Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/suscom

Methodology and trends for an intelligent transport system in

developing countries
Martin Luther Mfenjou a,e , Ado Adamou Abba Ari a,b,∗ , Wahabou Abdou c , François Spies d ,
Kolyang a
a
LaRI Lab, University of Maroua, Maroua, Cameroon
b
LI-PaRAD Lab, Université Paris Saclay, University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Versailles, France
c
LE2I Lab-UMR CNRS 6306, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
d
FEMTO-ST Lab-UMR CNRS 6174, University of Franche-Comte, Besançon, France
e
Department of Apply Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Ngaoundere, Meiganga, Cameroon

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Increasingly, the technologies that are used in telecommunications contribute to improve intelligent
Received 6 February 2018 transport systems. These technologies are systems that offer several concepts like vehicular ad hoc net-
Received in revised form 7 July 2018 works, which allow reduction of traffic accidents, traffic congestion and consequently increase road safety
Accepted 3 August 2018
and the comfort of road users. Developing countries in general and those of sub-Sahara in particular do not
Available online 13 August 2018
have telecommunication infrastructures, even road infrastructures for the implementation of an intelli-
gent transport system. Moreover, with the serious increase in vehicles in these countries, the problem of
Keywords:
traffic regulation arise especially in the inter-urban context. One of the consequences of this problem is
Intelligent transport system
Developing countries
the high rate of road traffic accidents. Several models of traffic regulation as well as modeling systems of
Road network modeling urban transport networks are presented in the literature. Unfortunately these models are intended for
Traffic developed countries. The aim of this paper is to present, firstly the problems of the implementation of
Modeling intelligent transport systems in developing countries like sub-Saharan Africa. Secondly, we present a sur-
Monitoring vey of a road traffic model and an urban transport network models. Finally, we propose solutions, which
provide methodologies for the modeling of a system and monitor traffic on inter-urban road transport
networks in developing countries.
© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction munication infrastructures such as sensors, camera and smart

1.1. Background
The rapid growing of the world population poses a problem of
mobility for road users. Vehicle traffic involves regulating traffic
in road networks. It reduces congestion, reduces traffic accidents,
and improves traffic flow and especially the rational use of road
resources. The highway code, priority rules, traffic signs, traffic
lights and policemen traffic have contributed to lay the founda-
tion of traffic regulation. Technological advances in the field of
telecommunication have led to the birth of the intelligent trans-
port system. There are computerized systems that offer multiple
applications to transport systems based on sophisticated telecom-
∗ Corresponding author at: LI-PaRAD Lab, Université Paris Saclay, University of
Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Versailles, France.
E-mail address: adoadamou.abbaari@gmail.com (A.A. Abba Ari).
phone. These systems also offer several advantages [1]: increases
road safety, evaluates the environmental pollution, evaluates traffic
flow and disseminate information. These systems include vehicular
ad hoc network that allow communication between vehicles, and
between vehicle and another infrastructures like Road Side Unit
(RSU). RSU are the infrastructure that are deployed on the road for
the improvement of communication between vehicles. They also
increase the overall coverage of a vehicular network. A number of
developed countries use such systems. What about the implemen-
tation of such systems in developing countries?
Transportation systems in developing countries are confronted
with several realities. We have the lack of quality road infrastruc-
ture: most of these countries do not have good road infrastructures.
This means that any type of vehicle travels on the same tracks. The
lack of telecommunication infrastructures is another problem in
these countries. The infrastructures in these areas do not allow an
adequate deployment of communication between entities that con-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.suscom.2018.08.002
2210-5379/© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111
stitute the road transport system. We also have the absence of an
effective system for monitoring activities on the road network.
Furthermore, there is a high rate of traffic accidents in these
countries especially on roads that connect cities. Bezabeh et al. [2]
of the Department of Transport and ICT of the African Development
Bank presented statistics on accidents in Africa. Traffic accidents
are a growing problem in the continent and are the fourth leading
cause of death for people aged 5–44 years. 64% of these countries
have adopted a road safety policy and 76% have set up a body
devoted exclusively to the coordination of road safety activities.
These organizations have no powers, no capacity, no policies to
improve the situation. In Africa the percentage of death caused by
road accidents is 24.1% per 100.000 inhabitants in 2010 [3]. The
Cameroonian National Institute of Statistics [4] reported that, 3.503
traffic accidents occurred in 2010. Otou [5] specifies that 1.450 peo-
ple were killed in 2012 following a traffic accident in Cameroon
and that 70% of accidents occur on the Douala-Yaounde, Yaounde-
Bafoussam and Bafoussam-Douala interurban roads. These roads
constitute what is called “the triangle of death” and causes a loss
of about 50 billion a year. The above creates an interest in model-
ing a road network monitoring system of inter-urban transport in
the developing countries: to reduce traffic accidents in these coun-
tries, to make reasonable use of the roads therein and to monitor
developments in a road network.
It would be beneficial to fall with the macroscopic models. These
last years, with the introduction of new optimization methods,
research in the field aims at improving the parameters taken into
account the definition of regulatory models. Tlig [6] shows the fac-
tors that play to improve road traffic: the need of users (by better
distributing residential, commercial, industrial, etc.); the networks:
adding roads or lanes on some roads, but with strong implications
in terms of financial costs, environmental (noise, pollution, visual
impairment); the disposition of traffic signal; the control (oper-
ating rules) of active/dynamic signals (traffic lights) and control
(behavior) of vehicles.
In the context of developing countries like, Cameroon we pro-
pose a model of a road network monitoring system of inter-urban
transport that would amount to many points. We explore the fea-
sibility of implementing Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) in this
context: given that ITS hence offered tools to manage transport
systems, their effectiveness must be studied in our study context
in order to see what can be useful in setting up the model to be
proposed. The proposition of a model of transport networks in this
context is also useful. In fact, the road networks in these countries
are generally not modeled because they are permanently disturbed
(refection, traffic accidents, poor roads, climatic events), they are
not meshed since in most cases it is difficult to propose an alter-
native to road users in the event of interruptions especially in the
context of inter-urban transport. This monitoring model would be
equipped with a dynamic regulation system to improve the traffic
flow and a communication system between the entities that com-
pose it so as to limit congestion and disturbances in the network.
The insertion of a decision-making system to sanction the users
who do not respect the laws on one hand and to contribute to the
different evaluations that will be interesting on the other hand.
1.2. Contributions
The aim of this paper is to present the methods (or models)
of regulating the traffic of arteries and intersections, the meth-
ods of regulation of the road traffic in urban area as well as the
optimization techniques that they use. Then, in the context of the
inter-urban road networks of the developing countries, where there
is almost no regulation standard, with roads where circulating all
types of vehicles (motorcycles, bicycles, truck merchandise, tim-
ber trucks, etc.), we propose comparative tables of the previous
97
methods. The purpose of these comparisons was to research one
(or more) methods that can enable us to arrive at a model of
surveillance of the inter-urban road network that would reduce
congestion and accidents in these networks taking into account
the level of technological development and the level of road infras-
tructure in these countries. They help us for the improvement of
the understanding of these methods. Finally, at the end of these
comparisons, we propose a methodology for monitoring the inter-
urban transport network of the developing countries.
1.3. Organization of the paper
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, we
present the ITS. This part presents the functioning of these trans-
port system, the opportunities that they bring and the problems of
their deployment in developing countries. In Section 3, we review
some regulation models of urban traffic, and a summary table of
these models is proposed. The goal here is to see if the opportuni-
ties offered by these models can help to solve the problem in our
study context. Section 4 examines models as well as methods of
urban transport networks. It comes to a review of existing trans-
port networks models to see which one (or those) we can adopt
in our study context. As for Section 5, we propose the methodol-
ogy that we would use to realize the model we intend to propose.
Finally, Section 6 shows the conclusion and future direction of our
research.
2. Intelligent transport system
ITS refer to the application of information and communica-
tion technologies for the management of problems in conventional
transport systems. They use innovative technologies in these areas
to improve safety, effectiveness, efficiency, accessibility and sus-
tainability of the transport network without increasing the capacity
of the concerned transmission network.
2.1. Applications of ITS
The applications offered by intelligent transport systems are
many and the most important are presented in [7].
• Electronic toll collection: This is an element of Intelligent Transport
System that permits nonstop toll collection. It uses vehicles which
are equipped with sophisticated communication tools for collect-
ing the toll electronically. It eliminates the delay and increases the
performance of toll stations.
• Highway data collection: It allows the collection of traffic data
using georeferencing systems (GPS, GSM, and GPRS) to enable the
traffic control center to analyze and identify areas of congestion
on the road network.
• Traffic management system: It plays an important role in the over-
all management of the transport system. It collects information
in real-time from various hardware components such as cameras
and speed analysis and process them.
• Vehicle data collection: It collects information on vehicles traveling
on the road network.
• Emergency vehicle pre-emption: This system makes it possible to
provide these types of vehicles with solutions enabling them to
circulate without problems in a road network even in situations
of congestion without increasing congestion on the road network.
• Road condition monitoring: Due to the frequent disaster which
occurred in Japan, Ito et al. [8], proposed a road condition
monitoring system that uses multiple sensor data for ensuring
communication between vehicle and providing as a web applica-
tion if some disaster occurs.
98 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111
Fig. 1. Intelligent transport system architecture.
2.2. Technologies used in ITS
Technologies encountered in ITS are:
• Wireless communication: Communications are established
between vehicle [9–11]. It consists of an exchange of information
between vehicles through the communication units installed
in them, i.e., an on board unit between vehicle and road side
unit infrastructures, at the end between road side units. The
wireless technologies used are those known: Wi-Fi, WiMax,
DSRC, MBWA, UWB, etc.
• Computer technologies: This is the use of platforms, tools that offer
computers to solve problems in transport systems.
• Floating car data: It is a concept used in intelligent transport
systems to determine, for example, the speed of a vehicle, the
location of a vehicle, either from a sensor or from a mobile device.
• Detection technologies: The sensors make it easy to obtain infor-
mation related to the activities carried out in a transport system.
Today, there exist several detection modes: static detection, i.e.,
the sensors or detectors are fixed along the road, such as loops and
magnetic sensors, cameras, acoustic sensors RF sensors; mobile
detection, it is the use of devices such as GPS on vehicles, or those
installed on mobile phones and hybrid detection. A number of
tools are adopted in detection technologies such as: inductive
loop detection, vehicle detection video and Bluetooth detection
[12].
Some industrialized countries exploit these transport systems
among which we have: the United States of America, Japan, Great
Britain, Australia, Singapore, South Korea and the countries of
Central Europe [1]. Fig. 1, clearly illustrates the functioning of intel-
ligent transport systems. Indeed, roadside units (RSUs), which are
roads servers are installed along the roads. These machines con-
nected to the Internet give information related to the traffic to
users. The vehicles themselves have On Board Units (OBUs) that
allows them to communicate with others OBUs and with the RSUs.
This system contributes to the reduction of accidents, congestion
and ensures good road safety.
Nowadays, the emerging concept that could also be useful in
our study context is Big Data. It is use to describe data that is high
volume, high velocity, and/or high variety; requires new technolo-
gies and techniques to capture, store, and analyze it; and is used to
enhance decision making, provide insight and discovery, and sup-
port and optimize processes with: NoSQL, MapReduce and machine
learning [13]. Many countries like India use it in transportation and
logistics thanks to Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and GPS
to track buses and explore interesting data to improve some ser-
vices like prediction of demand about public or private networks
[14]. The trend in the case of the monitoring of inter-urban network
transport in developing countries like Cameroon will be firstly the
consideration of regional parameters that could be used for mak-
ing decision. Secondly, the technology of telecommunication which
is used in this country. Tom and Das [15] introduced a futuristic
intelligent transportation system architecture for sustainable road
transportation in developing countries thanks to Information Com-
munication Technology (ICT). This architecture integrates land use,
road, traffic, human and environmental parameters. As ICT tools
and technologies, this architecture would use: web application’s or
SMS, GPS or cell phones, IR sensors, Internet connectivity, WiFi, LED
board, Motion sensors and Radar gun. Many of developing countries
are so poor. The major problem of this architecture in these poor
countries is the availability of these ICT tools and technologies in
this country because of high cost of these tools and the high cost of
its deployment through the country.
2.3. Smart-phone based ridesharing
Ridesharing is an emerging concept in transportation that relies
on information sharing among individual travelers. It include vehi-
cle sharing during a trip with others that have similar itineraries and
time schedules as well as split travel costs such as gas, parking and
toll fees [16]. With the development of the smart phones, several
applications have been developed to improve a number of services
in Ridesharing. It presents several benefits such as reducing travel
time, mitigating traffic congestion, conserving fuel, and reducing air
pollution. These smart phones offer realtime ridesharing platforms
easy to use and much attractive such as Apple’s, iPhone software
and Google’s Android platform [17]. There are many applications
that are commonly used for smart-phone based ridesharing. Gener-
ally, the ridesharing applications are divided in two categories [18].
Firstly, applications that solely offer ridesharing as an alternative to
on-demand taxi service. This category includes applications such as
Uber, Lyft, Taxify. Secondly, a category of application that follows
all the traditional characteristics of ridesharing such as BlaBlaCar,
Hitch-A-Ride, Via and Split.
Moreover, a number of research have been done in order to
enhance ridesharing services. For instance, Bicocchi et al. [19] pro-
posed a set of algorithms intended to analyze urban mobility traces
and to recognize matching rides along similar routes. The obtained
results from series of experimentation highlight the assessment of
the potential of ride-sharing for reducing traffic in a several cities
including Madrid, Barcelona, New York and Los Angeles. With the
context of developing countries such as Nigeria, Adewumi et al.
[20] proposed a Mobile Application for a Taxi Service Company in
Nigeria.
Unfortunately, in developing countries, where there are not
enough road infrastructure and where ridesharing is not more com-
mon, especially in the case of inter-urban transport networks. Then,
what would be the contribution of smart-phone ridesharing in
setting up ITS in developing countries for inter-urban transport?
Nowadays, the use of smartphone and mobile applications in devel-
oping countries are evolves constantly, it is the same with Internet
usage. Poushter [21] has made the statistics on the activities where
the use of the smartphone has an impact on the economy of the
countries in the process of development. It is true that taxi services
by mobile applications are already set up in developing countries
like Nigeria [20]. It would be interesting for research to be part of
the modeling of mobile applications for smartphone ridesharing
in the context of inter-urban transport networks while taking in
account the special context of developing countries. If we take the
case of African countries where inter-urban travel is most often
provided by public transport, smartphone ridesharing could have
high positive impact. Before proposing the proposed methodology,
it is important that we present the models of traffic regulation on
 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111
Fig. 2. Inter-urban traffic in developing countries.
the one hand and on the other hand we present the models of urban
transport in order to understand their operating principles to finally
see those we can use in our study context.
3. Road traffic regulation model
O’Neill [22], at a forum organized by the World Bank, pre-
sented the deficiencies observed in transport systems in developing
countries: the lack of highway, the lack of telecommunications
infrastructure to develop intelligent transport system, the lack of
management planning systems in transport systems, the insuf-
ficient public transport regulatory services. These shortcomings
clearly justify why it is difficult to implement intelligent transport
systems in developing countries. Certainly, in the case of Cameroon,
the gendarmerie uses floating car data to limit the speed of the
drivers on certain sections. Cameroon customs uses also GPS to
monitor the evolution of goods trucks in the road network. Does
the Cameroonian transport system really allow them to attain their
objectives, namely to launch a maximum number of trucks in the
road network? Do they allow the circulation without degrading the
quality of service offered by the road network? These questions lead
us to discuss the mode of transport encountered in these countries.
Roads are shared by all types of transport: public transport vehicles,
trucks, logging trucks, personal vehicles, rural transport vehicles
(transport activity carried around large cities to the surrounding
villages using vehicles in deplorable states). The anarchy observed
in the mode of transport in these countries justifies somewhere
the high rate of accidents on the sections that separate the cities of
these countries. The work of Moskolai et al. [23] aims to normalize
that anarchy in the transport system by proposing a methodology
of co-deployment of physical and information systems. It proposes
a model that normalizes these transport systems by addressing the
social, cultural and economic realities that exist in these countries.
Despite this, the problem of regulation remains. Fig. 2 shows an
inter-urban road network in these countries.
The road traffic regulations models are grouped into four cate-
gories [24]: the microscopic models, the sub-microscopic models,
the mesoscopic models, the macroscopic models. The microscopic
models describe the behavior of entities of systems (vehicles and
drivers) as well as their interactions with a high-level of details
(individually). The sub-microscopic models show in detail the
vehicle control behavior in accordance with the environmental
conditions. The mesoscopic models indicate the behavior of indi-
viduals in probabilistic terms. In the mesoscopic models, the traffic
is represented by small groups of traffic entities, whose activities
and interactions are described at an average level in detail. The
macroscopic models describe the traffic to a higher level of aggre-
gation as the flow of a fluid without distinguishing its components.
99
Fig. 3. Illustration of the operation of Maxband [25].
In this model, the traffic is shown here in a comprehensive manner
by using features such as flow, density and speed, the general detail
level is reduced.
Road Traffic Regulation Models are the systems which have
been defined to improve traffic fluidity in a section or an intersec-
tion. The literature presents a multitude of models for regulating
road traffic. These models are grouped into two classes accord-
ing to their contributions in improving traffic fluidity [25]: the
approaches that improve traffic flow by increasing the bandwidth
on a given artery, the approaches that improve it by reducing the
inconvenience observed on the tracks (waiting, stopping, etc.). The
existing regulation models operate on strategies presented in [26]:
the basics, the isolated intersection control, the coordinated time
control and the adaptive strategy control. The first are the con-
ventional control methods such as traffic lights that are installed at
intersections to define a synchronized method of alternating traffic
between vehicles and pedestrians. The isolated intersection control
uses parameters to set the priority to certain roads at intersections.
The coordinated time control are the models that coordinate the
activities on the traffic by fixing the periods for the execution of
certain actions which contribute to the crossing of the vehicles in a
regulated way. The adaptive strategy control are models that uses
parameters measured in real-time (e.g. traffic density) to propose
a control solution.
Some of these models have been implemented and simulated.
This part is to see for each model: the mathematical approach used,
the principle of operation, the parameters taken into account and
their methods of evaluation as well as the applicability of these
models in our context of study.
3.1. Maxband
Maxband (Maximize Bandwidth) is a program developed in For-
tran which improves bandwidth on arteries by configuring the
passages through intersections that cross these roads based on the
cycle time, the speed of vehicles on these roads and geometry of the
main roads (see Fig. 3). Little et al. [25] as well as Papageorgiou et al.
[26] describe in detail how this model works. Indeed, Maxband con-
siders the two-way main roads with n signals S1 , . . ., Sn (each signal
corresponds to the crossing signal) at an intersection and specifies
the passage time between intersections to allow a maximum num-
ber of vehicles to cross (within a speed range not to be exceeded)
without having to stop at intersections. This is possible by formu-
lating the problem in the form of mixed linear programming based
on binary variables. This model has been implemented in several
road networks in North America.
As with the method, the major advantage that Maxband
presents is to reduce vehicle stops at intersections. However, no
100 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111
Fig. 4. Structure of Transyst by [27,26].
pre-emption can be made in this case to pass for example the ambu-
lances or even the firemen. In addition, no guarantee is made on
the increase in intersections and their impact on the calculations
and the methods used to evaluate the ranges of speeds to be allo-
cated to the vehicles which have to circulate a given main road.
This system is not easy to use because to do this, the user should
already formulate his problem in the form of mixed linear program-
ming based on binary variables. The optimization technique used
becomes increasingly complex with the increase in the size of the
data [25]. In our study context, it is possible to set up this model.
In addition to the disadvantages described in the preceding para-
graph, we also mention the fact that traffic lights are only present
in large cities and not even in all the main roads of these cities.
3.2. Transyst
Transyst (Traffic Network Study Tool) is the best known and
most widely used signal control strategy for testing the improve-
ments made possible by real-time strategies. Transyst relies on
an off-line optimization that generates optimal coordination plans
between the traffic lights of a network for a given period. Robertson,
1986 [27], Papageorgiou et al. [26] clearly describe its functioning.
It requires a lot of input parameters like intersection arterial geom-
etry, vehicle throughput, the rate of vehicles on each outgoing route
of each intersection (set in advance), the minimum green light time,
initial firing planes, and initial values for cycle times and phase
shifts. Thus, we simulate macroscopically a mathematical model
and then evaluate its performance. An optimization is then car-
ried out using the Hill-Climbing algorithm to progressively improve
the solution by modifying the duration of the green lights and the
offsets between the adjacent intersections. Fig. 4 describes how
this model optimizes traffic control. The establishment of telecom-
munication infrastructures to ensure a collection of real-time data
information necessary to generate plans for the coordination of
traffic lights in the context of our study is to consider whether one
wishes to use this model of regulation or not.
3.3. Prodyn
Prodyn is a decentralized, traffic-adaptive system whose goal
is to optimize traffic by minimizing delays at intersections over a
future 80 s horizon, [28]. This model uses the technique of decom-
position and coordination to divide the optimization problem
initially posed in several sub-problems that will then solve using
dynamic programming (optimization method that transforms a
complex problem into a series of simple problems). For this sys-
tem, the network is divided into sections for unidirectional flow
of traffic flux. The sections are therefore cut into segments of the
same length. The information to be integrated into the system is
retrieved from the sensors [29,30]. This information is used to cal-
culate the number of vehicles on the first segment of the section,
to estimate the length of the vertical queues at the line lights and
to predict future arrivals at the line of lights on the horizon. It then
makes it possible to minimize the total time lost on a crossroads
by relying on a model of traffic flow on the horizon. Other features
of this control system include: the frequency of modification of the
phases and the duration of the lights is fixed at 5 s, the evolution
of the queues is expressed in terms of arrivals and departures on
the sections, and the optimization of each intersection separately
according to the data received from its neighbors [31]. The disad-
vantage of this approach is the complexity in terms of calculations
and communication costs.
3.4. OPAC
Optimized Policies for Adaptive Control (OPAC) is one of the
first global strategies to be developed in the United States for real-
time traffic control in signaling systems. It is a distributed control
system that has a dynamic algorithm that calculates signal frequen-
cies to minimize the performance function of delays and stops at
intersections. This system develops several strategies based on the
following principles [32,33]: offer better performance than offline
methods, adapt to actual traffic conditions and not be sensitive
to historical or predicted values that are unreliable that may be
far from reality, be limited to the periods of arbitrary control, but
should be able to provide continuously optimized controls, and
develop new control concepts that manage the variability of traf-
fic flows, splits and offsets that are inherent to signal optimization
methods. There are several versions of the OPAC system policies.
3.4.1. OPAC-1
This is the foundation of the strategy implemented by OPAC and
is used to evaluate other versions of this system. It is based on the
dynamic programming to control the traffic allows it to have an
optimal solution [34]. This version does not allow real-time control
since it does not consider enough information available in real-
time. It requires complete knowledge of arrivals during the control
period.
3.4.2. OPAC-2
It is based on a sequential optimization. It consists of simplifying
OPAC-1. It was designed to serve as a basis for designing a dis-
tributed strategy in real-time. Here, each control period is divided
into several steps, each of which lasts for T seconds. And each
step is divided into several intervals that last ‘second’ each. Dur-
ing each step, the algorithm guarantees that no optimal solution
will be forgotten. In this version of OPAC, the optimization is indi-
cated as follows: For each step, considering the initial queues on
each approach and the arrivals for each interval of the scene, deter-
mines the switching times, in terms of intervals, which give the
least delay to vehicles on the whole stage; The procedure used to
solve the problem is the optimal method of searching for sequential
constraints.
3.4.3. OPAC-3
It is the version which consists in applying an algorithm based
on the concept of rolling horizon [34]. The signaling steps are subdi-
vided into n intervals, thus the traffic profiles are projected and the
phase changes are calculated optimally. The detectors are placed
upstream of each path to collect the actual data over k intervals.
And that is what the beginning of the horizon is. For the n-k remain-
ing intervals (the bottom of the horizon), the traffic flow data are
taken from a model. This model consists of calculating the moving
average of all previous arrivals on the approach. An optimal switch-
ing policy is calculated for the entire horizon, but only changes that
occur in the header are actually implemented. Thus, it is possible
to dynamically revise decisions when more recent real-time data
is obtained.
 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111
Fig. 5. Control architecture in VFC-OPAC [34].
3.4.4. OPAC-4
This version has a synchronization and coordination strategy
that is appropriate for implementation in main roads and networks.
It is also called OPAC with a Virtual Fixed Cycle (OPAC) because of
the cycle of the flow threshold where local reference points are
fixed. VFC-OPAC organized in three layers as shown in Fig. 5:
• Layer 1: It implements the OPAC III module: it optimally and con-
tinuously calculates the switching sequences for the projection
horizon, subject to the VFC constraint communicated from layer
3;
• Layer 2: As for the coordination layer, it optimizes the offsets at
each intersection;
• Layer 3: The synchronization layer calculates the VFC for the
entire network (once after a few minutes, as specified by the user).
3.5. SCOOT
Split Cycle and Offset Optimization Technique (SCOOT) is a sys-
tem that works in real-time. Several cities use SCOOT as a model of
urban traffic control such as: Santiago, Oxnard, Minneapolis, Ana-
heim in the United States of America and Red Deer, Alberta, Toronto,
Ontario in Canada. It is decentralized and completely adapted to
the traffic situation. It optimizes certain control parameters like
[35,36]: the duration of green light to every intersection regard-
less, offsets between neighboring intersections and the light cycles
between the intersection zones. In addition to this optimization,
this system collects data (number of vehicles per time interval)
from detectors installed on roads, magnetic loops upstream of the
crossroads. It compares the different options and chooses the one
that brings it closer to its optimization goal using the Hill-Climbing
algorithm. This allows it to gradually modify the plans of traf-
fic lights running according to the data collected by the sensors
installed on the roads [37–39]. These modifications consist of small
variations in the duration of the cycle times (0.4 or 8 s), (0 or 4 s) and
offsets between intersections (0 or 4 s). This module is summarized
in five key points [40]:
• Vehicle detector: It is located upstream at the stop point. It is a sen-
sor of magnetic loop nature which makes it possible to detect the
lifts of queues in case of congestion. It then takes into account the
vehicles stopped on the section for reasons other than blockages,
in order to correct estimations of parameters related to traffic
flow.
• The flow profile cyclic: It allows the usage of data collected on the
detectors to provide optimal coordination of traffic lights. The
information collected from the detectors is stored in the SCOOT
system in the form of cyclic flow profiles. The profiles tend to
be repeated and coupled with new data in a cyclic sequence to
avoid large random fluctuations in the profile. Cycle flow profiles
contain information needed to decide how best to coordinate an
101
Fig. 6. Hierarchical structure of SCATS [42].
adjacent pair of signals and cause the signal optimizer to search
for the new best time.
• The queue prediction tool: Cruise time is used to predict when
vehicle streams that are registered in the profile are likely to reach
the stop line. The arrivals of vehicles to the stop line during the red
period are added to the back of the queue, which usually continue
to grow in the next green time until the queue empties. This tool
does not always provide accurate results. It is used as long as
validation is accepted.
• Congestion manager: Congestion can occur when the queue grows
in length and extends to the back of an upstream junction. The
traffic model measures the proportion of cycle time that the
detector occupies by a queue. The optimizer then uses this infor-
mation to reduce the probability of blocking the queue of the
upstream junction.
• Allows you to estimate the real-time size of the queue for better
control. The SCOOT system uses these estimates to calculate the
performance index, which is the average of the sum of the queues.
SCOOT then tries to adjust the signal that makes this index as
small as possible.
3.6. SCATS
Sydney Co-ordinated Adaptive Traffic System (SCATS) is par-
tially decentralized and adapted to the traffic situation using
Sensors installed on the roads [41–44]. This model is used in
Australia (Sydney), Europe, Hong Kong and some states in the
United States of America (Oakland, Michigan). In order to ensure
traffic control, SCATS relies on a concept of a subsystem that
intersects (1–10 intersections per subsystem) and where a single
intersection is deemed critical (defined by the system user). Each
subsystem is optimized independently of other subsystems. The
approach used is to use predefined libraries of offsets and green
light durations with an algorithm real time reconstruction of lights
plan for intersection. The libraries store 10 sets of offsets and 4 sets
of green light duration. From these sets, the algorithm reconstructs
the plans of the fire once per cycle knowing that the variation can-
not exceed 6 s. The algorithm compares several solutions and the
sensor data before applying the solution which minimizes the satu-
ration of the roads. In addition, SCATS performs two types of offsets:
within the subsystem and between two neighboring subsystems.
The offsets are also selected from the libraries and according to the
most saturated axes. It collects real-time traffic data at each inter-
section and then send via the traffic controller to a host computer.
Additional adjustments are made from this computer. To carry out
the regulation, SCATS: Detects traffic volume by movements, con-
verts data streams, calculates the optimum cycle length, calculates
optimal separations by phase, determine the phase combinations,
controls synchronizations and defines the implementation policy.
Fig. 6 presents the hierarchical structure of SCATS.
Central Management System is intended for centralized moni-
toring of system performance and equipment status. It also collects
input and monitoring data and then quickly diagnoses faults.
Regional Computer installed in each region of the network, it allows
the central system to maintain control of the traffic of a set of
102 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111
Fig. 7. A feedback control diagram for traffic adaptive systems [45].
controllers (traffic controller and policy controller) autonomously.
They make the system extensible because it will be possible to
add other machines (for a SCAT system have up to 32 regional
machines). Traffic controllers are used for strategic operations the
information is transmitted to the general computer and is accepted
due to adaptive traffic conditions. It also maintains local flexibility
to respond to the cyclical variation in demand at each intersec-
tion. This model of regulation has the simulators, that are already
in version 6.
3.7. Rhodes
It is a road traffic control system that has been defined as a pre-
lude to the concept of vehicular networks. Mirchandani and Wang,
2005 [45] describe the operation of this system. Real-Time Hier-
archical Optimized Distributed Effective System (RHODES) has a
modular architecture that builds the computer control communi-
cation infrastructure to provide additional functions to intelligent
transport systems. Rhodes uses the data coming from the input
sensors coming from the detectors, the transponders. It produces
real-time traffic flow predictions and controls flow through the
transport network using the optimal phase calendar. Rhodes con-
trols in real time the signal of adaptive traffic and must respond
proactively to flow arrivals to minimize vehicle stops and delays as
much as possible. The feedback control scheme in Fig. 7 illustrates
an adaptive system of effective signal control traffic.
The sensors monitor traffic on the network. Using a traffic pat-
tern, the system estimates the current traffic flow and predicts
traffic flows. This system uses the optimization algorithm to deter-
mine the best time to plan for the control period. Rhodes uses
an adaptive traffic signal architecture that: decomposes the prob-
lem of traffic control into sub-problems that are interconnected
hierarchically; provides traffic flows at appropriate resolution lev-
els (individual vehicles, platoons, transport vehicles, emergency
response units and trains) for proactive control; supports various
optimization modules to solve sub-problems; uses communication
data structure approaches to find a quick solution of the sub-
problems.
3.8. Insync
Insync is a predictive traffic control system that is developed and
supported by Rythm Engineering (Lenexa, Kansas). Stevanovic and
Zlatkovic, 2013 [46] compare this system with a daily traffic con-
trol system. The basic version of this system uses video detection
and image processing to detect vehicles and adjust the frequency
of the signal in real-time to respond to changes in traffic demand.
It has two fundamental aspects [47]: It automatically adjusts the
synchronization of local signals, and coordinates the signals along
the road arteries according to actual traffic demand. presents the
various parameters on which the traffic control adaptation sys-
tem implemented in Insync is based: traffic progress, evaluation
of the length of the period, Local adaptation, digital signal number
of signal-state concepts of signal states, scheduling of states. About
the traffic progress, InSync uses green time/wave tunnels to ensure
successive changes from green lights to consecutive traffic lights.
The tunnel schedules are controlled by a facilitator intersection.
This usually means that the high-speed lines from the upstream
intersections for the two main directions of travel intersect at the
facilitator intersection. However, they can also be cross intersec-
tions. The intersection facilitator decides a time when it uses a
green band for the coordinated tunnel phases and then commu-
nicates with the adjacent intersections. About the evaluation of the
length of the period, the local adaptation system at each intersec-
tion continuously analyzes its queue lengths and the percentage
of occupancy for each phase to facilitate dynamic periods. InSync
determines its dynamic period lengths in three ways. First, each
intersection indicates whether the duration of the current period
has been sufficient to erase all its queues. Second, each intersec-
tion frequently reports if the current length was sufficient to erase
each queue for all periods during the most recent rolling period of
15 min. Finally, InSync also considers the required time period for
the next 15 min based on that same window of 15 min per hour a
day in the week in the last four weeks. In this way, InSync performs
a limited amount of predictive modeling of period lengths. For the
local adaptation logic, beyond the constraints communicated by the
facilitator, the signals operate in fully activated intelligent mode. If
a period is 90 s in duration and a green light is guaranteed for the
principal directions at each intersection for 10 s, then 80 s are avail-
able for the local optimizer to plan the states (phase pairs) at each
intersection in function of its intelligent programming. The local
optimizer embodies the dominant logic and algorithm adaptability
of the system. The local optimizer also has the ability to start the
tunnel early and extend or truncate the tunnel time based on local
demand. For Digital Signal Control Concepts and the Finite Number
of Signal States, InSync must decide: which phase sequence will
serve as an intersection with the greatest delay reduction, when
triggering a state (pair phase) and the duration of this state. In
synchronization uses traffic controllers in free mode by disabling
all volume density functions and managing the placement of the
demand detector to the controller. This design allows the controller
to react quickly and change the traffic signal in response to desti-
nation calls served by InSync. For the scheduling of states, to the
opening of a new tunnel, it will schedule a main street statements
sequence. After tunnels are served, the local optimizer will plan
the states where the application seems necessary. Secondly, if a
tunnel is recently completed, it will plan a cross street sequence as
its priority. At the end, the duration of the cross street is based on a
balance between the actual amount of authorization time required
and the need for time.
The traffic control models studied in this work clearly show a
number of difference in the data collection schemes, the way in
which these information are processed and even the objectives for
improving the traffic regulation. Therefore, Table 1, summarizes
these traffic control models by proposing a comparison according to
a number of metrics. This table could also be useful for people who
would like to deploy such models in cities in developed countries.
From the above, we note that the models of road traffic regula-
tions studied in urban areas are based mainly on the management
of signal lights and the optimal management of intersections. All
are systems based on macroscopic models. Some rely on time-
based strategies and others on real-time optimization strategies.
Implementation of these systems in developing countries is con-
fronted with problems of telecommunications infrastructure and
Table 1
Summary of some road traffic regulations urban models.

Dynamic Strategy Locality/country Optimization Predictive Parameters used Optimized parameters Data source Performance criteria
technique
√
Maxband [25] Isolated North America Mixed linear No Cycle time, speed Stop at intersections Offline Maximized bandwidth

M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111
intersection programming geometry of the
control arteries
[26]
√
Transyst [27] Coordinated time Hill-climbing No Vehicle speed vehicles Green lights duration, Reduction of stop
control rates time of green offsets delays
lights plan of initial
lights, . . .
[26]
√
Prodyn [28] Isolated Dynamic programming Yes Sensors Minimize downtime at
intersection intersections
control
√
OPAC [32] Coordinated time Dynamic programming Yes Sensors Minimize downtime at
control intersections
[33]
[34]
√
SCOOT [35] Isolated USA (Santiago, Oxnard) Hill-Climbing Yes * Green light duration, Queues Magnetic loop Minimize the
intersection Canada (Toronto, *offsets between performance index
control Ontario) intersections, *cycle of
light between
intersection zones
[36]
[40]
√
SCATS [41] Coordinated time Sydney, Hong-Kong, No *Offset plan, *green Magnetic loop Minimize fire plans
control Oakland light duration, * cycle
time
[42]
[43]
[44]
Rhodes [45] Coordinated time Decomposition into Yes Delay of vehicle Queues Sensors minimize vehicle stops
control sub-problem
√
Insync [46] Adaptative strategy Yes *Traffic progression, Video detection
control *length of period,
*signal states
[47]

103
104 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111

of the complete urbanization of cities in these countries. In our

study context, we are talking about modeling a system for mon-
itoring inter-urban road transport networks, one of which is the
regulation of traffic. It is not limited to intersection management
alone. It consists mainly in dynamically managing traffic fluctua-
tions between the cities that make up the road network in order
to reduce accidents and congestion, while guaranteeing the qual-
ity of service offered by the road network. It is therefore important
to present a review on the modeling of transport networks to bet-
ter understand the so-called models operating mechanisms and
choose the one (or ones) that will be suitable for our work. Fig. 8. Example of a graph modeling.

4. Methods of modeling urban transport network
Modeling a traffic surveillance system in interurban road trans-
port network suggests a model whose main objectives are: to
maximize the satisfaction of road users by allowing them to reduce
their journey times, to define a decision support system to manage
all the disturbances that can be observed in the process of reg-
ulation of inter-urban road traffic, to establish a communication
system that is adapted to the model where the actors involved in
the regulation process will communicate easily without affecting
the behavior of the model, and to guarantee the quality of service
offered by the road system. The first part of this work consists in
making a graphical representation of the problem to be solved.
The choice of graphical representation depends on the parame-
ters, objectives and constraints of the system. The urban transport
network model are the regulation model not for a section, neither
for an intersection, but for an urban environments. The literature
presents several models of representations of urban transport net-
works. In the case of a road transport network, the vertices or nodes
that make up the network can be either: towns, tolls, weighing sta-
tions, customs checkpoints, etc. Arcs are valued and can translate
one of the characteristics of the sections they represent, depending
on the nature of the problem to be solved. Thus, the value of the arc
can be [48]: the structure of the network on the section (sinuosity
and configuration of the tracks), the quality of infrastructure (num-
ber and width of tracks, etc.), the topographic constraints (slope),
the regulations in force (speed), the technical characteristics of the
vehicles, the congestion that disrupt the operation of the system,
the length of the section, the capacity of the section (the number
of vehicles that can travel on that section at a given time. The aim
of this section is to review the literature of some models of urban
transport networks and to make a comparative study. Indeed, just
to see if the approaches can be used in the inter-urban context or
if a combination of approaches may be used.
4.1. Graphs modeling
This is one of the most widely used approaches for modeling and
optimizing problems in transport networks. The illustration of dis-
placements in transport networks is often modeled by graphs [49].
This modeling also makes it possible to understand the behavior
of the entities that make up the network. A graph consists of a set
of vertices and a set of arcs. Let E = x1 , x2 , x3 , . . ., xn , be the set of
vertices. An arc is a pair of vertices so an element of the Cartesian
product E × E. We denote  : E −→ E, the family of arcs. Thus, the
graph G = (E, ) is of order n (the number of vertices that compose
the graph). Fig. 8, is an example of graph modeling. In this case,
the values of the arcs represent the distance that separates the ver-
tices of the network. For the modeling of an inter-urban network,
the inputs and outputs of the arcs between the nodes represent
the control points. This approach will not be enough because the
modeling by graphs can only make a graphical and visible repre-
sentation of the vertices. Moreover, the communication system to
be set up is distributed. In addition, this model should include a
decision support system to define the sanctions linked to the mul-
tiple abuses that can be made by users of a road network. It would
therefore be wise to use this approach to associate it with another
model.
4.2. Multi-agents systems
A Multi-Agent System is a compound of autonomous agents that
act in an environment and work together to achieve a common
goal. Agents are conceptual entities that exist in an environment
in which they interact to solve problems that exceed their indi-
vidual abilities and knowledge. Given that transport networks are
distributed geographically, in a dynamic environment (passengers,
vehicles move within the city and between cities) and finally with
interactions between the components of these networks, multi-
agent systems appear as being an appropriate approach for the
modeling of transport networks. Solving a problem using a multi-
agent system approach requires that it should be broken down into
a module so that agents are specialized in solving a specific aspect of
the problem. Sycara, 1998 [50] presents the steps necessary for the
design of a coherent multi-agent system for a given problem. Must
therefore: Formulate, describe, decompose and allocate problems
and synthesize results among a group of intelligent agents, allow
agents to communicate and interact, ensure that agents make deci-
sions and perform actions consistently. Ferber, 1995 [51] defines
the properties of an agent. It must be able to: act within the envi-
ronment, communicate directly with other agents, to possess its
own resources, It is driven by a set of trends in the form of individ-
ual objectives of a satisfaction or survival function that it seeks to
optimize, possibly reproduce, to possess skills and services, to have
only a partial representation of its environment, to have a behavior
that tends to meet its objectives taking into account the resources
and the competences at its disposal and according to its perception,
ts representations and the communications that it receives.
Several studies on the behavior and management of transport
networks use multi-agent systems. Jeribi et al. [52] moves a system
for assisting the regulation of a disrupted multimodal transport
network in order to solve a congestion problem. Its about a sys-
tem based on multi-agent systems and a graph-based modeling.
Meignan et al. [53] offers analysis tools design and implementation
of meta-heuristics for combinatorial optimization using an agent-
oriented approach. The advantage offered by this approach is that it
is simple to implement because of the decomposition of the prob-
lem. This Flexibility and robustness of the agents. Fayech et al. [54]
proposes a system of regulation multimodal urban transport net-
works based on multi-agent systems and evolutionary algorithms.
Indeed, it uses multi-agent systems for landing and assist the reg-
ulator in monitoring, diagnosis (incident detection, analysis) and
decision making.
As part of our work to monitor the activities taking place in
the inter-urban transport network in developing countries, we
could use multi-agent systems to establish a communication sys-
 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111
Fig. 9. Behavior of control point in our study context.
tem between the various control points that will constitute the
inter-urban transport network: the flexibility of the agents will
facilitate the implementation and administration of the communi-
cation system itself, to control interference that may occur on the
network and to make the various assessments that may occur on
the traffic activities. In our study context, we define, for example,
the Control Point Agent.
4.2.1. Control point agent
The control point agent will define all the associations and oper-
ations that will take place at the control points. The information that
characterizes these control points are: a unique identification num-
ber, the city to which it belongs, cities that can be joined from the
control point in question, the characteristics of each route related
to this control point. The main actions that can be integrated on
this agent are to record incoming vehicles, to communicate with
other control points (e.g., signaling the arrival of a vehicle), to give
information on the section and to communicate with supervisors.
Fig. 9 shows schematically the behavior of the checkpoint agent.
In the case of our work, multi-agent systems do not make it possible
to do a good graphical modeling of the different entities that con-
stitute the inter-urban road network that will best illustrate the
different entities of the model and the different communications
between them.
4.3. Unified modeling language
Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a graphical modeling lan-
guage based on pictograms designed to provide a standardized
method to visualize the design of a system. The subdivision of the
problem into classrooms promotes good communication between
the different entities of the system. It is a unified language for
modeling objects. First, it composes modeling elements that rep-
resent all the properties of the language and then diagrams that
constitute the visual and graphic expression. It helps to achieve
the functional and non-functional requirements of the system. Sev-
eral authors have used UML modeling to manage problems in road
transport networks. Ranjini et al. [55] propose an adaptive road traf-
fic control system through UML modeling. This system enables the
system to respond to the safety, reliability, availability and Robust-
ness required in a constantly increasing traffic environment and it
increases the availability of the resource and decreases the delay.
Singh and Saxena, 2014 [56] describe the mechanisms of extension
of the UML in a real-time system and introduces a new approach
using stereotypes and shows its usefulness to the implementation
of traffic management. They also discuss the specification process,
translation and verification of UML specifications. Kengni et al. [57]
use the UML to build a tramway transport network for the city of
105
Fig. 10. Example of a class diagram for an inter-urban road network.
Geneva in Switzerland. The class diagram associated with the inter-
urban road transport network that we want to model may resemble
what is presented in Fig. 10.
It will be difficult to use UML modeling because the activities
that will be conducted in the model we want to propose dynamic.
Not to mention that we also want to implement a real-time commu-
nication system and evaluation system in this model to monitor the
activities that will take place in inter-urban road transport systems.
4.4. Ants colony algorithm
Ants colonies algorithms (ACFs) like neural networks make
use of methods inspired by biological phenomena. They are using
intelligent swarm systems. Dorigo, 2006 [58] defined the ants
as defining a system of self-organization to create trails from
their nests to their foods by means of a volatile chemical called
pheromone which they deposit on the ground and which the oth-
ers capture with their antennas and follow the others accordingly.
This substance also allows ants to detect the shortest route from
the nest to food.
In an iteration of an ant colonization algorithm, each agent
(ant) constructs a solution based on decisions about the amounts
of pheromone. These traces are updated by examining the solu-
tions obtained. The Ants Colony Algorithms are flexible (the colony
adapts to sudden changes in environments) and robust the colony
continues to function when some individuals fail in their task.
Artificial ants are simple agents whose common points with nor-
mal ants are as follows [59]: Indirect communication with their
environment, a limited perception of this environment, random
decisions (stochastic research), moving into a space in search of
the shortest path.
The ant colony algorithms can be used in computer science in
combinatorial optimization, in routing and in distributed controls.
Zidi [60] uses ant-colony algorithms to define a system to aid in the
regulation and reconfiguration of transport networks. Multimodal
system based on three modules. The first one for control which
permits to classify the disturbances according to the known control
maneuvers and subsequently to determine a first quick solution but
also to distinguish the cases of the spatial reconfiguration. The sec-
ond one for optimization for spatial reconfiguration which uses an
aggregation function built from the travel time, the distance from
and number of passengers served. The last one for the time regula-
tion is a model that improves traffic management by using a model
based on Ant Colony Optimization algorithms and fuzzy logic [61].
A vehicle driving system (which can be integrated either on a
board or on a 3G phone) is proposed to assist drivers in select-
ing the best route from certain real-time traffic information (traffic
quality, length of the route). Some equipment is available to facil-
itate the choice of the route to take each time (GPS, GSM, sensors,
camera). Indeed, the ant colony algorithm is used here by vehi-
cles to choose the best route. Each vehicle behaves like an ant that
must leave a source to a destination in the network. The vehicle
106 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111
agent starts by initializing the source and destination of the driver.
Afterwards, the search for the best route is carried out at each inter-
section to the destination according to the algorithm [62]. From the
current intersection, search for the shortest route on each side of
the intersection leading to the destination, depending on the length
of the route. The routes that return on the current intersection are
eliminated. Jerry et al. [63] propose a dynamic system of optimal
path choice by ant colonization algorithms. This system is based on
the variant of NetLogo ant colony algorithms. As part of our work,
ant colony algorithms can be part of the determination of optimal
routes for vehicles. This can be adapted so that they can propose
palliative itineraries to users in the event that certain sections are
disturbed.
4.5. Evolutionary algorithms
The evolutionary algorithms are stochastic meta-heuristics of
global optimization inspired by the theory of evolution. They gen-
erally define a strategy applicable to a large number of problems
from which a heuristic can be derived for a particular problem.
The principle of these algorithms is to reproduce the natural evo-
lution of individuals, generation after generation, respecting the
laws of heredity and the concept of natural selection [64]. The evo-
lution that we are talking about here is a structured but also random
exchange of information between individuals in order to reproduce
new elements that are better in the sense of the objective function
to be optimized [65]. Delahaye et al. [66] use a genetic approach
by coding the solutions by chromosomes containing the ordered
sequence of the passages to the different cities. It presents the
specific crossing operators respecting the constraints of the prob-
lem. Fayech et al. [54] use genetic algorithms for the regulation of
transport schedules in case of disturbance in a decision support
system. Hermitte and Demmou, 2001 [67] propose an approach for
the learning of real-time signaling light controllers using genetic
algorithms in deriving a real time controller and adapting from con-
trollers to planes of fixed lights optimized by genetic algorithms.
Berge and Barkaoui, 2003 [68] proposes a hybrid genetic algo-
rithm for route planning in a dynamic environment. This algorithm
uses a set of concepts inspired by the best meta-heuristics of the
local search, such as the search in a neighborhood of itineraries. It
integrates appropriate strategies and mechanisms for the planning
problem.
Thus, it is clear that the phenomenon of learning can be percepti-
ble at the level of the definition of the itineraries. Genetic algorithms
can be used to define routes in our study context dynamically. What
remains to be done is to see how, depending on the perturbations
on the sections, itineraries will be proposed in real-time to users of
the road network.
4.6. Petri networks
Petri net is a mathematical model that allows the description
of relationships between conditions and events, and to model
the behavior of dynamic systems with discrete events due to a
graphical tool. They have several applications in manufacturing sys-
tems, telecommunication’s systems, transport networks, etc. There
are different types of Petri networks, namely timed, interpreted,
stochastic, colored, continuous and hybrid Petri nets. As for the rep-
resentations, they can be approached in graph form and in the form
of a linear algebraic representation.
A Petri net is a bipartite graph that has two types of vertices:
places and transitions. The places are represented by circles and
transitions by the lines. Each place will contain an integer num-
ber of tokens or marks to model the dynamics of the system. In
practice, an entity in the Petri network is defined as a place or as
a feature depending on its involvement in the model to be repre-
Fig. 11. Petri network diagram of a highway [72].
sented. An active component (an entity that can transports objects
or information in the system to be modeled) will be represented by
a stroke whereas a passive component (an entity that can contain
or store objects or information in the system to be modeled) will
be represented by a place.
A Petri Network is a quadruplet R = {P, T, Pre, Post} where [69]:
• P = {P1 , P2 , . . ., Pn } is the set of finished places;
• T = {T1 , T2 , . . ., Tn };
• Pre = P × T −→ N is the application of previous places. This is a prior
incidence application of P × T in N;
• Post = P × T −→ N is the application of next places. This is a back
incidence application of P × T in N.
Several works on the modeling of road traffic have been done
with Petri networks. Dotoli and Fanti [70] proposed a model of
real-time urban traffic control by Petri nets. Indeed, it models the
dynamics of the systems of networks of circulations with fires.
Ghaffari [71] uses Petri nets for modeling the flow of travelers. Gad-
douri et al. [72] developed a road traffic simulation model based
on Triangular Lots Petri Nets which describes the dynamic evolu-
tion of the road network as shown in Fig. 11. The dynamics of the
Petri Lots Triangular network is based on a discrete event approach
with continuous linear or constant evolution between two timed
events. For each Bipartite space, four parameters are considered:
propagation velocity, maximum density, length of congestion and
maximum flux at each place.
It is true that Petri nets are used in the management of transport
networks, but Mejri [73] raises the complexity of setting up a sys-
tem by Petri nets. The implementation of such a model requires the
validation of the specifications, the prediction of the performances
and the optimization of the operation. Gaddouri et al. [72] allowed
us to understand that, in addition to the complexity of setting up a
system through Petri network. The model to be proposed must offer
some autonomy to the managers of the checkpoints at the level of
each city, which could modify the dynamics of the transitions if
Petri networks were used.
4.7. Networks to form BCMP open multiclass
These models use modeling approaches from queue networks.
A queue network model is a service center collection representing
the system resources that provide service to a set of clients who
can enter and leave the system: the network is said to be open,
otherwise it is closed. It may also happen that the network consists
of several classes of clients. This is called a multi class network.
BCMP networks are characterized in [74]:
• A discipline of queues: The BCMP networks lead to define the 4
types of files to form produced according to the Kendall notation:
1 A/B/m/K/P–discipline of queues where:
(a) A indicates the distribution of inter-arrival times
(b) B indicates the distribution of service times
(c) m is the number of servers m ≥ 1
 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111 107

(d) K is the capacity of the queue

(e) P is the size of the population
2 type 1: -/M/m – FCFS
3 type 2: -/G/1 -PS (Processor Sharing)
4 type 3: -/G/ ∞ (IS
5 type 4: -/G/1- LCFS
• The distribution of service times: The service times of the FIFO type
nodes must be exponentially distributed and independent of the
different classes
• An arrival process: The arrival process follows the fish process,
when all customers arrive at the network from a single source
with the arrival rate , where  depends on the number of
customers. Dad [75] uses this approach to perform intersection Fig. 12. Scheme of the structure of inter urban road network monitoring system in
modeling in a road network. BCMP networks can only be used in developing countries.
our study context in the context of intersection queue manage-
ment. This part permitted us to review some models used in the
modeling of urban transport networks. Fig. 12: self-management of control point, detection and diffusion
of disturbances, dynamic route planning and monitoring of section.
The setting up of such a project for ITS in developing countries
In the context of developing countries, it would be wise to make
contributes to the infrastructural development of the transport
a comparative table of these models according to the criteria to
systems. Economically, it offers several openings in terms of sus-
be met by the model that we wish to set up. In fact, designing
tainable. It will create a lot of employment for young people in the
schemes for monitoring activities throughout the road network in
countries concerned on several levels. Indeed, most of these coun-
developing countries such as those of sub-Saharan Africa, where
tries have high unemployment rates. The construction, installation
the specificity remains anarchy, will we a value added. The litera-
and administration of control points requires a lot of manpower,
ture shows that urban traffic modeling methods are mostly based
which will generate a lot of jobs. The bodies that will be in charge
on optimization methods exploitable in the inter-urban context.
of managing this surveillance system (state or private institution),
Moreover, a wide number of research shows that the proposed
thanks to the generated decisions associated with this system, will
models optimizes only one aspect of our concerns. Hence, Table 2
be able to bring a lot of money back to the said company. Finally,
shows how hybrid choice might be considered.
let us not forget that around the treatment control points, motels
Table 2 clearly shows that none of the models we have studied
and supermarkets can be deployed to allow road users to rest.
can completely solve the problem raised in our study context. It
Therefore, the idea here is to define a modular system where
would be benefit to propose on implementation based on a hybrid
each module solves part of the problem and if possible based on
model. Graph modeling could be used for a good graphical repre-
optimization models and according to performance criteria that
sentation of cities, and controls points. Multi-agent systems will
we will define later. The results given in Table 2 are based on opti-
be the foundation of our system, it will help to define modules
mization methods and can be exploitable in our working context in
at the level of each city to be able to manage the control points
order to improve the monitoring of activities across the inter-urban
autonomously and make the system more flexible. It will also be
road network. This approach makes the system easy to understand,
used to establish a communication system between control points.
to administrate and to improve.
Subsequently, we will use it to set up a module for the detection and
diffusion of disturbances between the sections. Finally, to define a
decision support system to also regulate traffic by sanctioning users 5.1. Self-management of control point
who do not comply with the rules. The Ants Colony Algorithms or
Evolutionary Algorithms: these two algorithms make it possible to The need to manage control points as good as possible is essen-
carry out a dynamic calculation of the itineraries, as a result of the tial. Control points are stations that provide the relay, monitoring
work, it would be interesting to make a comparative study of these and surveillance of activities between cities in an inter-urban road
methods and finally, to optimize the calculation of itineraries in network. They allow in our context: to identify vehicles entering
our study context. In fact, for an optimal model, it is necessary that, and leaving a city, to decide whether to continue or stop (accord-
depending on the granularity of the problem, one knows which ing to weather, climate and time of year) a vehicle according to its
method is the most appropriate. category (public transport bus, personal vehicle, freight truck, etc.)
and to communicate between them.
The management of control points amounts to choosing the
5. Methodology for modeling a traffic monitoring system means of communication that will be used between the control
for inter-urban road transport networks in developing points on the basis of the telecommunications means that can be
countries used (sensors, mobile telephone lines, satellites, GSM, GPS, etc.).
This will make it possible to quantify the number of control points
Compared to some existing models in the literature, our pro- to be deployed on the road network. In order to reason optimally, it
posal is a distributed system that guarantees a flexibility and an is wise to formulate the problem of maximum coverage of com-
autonomy in the proposed modules. In these modules, problems munications and deployment of control points in the form of a
are addressed with some optimization schemes. To solve these bi-level optimization problem. We can summarize it as a question
optimization problems related with intelligent transportation sys- how to maximize communications in an inter-urban road network
tem, we adopted autonomic computing that is an emerging concept so as to minimize control points? A bi-level optimization prob-
in Computing. Therefore, to be useful in the context of develop- lem is a hierarchical problem of two decision levels: a higher level
ing countries, our proposal a fourfold paradigm: self-configuration, called a leader and a lower level called a follower. The optimal
self-healing, self-optimization and self-protection. This is opera- solution obviously depends on the two levels which are hierarchi-
tionalized in the proposal by four large modules as illustrated in cally interdependent. It is a mathematical program that contains
108 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111

Table 2
Comparison of models of urban transport networks.

Graphical Self-management Detection and Dynamic route Monitoring of

representation of of control points diffusion of planning sections
the road network disturbances
√
Graphs modelling [48]
√ √ √
Multi-agents systems [50–54]
√
UML [55–57]
√ √
Ants colony algorithms [58–61,63]
√
Evolutionary algorithm [54,64,66–68]
√ √ √
Pétri networks [69,70,72,73]
√
BCMP network [74,75]

In addition, what we refer to as Limited Zone is a set of check-

points that has an administrator with the following duties: to
control the activities carried out by the checkpoints of its circum-
ference. This is done in order to better monitor the behavior of the
control points. One of the objectives of this part would be to model
the behavior of these control points. Simulations will be made for
this purpose.

5.2. Detection and diffusion of disturbances

One of the phenomena that creates dysfunction in inter-urban

Fig. 13. Control point on a inter-urban road network.
an optimization problem in the constraints. In general, a bi-level
optimization problem is presented as follows [76]:
⎧ dents caused by traffic (traffic congestion due to an accident, a
⎪
⎪
MinF(x, y)
⎪
⎪ demonstration, work, etc.), or by an unforeseen or periodic change
⎪
⎪ x ∈ X
⎪
⎪
⎨ G(x, y) ≤ 0
s.t.
Minf (x, y)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ y ∈ Y
⎪
⎪
⎪ s.t. g(x, y) ≤ 0
⎪
⎩ context and minimize the consequences of these disturbances on
x, y ≥ 0
The lower level in this context will consist in minimizing the
placement of the control points as a function of the parameters
such as the radius of coverage of the devices used at them. The upper
level will therefore be to maximize communication coverage based
on results from the lower level. For this purpose, the parameters to
be considered should be well defined.
Fig. 13 shows the communication architecture that can be used
in our study context. This figure presents in general the ideal sce-
nario which could allow to define a communication architecture to
ensure the surveillance of the road networks of inter-urban trans-
port in Cameroon. To set up such an architecture and to optimize
the results, we must make the assumptions of tests so that this
communication system is less complex. Thus, we will provide:
• Coverage and connectivity between control points and vehicles: This
a matter of seeing how we can place the control points in order
to maximize the coverage of communication. We will see how to
evaluate communication between control points in such a sce-
nario.
• Coverage and connectivity between control points, vehicles and relay
antennas: The previous scenario will be modified with the addi-
tion of relay antennas. The results of these two evaluations will
permit to propose an optimal model of deployment of the control
points through the inter-urban road network so as to maximize
the coverage of communication through the network.
road transport networks in developing countries is the phe-
nomenon of disturbance. A disturbance can be define as an incident
that can affect a transport network in a random manner and that
leads to irregularities in the quality of service offered by a transport
network. It regroups incidents that can lead to a disturbance into
two categories: internal and external incidents. Internal incidents
include those caused either by a vehicle (mechanical problem) or
by man (the driver for example). External incidents include inci-
in traffic (crossing a road, a herd of oxen for example). Disturbances
contribute in some way to accidents. The detection and diffusion
(1) of disturbances would be very useful in a model of surveillance of
the inter urban transport road networks in developing countries. It
will help to improve traffic flow and reduce the accident rate in our
the quality of service offered by the road transport network. Zidi
and Hammadi, 2005 [77] proposed an interactive multimodal dis-
placement assistance system based on multi-agent systems, one of
which is the agent of disturbance. This system assists transit users
before and during their travel by planning these trips and managing
disturbances. This agent is created at the onset of a disturbance and
controls the tasks related to the disturbance. Could this principle
be applied in the case of the developing road transport network?
Because the disturbances are diverse and sometimes random,
the solution is not essentially based on one strategy. Signs are often
used but this does not always prevent congestion and accidents
through the sections. A well defined communication architecture
between the users and the control points could also be a solution to
be proposed in the coming lines of our work. This solution has the
advantage of allowing a faster diffusion of the disturbances within
a specific radius. In a context where the road must be cleared as
soon as possible, this solution also allows a dynamic proposal of
new itineraries for users.
5.3. Dynamic route planning
The dynamic route calculation module is defined here to pro-
pose to the users of the road network of inter-urban transport a
real-time alternative route in case of disturbances on a section of
the road network. It also minimizes congestion and accidents. Sev-
eral authors have worked on dynamic route planning and have not
 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111
always used the same algorithms or the same models. Some have
been mentioned in the Urban Traffic Regulation Models section of
which it is important to recall here. Jerry et al. [63] used Ants Colony
Algorithms, specifically the NETLogo modeling approach to pro-
pose optimal route solutions for vehicular networks. Berger and
Barkaoui, 2003 [68] introduced meta heuristics based on hybrid
genetic algorithms for route planning in a dynamic transport envi-
ronment. In addition, other methods are also used. Gräbener et al.
[78] used multi-objective optimization for multimodal and multi-
objective route calculation in urban areas to enable users using
multiple modes to choose their routes at a given time and accord-
ing to their preference. In perspective of our future works, a study
of these methods will be made according to the needs related to
our context of study on the choice of the algorithm to be used for
the dynamic calculation of the itineraries within the framework of
the surveillance model that we propose.
5.4. Monitoring of section
Realtime monitoring is a tremendous issue that is continuously
interest Research and Industry. In Indonesia, a real-time water con-
dition monitoring system that use big data technology have been
proposed by Arridha et al. [79]. In the same light, monitoring is a
key challenge in ITS, especially, monitoring is the key module of
this model. It will make it possible to check the effectiveness of the
actions initiated by the other modules with respect to the actual
states of the sections. To this module, will be associated a deci-
sion support system which, depending on the activities, will define
the behavior to be adopted by the users, be it the sanctions to be
imposed on users of the road network. This is why our model is the
concept of autonomic computing where systems are able to man-
age their own objectives and administrations. These systems are
based on 04 areas [80]: Self-Configuration, Self-Optimization, Self-
Healing, Self-Protection. Self-Configuration allows an automatic
configuration of the system components thanks to a policy imple-
mented. Self-Optimization offers tools that promote a perpetual
search for the improvement of its own performance. Self-Healing
allows the system to automatically detect diagnoses and repairs
localized software and hardware problems. Self-Protection allows
the system to automatically defend malicious attacks or cascaded
failures. It is this approach that makes this system intelligent. Based
on a decision support system containing reliable and up-to-date
information on the behavior and activities of the road network and
the modules proposed above, this module will allow users to have
information in real-time on the section and also facilitate the taking
of sanctions towards users who do not respect the laws.
6. Conclusion
As a result of this work, road safety remains a serious problem in
developing countries like Cameroon where there are many deaths
due to road accidents, especially in inter-urban transport networks.
There are a number of reasons for these shortcomings, including:
the lack of adequate road infrastructure; the lack of telecommuni-
cations infrastructure necessary for the deployment of intelligent
transport systems as encountered in developed countries. Existing
models of road traffic regulation provide solutions in most cases
only in the context of intersection traffic control, by offering static
or dynamic solutions (based on optimization methods) on the man-
agement of traffic light and queue management. The modeling of
urban transport networks, on the other hand, proposes methods to
regulate traffic in cities. However, the need related to the context
of inter-urban road networks in developing countries do not allow
a model to be proposed based on a single method. The aim of our
work is to propose a system of surveillance of the traffic of the inter
109
urban transport networks in developing countries based on the ICT
that can be found in the poorest countries. This hybrid system is
based on several methods of modeling urban transport networks
and focuses on four major modules. The first module is that of
the autonomous management of control points. It permits to man-
age the statuses of relay and monitoring of activities between the
cities (checkpoints or control point). This is where a communica-
tion architecture is defined between these control points. A strategy
for optimal deployment of these control points through the inter-
urban road network in order to maximize communication coverage
and minimize the number of control points. The second module
is the detection and diffusion of disturbances. It allows strategies
for dissemination of perturbations in a given region of the inter-
urban road network to help reduce congestion in inter-urban road
networks. The third module is dynamic route planning. It will col-
laborate with the disturbance detection and dissemination module
in order to propose other iterations to the users and also contribute
to the reduction of congestion through the road transport network
Finally, the last module is that of the monitoring of the sections.
It is based on autonomous decision support which will rely on the
information sent by other modules and the autonomic computing
paradigm to inform network users about sanctions related to their
behaviors. This model should reduce: road accidents, acts of incivil-
ity carried out by certain users and activities generally carried out
in the road network. The last part of this work consisted in defin-
ing the first module: the autonomous management of the control
points. It aimed defining a strategy to optimize the management of
control points in inter-urban transport road networks in developing
countries.
Acknowledgements
We like to thank the editor and the anonymous reviewers for
their valuable remarks that helped us in better improving the con-
tent and presentation of the paper.
References
[1] G. Singh, D. Bansal, S. Sofat, Intelligent transportation system for developing
countries – a survey, Int. J. Comput. Appl. 85 (3) (2014).
[2] G.B. Bezabeh, M. Souare, A. Oumarou, La sécurité routière en afrique:
évaluation des progrès et enjeux du système de gestion de la sécurité
routière, Tech. rep., Banque Africaine de Développement, December 2013.
[3] OMS, Rapport de situation sur la sécurité routière dans le monde, Tech. rep.,
Organisation Mondiale de la Santé, 2013.
[4] INSC, Annuaire de la statistique, Tech. rep., Institut Nationale de la Statistique
du Cameroun, 2011.
[5] A.P. Otou-Essono, Accidents de la route: cause handicap et frein au
developpement, VIIe Congrès International du Fato, Comité International de
la Croix-Rouge (2013).
[6] M. Tlig, Coordination locale et optimisation distribuée du trafic de véhicules
autonomes dans un réseau routier (Ph.D. thesis), Université de Lorraine, 2015.
[7] K.N. Qureshi, A.H. Abdullah, A survey on intelligent transportation systems,
Middle-East J. Sci. Res. 15 (5) (2013) 629–642.
[8] K. Ito, G. Hirakawa, Y. Arai, Y. Shibata, A road condition monitoring system
using various sensor data in vehicle-to-vehicle communication environment,
Int. J. Space-Based Situat. Comput. 6 (1) (2016) 21–30.
[9] T. Bellache, O. Shagdar, S. Kallel, S. Tohme, Reducing channel load by
enhanced contention based forwarding in vehicular networks, in: 2017
International Conference on Selected Topics in Mobile and Wireless
Networking (MoWNeT), IEEE, 2017, pp. 1–6.
[10] N. Uchida, T. Ishida, Y. Shibata, Delay tolerant networks-based
vehicle-to-vehicle wireless networks for road surveillance systems in local
areas, Int. J. Space-Based Situat. Comput. 6 (1) (2016) 12–20.
[11] R. Naja, A survey of communications for intelligent transportation systems,
in: Wireless Vehicular Networks for Car Collision Avoidance, Springer, 2013,
pp. 3–35.
[12] Y. Wang, Y. Zou, H. Shi, H. Zhao, Video image vehicle detection system for
signaled traffic intersection, in: Ninth International Conference on Hybrid
Intelligent Systems, 2009. HIS‘09, vol. 1, IEEE, 2009, pp. 222–227.
[13] H.J. Watson, Tutorial: big data analytics: concepts, technologies, and
applications, CAIS 34 (2014) 65.
[14] A. Oussous, F.-Z. Benjelloun, A.A. Lahcen, S. Belfkih, Big data technologies: a
survey, J. King Saud Univ. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2017).
110 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111
[15] S. Tom, D. Das, J. Honiball, Futuristic intelligent transportation system
architecture for sustainable road transportation in developing countries, in:
Proceedings of the 35th Southern African Transport Conference (SATC 2016),
Pretoria, South Africa, 2016.
[16] M. Furuhata, M. Dessouky, F. Ordóñez, M.-E. Brunet, X. Wang, S. Koenig,
Ridesharing: the state-of-the-art and future directions, Transp. Res. Part B:
Methodol. 57 (2013) 28–46.
[17] A. Amey, J. Attanucci, R. Mishalani, Real-time ridesharing: opportunities and
challenges in using mobile phone technology to improve rideshare services,
Transp. Res. Rec.: J. Transp. Res. Board (2217) (2011) 103–110.
[18] G. Kaur, A Prototype for a Real-Time Mobile-Based Ridesharing System
(Master’s thesis), University of Tartu, Faculty of Science and Technology,
Estonia, 2016.
[19] N. Bicocchi, M. Mamei, A. Sassi, F. Zambonelli, On recommending
opportunistic rides, IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. 18 (12) (2017) 3328–3338.
[20] A. Adewumi, V. Odunjo, S. Misra, Developing a mobile application for taxi
service company in Nigeria, in: 2015 International Conference on Computing,
Communication and Security (ICCCS), IEEE, 2015, pp. 1–5.
[21] J. Poushter, Smartphone ownership and internet usage continues to climb in
emerging economies, Pew Res. Center 22 (2016).
[22] P. O’Neill, Urban transport in developing cities: challenges, strategies and
examples, in: World Bank Meeting, World Bank, Korea, 2010, pp. 1–37
https://goo.gl/BPSUDn.
[23] J. Moskolai Ngossaha, R. Houé Ngouna, B. Archimède, Cadre méthodologique
de co-déploiement des systèmes physique et d’information: contexte de la
gestion durable du transport dans les pays en voie de développement, 11e
Congrés International de Génie Industriel – CIGI2015 (2015).
[24] S.P. Hoogendoorn, P.H. Bovy, State-of-the-art of vehicular traffic flow
modelling, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part I: J. Syst. Control Eng. 215 (4) (2001)
283–303.
[25] J.D. Little, M.D. Kelson, N.H. Gartner, A Versatile Program for Setting Signals
on Arteries and Triangular Networks, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA, 1981.
[26] M. Papageorgiou, C. Diakaki, V. Dinopoulou, A. Kotsialos, Y. Wang, Review of
road traffic control strategies, Proc. IEEE 91 (12) (2003) 2043–2067.
[27] D.I. Robertson, Research on the transyt and scoot methods of signal
coordination, ITE J. 56 (1) (1986).
[28] J.-J. Henry, J.L. Farges, J. Tuffal, The prodyn real time traffic algorithm, IFAC
Proc. Vol. 16 (4) (1983) 305–310.
[29] A.A.A. Ari, A. Gueroui, N. Labraoui, B.O. Yenke, Concepts and evolution of
research in the field of wireless sensor networks, Int. J. Comput. Netw.
Commun. 7 (1) (2015) 81–98.
[30] M.A. Obaidy, A. Ayesh, Energy efficient algorithm for swarmed sensors
networks, Sustain. Comput.: Inform. Syst. 5 (2015) 54–63.
[31] M. Tlig, O. Buffet, O. Simonin, Croisement synchronisé de flux de véhicules
autonomes dans un réseau, RJCIA-11èmes Rencontres des Jeunes Chercheurs
en Intelligence Artificielle (2013).
[32] N.H. Gartner, Demand-responsive traffic signal control research, Transp. Res.
Part A: Gen. 19 (5–6) (1985) 369–373.
[33] N.H. Gartner, F.J. Pooran, C.M. Andrews, Implementation of the opac adaptive
control strategy in a traffic signal network, in: Proceedings, 2001 IEEE,
Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2001, IEEE, 2001, pp. 195–200.
[34] D. Bertsekas, Dynamic Programming: Deterministic and Stochastic Models,
1987, Englewood Cliffs.
[35] P. Hunt, D. Robertson, R. Bretherton, R. Winton, Scoot-a traffic responsive
method of coordinating signals, Tech. rep., 1981.
[36] S. Mammar, Systèmes de transport intelligents, modélisation, information et
contrôle, 2007.
[37] A.A.A. Ari, I. Damakoa, A. Gueroui, C. Titouna, N. Labraoui, G. Kaladzavi, B.O.
Yenké, Bacterial foraging optimization scheme for mobile sensing in wireless
sensor networks, Int. J. Wirel. Inf. Netw. 24 (3) (2017) 254–267.
[38] A.N. Njoya, C. Thron, J. Barry, W. Abdou, E. Tonye, N.S.L. Konje, A. Dipanda,
Efficient scalable sensor node placement algorithm for fixed target coverage
applications of wireless sensor networks, IET Wirel. Sens. Syst. 7 (2) (2017)
44–54.
[39] Y.B. Zikria, F. Ishmanov, M.K. Afzal, S.W. Kim, S.Y. Nam, H. Yu, Opportunistic
channel selection mac protocol for cognitive radio ad hoc sensor networks in
the internet of things, Sustain. Comput.: Inform. Syst. (2017).
[40] T.A. Leaflet, The “Scoot” Urban Traffic Control System, 1995, Available at
scootutc.com/documents/1 SCOOT-UTC.pdf.
[41] P.R. Lowrie, The sydney coordinated adaptive traffic system – principles,
methodology, algorithms, International Conference on Road Traffic Signalling
(1982).
[42] A. Sims, A. Finlay, Scats, splits and offsets simplified (SOS), Aust. Road Res. 12
(4) (1984).
[43] P.R. Cornwell, J. Luk, B. Negus, Tram priority in scats, Traffic Eng. Control 27
(11) (1986) 561–565.
[44] P.R. Lowrie, The sydney coordinated adaptive traffic system: a traffic
responsive method of controlling urban trafic, Roads Traffic Authority NSW,
Darlinghust (1990).
[45] P. Mirchandani, F.-Y. Wang, Rhodes to intelligent transportation systems, IEEE
Intell. Syst. 20 (1) (2005) 10–15.
[46] A. Stevanovic, P.M. Zlatkovic, Comparative Evaluation of Insync and
Time-of-Day Signal Timing Plans Under Normal and Varied Traffic Conditions,
2013.
[47] R.J. Chandra, J.W. Bley, S.S. Penrod, A.S. Parker, External adaptive control
systems and methods, US Patent 8,253,592, 08, 2012.
[48] M. Di Salvo, et al., Calculs d’accessibilité: impact des spécifications du réseau
routier sur les calculs d’accessibilité. données sources méthodes, 2006.
[49] K. Zidi, Système interactif d’aide au déplacement multimodal (siadm) (Ph.D.
thesis), Ecole Centrale de Lille; Université des Sciences et Technologie de
Lille-Lille I, 2006.
[50] K.P. Sycara, Multiagent systems, AI Mag. 19 (2) (1998) 79.
[51] J. Ferber, Les Systèmes multi-agents. Vers une intelligence collective, 1997, 2e
éd., InterÉditions, Paris, 1995.
[52] K. Jeribi, H. Mejri, H. Zgaya, S. Hammadi, Combination of an evolutionary
approach and multi-agent coalition in a co-modal transport system, Advances
on Practical Applications of Agents and Multi-Agent Systems (2012) 87–97.
[53] D. Meignan, J.-C. Créput, A. Koukam, A coalition-based metaheuristic for the
vehicle routing problem, in: IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation,
2008, CEC 2008 (IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence), IEEE,
2008, pp. 1176–1182.
[54] B. Fayech, S. Hammadi, S. Maouche, P. Borne, Urban bus traffic regulation by
evolutionary algorithms, in: 2001 IEEE International Conference on Systems,
Man, and Cybernetics, vol. 2, IEEE, 2001, pp. 1316–1322.
[55] K. Ranjini, A. Kanthimathi, Y. Yasmine, Design of adaptive road traffic control
system through unified modeling language, Int. J. Comput. Appl. 14 (7) (2011)
36–41.
[56] M. Singh, R. Saxena, An application of uml for road traffic management
system by implementing extensive mechanism: stereotypes, Int. J. Comput.
Sci. Issues (IJCSI) 11 (5) (2014) 83.
[57] M.N. Kengni, D. Buchs, A. Chen, TPG Control Center: Tramway Modeling and
Simulation (Master’s thesis), Centre Universitaire d’Informatique, Université
de Genève, 2007.
[58] M. Dorigo, M. Birattari, T. Stutzle, Ant colony optimization, IEEE Comput.
Intell. Mag. 1 (4) (2006) 28–39.
[59] P. Lacomme, C. Prins, A. Tanguy, Optimisation par colonies de fourmis pour les
tournées sur arcs, in: 4e Conférence Francophone de MOdélisation et
SIMulation MOSIM03, Toulouse (France), 2003.
[60] S. Zidi, S. Maouche, S. Hammadi, Ant colony optimization for spatial
reconfiguration of multimodal transport network, in: CTS2006 11th
IFAC-Symposium on Control in Transportation Systems Delft, Netherlands,
August, 2006.
[61] H.M. Kammoun, I. Kallel, A.M. Alimi, J. Casillas, Improvement of the road
traffic management by an ant-hierarchical fuzzy system, in: 2011 IEEE
Symposium on Computational Intelligence in Vehicles and Transportation
Systems (CIVTS), IEEE, 2011, pp. 38–45.
[62] H.M. Kammoun, I. Kallel, A.M. Alimi, J. Casillas, An adaptive vehicle guidance
system instigated from ant colony behavior, in: 2010 IEEE International
Conference on Systems Man and Cybernetics (SMC), IEEE, 2010, pp.
2948–2955.
[63] K. Jerry, Y. Kuang, K. Opare, K. Nwizege, A.-R. Ahmed, K.M. Koumadi, An ant
colony optimization solution to the optimum travel path determination
problem in vanets: a netlogo modelling approach, MOBILITY 2015: The Fifth
International Conference on Mobile Services, Resources, and Users (2015).
[64] J. Dréo, A. Pétrowski, P. Siarry, E. Taillard, Métaheuristiques pour
l’optimisation difficile, Eyrolles, 2003.
[65] D.E. Goldberg, Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization and Machine
Learning, 1st ed., Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc., Boston, MA,
USA, 1989.
[66] D. Delahaye, N. Durand, J.-M. Alliot, M. Schoenauer, Genetic algorithms for air
traffic control systems, IFORS 1996, 14th Triennal Conference of the
International Federation of Operational Research Sociaties (1996).
[67] L. Hermitte, H. Demmou, Une méthode de contrôle de trafic urbain par
algorithmes génétiques, 3e Conférence Francophone de Modélisation et
SIMulation MOSIM’01 (2001).
[68] J. Berger, M. Barkaoui, A hybrid genetic algorithm for the capacitated vehicle
routing problem, in: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference,
Springer, 2003, pp. 646–656.
[69] E. Castelain, K. Mesghouni, Regulation of a public transport network with
consideration of the passenger flow: modeling of the system with high-level
petri nets, in: 2002 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and
Cybernetics, vol. 6, IEEE, 2002, p. 5.
[70] M. Dotoli, M.P. Fanti, An urban traffic network model via coloured timed petri
nets, IFAC Proc. Volumes 37 (18) (2004) 207–212.
[71] A. Ghaffari, Modelisation d’une ligne de metro en tenant compte du flux de
passagers (Master’s thesis), Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille,
1999.
[72] R. Gaddouri, L. Brenner, I. Demongodin, Modélisation et simulation du trafic
routier par réseaux de petri lots triangulaires, in: MOSIM 2014, 10ème
Conférence Francophone de Modélisation, Optimisation et Simulation, 2014,
pp. 1–10.
[73] H. Mejri, Un système d’aide à la régulation d’un réseau de transport
multimodal perturbé: réponse au problème de congestion (Ph.D. thesis),
Ecole Centrale de Lille, 2012.
[74] G. Bolch, S. Greiner, H. de Meer, K.S. Trivedi, Queueing Networks and Markov
Chains: Modeling and Performance Evaluation with Computer Science
Applications, John Wiley & Sons, 2006.
[75] J. Dad, M. Ouali, Y. Lebbah, A Multiclass BCMP Queueing Modeling and
Simulation-Based Road Traffic Flow Analysis, World Academy of Science,
Engineering and Technology, 2011, pp. 78–2011.
 M.L. Mfenjou et al. / Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 19 (2018) 96–111 111

[76] S. Dempe, Foundations of Bilevel Programming. Nonconvex Optimization and
its Applications, 2002.
[77] K. Zidi, S. Hammadi, DMAS: distributed multi-agents system for assist users in
the multimodal travels, in: International Conference on Industrial
Engineering and Systems Management (IESM 2005), May 16–19, Marrakech
(Morocco), 2005.
[78] T. Gräbener, A. Berro, Y. Duthen, Time dependent multiobjective best path for
multimodal urban routing, Electron. Notes Discrete Math. 36 (2010) 487–494.
[79] R. Arridha, S. Sukaridhoto, D. Pramadihanto, N. Funabiki, Classification
extension based on IoT-big data analytic for smart environment monitoring
and analytic in real-time system, Int. J. Space-Based Situat. Comput. 7 (2)
(2017) 82–93.
[80] D.F. Bantz, C. Bisdikian, D. Challener, J.P. Karidis, S. Mastrianni, A. Mohindra,
D.G. Shea, M. Vanover, Autonomic personal computing, IBM Syst. J. 42 (1)
(2003) 165–176.