gel
Internal Electrodes
(a) Insulated needle electrode.

Solid needle, usually made of stainless steel, with a sharp point.
Except the tip, needle-shank is insulated with a varnish coat.
When inserted in muscle, records its EMG.
When placed subcutaneously on each limb, records ECG.

Internal Electrodes
(b) Coaxial needle electrode.

Consists of small-gage hypodermic needle.
The needle is modified by running an insulated fine wire down

the center of its lumen.
The tip of the needle is filed to its original bevel, exposing an

oblique cross section of the central wire.
The tip serves as the active electrode.

Internal Electrodes
(c) Bipolar coaxial electrode.
Multiple electrodes can be formed in a single needle.
Two wires are placed within the lumen of the needle.
Can be connected differentially to sense electrical activity

immediately in the vicinity of the tip of the needle.
Internal Electrodes
(d) Fine-wire electrode connected to hypodermic needle, before

being inserted.
A fine wire, often made of stainless steel, is insulated with

varnish up to before tip.
The non-insulated tip is bent back on itself to form a J-shaped

structure.
The tip is introduced into the lumen of the needle.

Internal Electrodes
(e) Cross-sectional view of skin and muscle, showing fine-wire electrode

in place.
The needle is inserted through the skin into the muscle at the
desired location, to the desired depth.
Then needle is slowly withdrawn, leaving the electrode in place.
The bent-over portion of wire serves as a barb holding the wire

in place in the muscle.
Internal Electrodes
In another variant, a helical
spiral electrode is developed.
A fine insulated wire coiled into a

tight helix is placed in the lumen of
the inserting needle.
(f) Cross-sectional view of skin and
The un-insulated barb protrudes muscle, showing coiled fine-wire
from the tip of the needle and is electrode in place.
bent back along the needle before
insertion.
It hold the wire in place in the

tissue when the needle is removed
from the muscle.
Another group of percutaneous electrodes to monitor fetal
heartbeat.
During labor fetus lies in a bath of amniotic fluid that
contains ions.
The fluid is conductive that imparts shorting effect to
surface electrode.
The electrode, therefore, must penetrate the skin of the
fetus.
It connects to the presenting part (usually head) of the
fetus available through uterine cervix (mouth of the uterus).
Electrodes for detecting fetal electrocardiogram during labor, by means

of intracutaneous needles (a) Suction electrode. (b) Cross-sectional view of
suction electrode in place, showing penetration of probe through epidermis.
(c) Helical electrode, which is attached to fetal skin by corkscrew type action.
Cup is placed against the fetal
skin.
Suction is applied to the cup.
The surface of the skin is drawn
into the cup.
The central electrode pierces the stratum
corneum, contacting the deeper layers of the
epidermis.
On the back of the suction electrode is a reference electrode
that contacts the fluid.
The signal between the two electrodes is the voltage drop
across the resistance of stratum corneum.
Although amniotic fluid places all the body of the fetus at a
common potential, the potentials beneath the stratum corneum
is the fetal ECG with peak amplitudes of 50 – 700µV.
Helical electrode is another intradermal electrode.
It consists of a stainless steel needle, shaped approximately
like one turn of a helix mounted on a plastic hub.
The back surface of the hub contains an additional
stainless steel reference electrode.
When labor has proceeded far enough, the helical needle
twists just beneath the surface of the skin.
The penetration is limited because of its short length.
Often, radio transmitter is implanted within body.
Insulated multistranded stainless steel wire is stripped at
one end to form an eyelet.
Then the eyelet is sutured to the point in the body to
establish there the electric contact.
The lead wire passes through a cylindrical Teflon insulator.
Typically a 2-mm-diameter silver sphere is located at the
tip of the insulator.
The calvarium is exposed through an incision in the scalp,
and a burr hole is drilled.
A small slit is made in the exposed dura and the silver
sphere is introduced through the opening.
The sphere rests on the surface of cerebral cortex.
The assembly is then cemented in place onto the calvarium
by means of a dental acrylic material.
The cortical-surface potential s from the brain is collected.
Electrode consists of a cluster of fine insulated wires held
together by a varnish binder.
Each wire is cut transversally to expose an un-insulated
cross section that serves as active electrode service.
By staggering the ends of the wires as shown, electrodes
can be located in arrays at known differences in depth.
The other ends can be attached to
a connector cemented on the skull to allow connection
to an external recording apparatus.
apt implantable electronic devices.
Electrode Arrays
Fabricating implantable Electrodes using clusters of
fine insulated wires is time-consuming and expensive.
Individual clusters are not identical.
Solution: Utilizing microfabrication technology to

develop 1D, 2D or 3D electrode arrays.
Electrode Arrays
1D linear arrays of several (e.g., six) pairs of electrodes.
The probes consist of Ag/AgCl electrodes
Contacts
square Ag/AgCl electrodes
on a side on thin-film gold
conductors that have been
deposited on a substrate. Insulated leads Base
(a)
Lead wires are attached
to the bonding pads at the Examples of microfabricated electrode arrays.
(a) One-dimensional plunge electrode array.
proximal end of the probe.
These electrode arrays are designed to be used for measuring

transmural potential distributions in the beating myocardium.
The flexibility is important to minimize damage of tissue as the

muscle contracts and relaxes.
Electrode Arrays
2D arrays of electrodes.
Insulated leads
Contacts
Used to map potentials across
Ag/AgCl electrodes
a region of the surface of an
organ, e.g., heart. Thus,
epicardial potentials can be
recorded.
A pattern of miniature Base

electrodes is formed on a rigid or (b)
flexible surface and connected by (b) Two-dimensional array.
conductors to the associated
instrumentation.
This interconnection can be quite a problem as the large arrays

require many connections.
Electrode Arrays
Exposed tip Tines
Fabricated using silicon
microfabrication technology.
The present example has the

appearance of two dimensional comb
with insulating material up to the tip.
The exposed tip serves as the Base
electrode.
(c)
A wire connection on the base of the (c) Three-dimensional array.

structure is needed to make contact
with each tine electrode.
With all of the tines of same length, the array effectively

measures 2D distribution of potentials.
Electrode Arrays
Exposed tip Tines
Base
(c)
(c) Three-dimensional array.

Microelectrodes
Application
Measure potential difference across cell membrane – a
requirement for studying electrophysiology of excitable cells.
Requirements
– Small enough to Intracellular
be placed into cell
avoid causing cell injury Extracellular
avoid altering cell’s behaviour
– Strong enough to
penetrate cell membrane
remain mechanically stable within cell
– Typical tip diameter: 0.05 – 10 microns
Microelectrodes
TYPES
– Metal microelectrodes
– Supported metal microelectrodes
– Micropipet electrodes
– Microelectrodes based on microelectronic technology
Metal Microelectrodes
Microns!
Extracellular recording – typically in brain where investigators are

interested in recording the firing of neurons (spikes).
Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high impedance amplifier

…negative capacitance amplifier!
Microns!
The microelectrode is a fine needle of strong metal,

insulated with an apt insulator up to its tip.
The metal needle, acting as anode, is initially dipped in an

electrolyte solution within a cell.
As it is slowly withdrawn from the solution, it is etched to

form fine tip.
Strong metals like stainless steel, platinum-iridium alloy,

tungsten, tungsten carbide are used.
Microns!
The etched metal is then supported in a large and insulated

metal shaft.
The shaft provides sturdy mechanical support and a means

of connecting to lead wire.
The assembly is insulated by a film of some polymeric

material or varnish.
Metal Supported Microelectrodes
(a) Metal inside glass (b) Glass inside metal
A strong insulating material is drawn to a fine point that

makes up the basic support.
A metal with a good electrical conductivity constitutes the

contacting portion of the electrode.
Glass Micropipette Microelectrodes
Fabricated from glass capillaries.
The central region of a piece of capillary tubing is heated
and rapidly stretched to produce constriction.
The stretched structure is broken apart at the constriction
to produce a pipette with a tip diameter of the order of 1µm.
Now it is filled with an electrolyte solution, frequently with
3M KCl. heat
pull
(a) Section of fine-bore glass capillary.

(b) Capillary narrowed through heating and stretching.
Intracellular recording – typically for recording from cells, such as cardiac
myocyte
Need high impedance amplifier…negative capacitance amplifier.
Glass Micropipette Microelectrodes
The metal electrode contacts the electrolyte within the
pipette.
The electrolyte is frequently a silver wire prepared with an
electrolyte AgCl surface.
Ag-AgCl wire+3M KCl has very low junction potential and
hence very accurate for dc measurements (e.g. action
potential)
Platinum or stainless steel wires are also occasionally used.
(c) Final structure of glass-pipette microelectrode.
Microelectrodes using
Microfabrication/MEMS Technology
Used to micromachine the small structures of metal electrodes.
The silicon substrate is etched to a thin, narrow structure on

which the required shape of electrode is prepared.
The repetitive structures are very identical.

Used to micromachine the small structures of metal electrodes.
The silicon substrate is etched to a thin, narrow structure on

which the required shape of electrode is prepared.
The repetitive structures are very identical.
High-density comb-shape metal

microelectrode arrays for recording (a) Beam-lead multiple electrode.
An array of multisite microelectrodes can be grown on a thin
silicon probe.
The structure can be placed in the cortex of the brain to detect

local potentials.
(b) Multielectrode silicon probe.

Michigan Probes for Neural
Recordings
The actual gold or Ag/AgCl electrode is located within a very
small chamber filled with an electrolytic solution such as sodium
chloride.
The small hole in the chamber allows communication with the

nervous tissue in which it is placed.
(c) Multple-chamber electrode.

The electrode consists of an array of channels etched through a
silicon chip.
The signals emitted from peripheral nerves are received by
channels.
After the peripheral nerves are transected, the cut nerves are
aligned on opposite sides of the silicon chip so that nerves can
regenerate and grow through the channels on the chip.
(d) Peripheral-nerve electrode.

The connection between the nerve fibers and the channels are
reestablished.
Gold metalization on the silicon surface surrounding each

channel is used to make such electric contact with nerve fibers.
(d) Peripheral-nerve electrode.

Electrical Properties of
Microelectrodes
Metal Microelectrode.
Equivalent circuit
Metal microelectrode with tip placed

within cell
Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high impedance
amplifier…negative capacitance amplifier!
Microelectrodes
Equivalent circuit
Rs = resistance of the metal itself

Major contributor => metal in the shank
+
tip portion of the microelectrode
as ratio of length to c/s area is high
compared to that for the shaft.
Microelectrodes
Equivalent circuit
Cd1 = capacitance along shank like coaxial, insulated cable

+
capacitance between tip and intracellular fluid
capacitance per unit length, L = length of shank
Cd 1
=
2πε r ε 0 ε r = relative permitivity of insulation material
L ln( D / d ) d = diameter of electrode
D = diameter of cylinder consisting of electrode plus insulation
Microelectrodes
Equivalent circuit
Cd2 = capacitance along shaft and extracellular fluid.

As insulation thickness: t << d, diameter of metal shaft,
ratio of inner to outer diameter tends to unity and it becomes a
parallel-plate capacitor of area equal to its circumferential surface area.
capacitance per unit length, Cd 2 ε r ε 0πd

=
L t
Microelectrodes
Equivalent circuit
Rma , Cma , Ema = components representing metal – electrolyte interface.

Microelectrodes
Equivalent circuit
Rmb , Cmb , Emb = components for reference electrode – electrolyte interface.

Due to much larger surface area of the reference electrode
compared to the tip of the microelectrode, Cmb >> Cma 
 ⇒ Z mb << Z ma
Rmb << Rma 
impedance of reference electrode << that of tip of microelectrode
Half-cell potential is unaffected by surface area.
Microelectrodes
Equivalent circuit
Ri = resistance associated with electrolyte within cell membrane.

Microelectrodes
Equivalent circuit
Cdi = capacitance between microelectrode and intracellular fluid.

Microelectrodes
Equivalent circuit
Ri = resistance associated with extracellular fluid.

Microelectrodes
Equivalent circuit
Emp = potential across cell membrane.

Microelectrodes
Equivalent circuit
Cd1 = capacitance between microelectrode and the extracellular fluid.

Microelectrodes
Equivalent circuit
Cw = capacitance associated with lead wires.

Microelectrodes
Neglecting…
Impedance of reference
electrode (Zmb)
Series resistance
contribution from the
intracellular (Ri) & Equivalent circuit
extracellular fluid (Re)
Resistance of the metal
itself (Rs)
Lumping…
Distributed capacitances
together to Cd
All the potentials together to E Simplified Equivalent circuit
Microelectrodes
At very low frequency, capacitor acts as open…
Simplified Equivalent circuit

Microelectrodes
At very low frequency, capacitor acts as open…
Ra Amplifier resistance
Ra should be large to avoid distortion.
Impedance Rma can be made reduced by applying an

Ag/AgCl surface to the electrode tip.
Microelectrodes
At very high frequency, distributed capacitor acts as short…
reduced value of (electrode + fluid) resistance
Ra Amplifier resistance
Ra should be large to avoid distortion.
Effect of C can be compensated largely by choosing negative

capacitance amplifier.
Electrical Properties of Glass
Intracellular Microelectrodes
Glass Micropipette Microelectrode
Internal electrode interface components

Resistance of electrolyte in the shank

and tip region of microelectrode.
Distributed capacitance between glass and the

region of shank and tip of microelectrodes
Distributed capacitance is negligible as the

thick wall of glass surrounding electrode
contributes nothing, almost.
Liquid-junction potential corresponds to junction setup between

the electrolyte in the micropipette and the intracellular fluid.
Tip potential corresponds to the potential of membrane formed by

the thin glass wall surrounding the tip region of micropipette.
Ri = resistance of intracellular fluid

Re = resistance of extracellular fluid
Distributed capacitance Cd between microelectrode and the fluids

in the intracellular and extracellular region.
Rmb , Cmb , Emb = components for reference electrode – electrolyte interface.

Unlike metal electrode, major
contribution of impedance by
micropipette is resistive.
Rt = overall series resistance of

electrode lumped together
(1 to 100MΩ)
Ct = total distributed
capacitance lumped together
(several pF)
Em = associated dc potentials
lumped together
Simplified equivalent circuit
Glass Micropipette Microelectrode NOTE:
Micropipette type microelectrode behaves as a low pass filter.
The high resistance and distributed capacitance imparts a large

time constant of the circuit.
The change in membrane potential is rapid compared to the

slow change of electrode output.
The problem is reduced by a positive-feedback, negative

capacitance amplifier.
Simplified equivalent circuit

Stimulating Electrodes
Application of suitably modified electric current to
stimulate excitable tissues like nerves and muscles to
produce therapeutic benefits.
Intermittent current are used.
Current duration range used: 0.01ms – 3s
Short duration less than 10ms is faradic type

– Used for stimulation of normal muscles
Long duration more than 10ms is called interrupted

galvanic type
– Used for stimulation of denervated muscles
FARADIC CURRENT
Interrupted direct current.
Pulse duration: 0.1ms – 1s
Frequency: 50 – 100Hz
Surged form of current is used

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF FARADIC CURRENT
Sensory nerve stimulation.
Motor nerve stimulation
Effect on muscle contraction

Stimulation with 50Hz frequency and 0.1 –
1ms with surged current
Effect on denervated muscles

CHEMICAL EFFECT OF FARADIC CURRENT
Produces chemical changes in electrode.
No serious danger of burns

STIMULATION OF MOTOR POINTS
INDICATIONS OF FARADIC CURRENT
Facilitation of muscle points.
Re-education of muscle action.
Training of new muscle action.
Neuropraxia of a motor nerve.
Severed motor nerve.
Improved venus and lymphatic drainage
Prevention and loosening of adhesions

INTERRUPTED DIRECT CURRENT
Frequency of 30Hz.
Duration of 100ms.
Applied through a potentiometer.

INTERRUPTED DIRECT CURRENT
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INTERRUPTED
DIRECT CURRENT
Stimulation of denervated muscles.
Stimulation of sensory nerves.
Stimulation of motor nerves.

INDICATIONS OF INTERRUPTED
DIRECT CURRENT
To produce contraction of denervated muscles.
Re-education of muscle in early phase of re-innervation.

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE TO
ELECTRIC CURRENT
As electricity moves through body’s conductive medium,
changes in the physiologic functioning can occur at
various levels:
Cellular
Tissue
Segmental
Systematic
ELECTRIC CURRENT
various levels:
Cellular
ELECTRIC CURRENT
various levels:
Tissue
ELECTRIC CURRENT
various levels:
Segmental
ELECTRIC CURRENT
various levels:
Systematic
Features
– Net current across electrode – electrolyte interface is not zero
– The body/electrode has a highly nonlinear response to
stimulation
– Cannot be modeled as a series resistance and capacitance
(there is no single useful model)
Platinum electrodes:
– Large currents can cause
Applications: neural stimulation
– Chemical reaction
– Cavitation
Modern day Pt-Ir and other
– Cell damage
exotic metal combinations to
– Heating
reduce polarization, improve
Types of stimulating electrodes conductance and long
1. Pacing life/biocompatibility
2. Ablation
3. Defibrillation Steel electrodes for pacemakers
and defibrillators
Stimulation Signal types
Constant current stimulus pulse (already mentioned)
Constant voltage stimulus pulse

Response of constant current stimulus pulse
Due to strong reactive (capacitive) component to the electrode –

electrolyte interface, i.e., polarization, voltage pulse is not
constant.
Response of constant voltage stimulus pulse
Due to strong reactive (capacitive) component to the electrode –

electrolyte interface, i.e., polarization, voltage pulse is not
constant.
Intraocular Stimulation Electrodes
Reference : Lutz Hesse, Thomas Schanze, Marcus Wilms and Marcus Eger, “Implantation of retina stimulation
electrodes and recording of electrical stimulation responses in the visual cortex of the cat”, Graefe’s Arch Clin Exp
Ophthalmol (2000) 238:840–845
In vivo neural microsystems (FIBE): challenge NOTE:
In vivo = In the body of living organism
In vivo neural microsystems (FIBE): biocompatibility - variant
In vivo neural microsystems (FIBE): state of the art
Introduction: neural microsystems
Instrumentation for
neurophysiology
Neural MEMS -
Microsystems Microsystems
Neural
microelectrodes
Introduction: types of neural microsystems applications
External Subdural Micro-

Microsensors
electrodes electrodes electrodes
Human
level
–
In vivo
applications
Animal
level
Tissue
slice – –
level In vitro
applications
Cellular
level
– –

Biopotential Electrodes4

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Biopotential Electrodes4

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Bio Electrode / Biopotential Electrode –

Acts as an interface between biological

Senses (measures) passively or stimulates

Converts ionic potentials within our body to

Able to conduct small current across the

Oxidation is dominant when current flows from

Reduction is dominant when current flows

The net current that crosses interface from

Electrons moving in a direction opposite

Cations moving in the same direction of

Anions moving in a direction opposite to

Electrolyte comes in the form of a gel.

Should not polarize when a current flows through them.

Should not cause itching, swelling or discomfort to the

What’s going on?

One atom M out of the metal

What’s going on?

Current flow from electrode to electrolyte : Oxidation (Loss of e-)

C+ : Cation A- : Anion e- : electron

Fairly common electrode materials: Pt, Carbon, …, Au, Ag,…

b) If anion can be oxidized at the electrode to form a neutral atom,

The dominating reaction can be inferred from the following :

The object might be a solid particle, a gas bubble, a liquid droplet

Over this a second layer is formed by ions attracted to the surface

This second layer is loosely associated with the object. It is made

A half-cell is a structure that contains a conductive electrode and

Electrons are able to move between electrodes as the chemical

Half cell potential is altered when there is current flowing in the

When the metal comes in contact with solution, the electrolyte

The half cell potential of the standard hydrogen electrode has

Hydrogen electrode is based on the reaction: H 2 ↔ 2 H ↔ 2 H + + 2e −

Other half cell potentials are expressed as a potential difference with

Note: Electrode material is metal + salt or polymer selective membrane

Standard Hydrogen electrode

Note: Ag-AgCl has low junction

Resistance Concentration Activation

Half Cell Potential is determined by

Concentration of its ion in solution.

Perfectly Non-Polarizable Electrode

Ag-AgCl is used in recording.

Pt is used in stimulation of tissue as it has minimal chemical

Cl2 Governing Nernst Equation

Fabrication of Ag/AgCl electrodes

The transparent gel serves as a

Electrode Cd Rd Epidermal layer is

100 Dermis and

100 Dermis and

100 Dermis and

Movement of electrode with respect to electrolyte disturbs the

Non-polarizable electrodes undergo minimum motion artifact and

Body Surface Recording Electrodes

(a) Metal-plate electrode used for application to limbs.

(b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape.

(b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape.

(c) Disposable foam-pad electrodes, often used with ECG

(a) Recessed electrode with top-hat structure.

(c) Cross-sectional view of a disposable recessed electrode of

(a) Carbon-filled silicone rubber electrode.

(b) Flexible thin-film neonatal electrode.

May be entirely internal in the form of implanted electronic

Having no skin-electrode interface, it’s free from associated

Instead, behaves as electrode-electrolyte interface.

Presence of extracellular fluid eliminates the use of