Ocean current

Ocean current is the general horizontal movement of a body of ocean water,

generated by various factors, such as earth's rotation, wind, temperature,
salinity, tides etc. These movements are occurring on permanent, semi-
permanent or seasonal basis. Knowledge of ocean currents is essential in
reducing costs of shipping, as efficient use of ocean current reduces fuel costs.
Ocean currents are also important for marine lives, as well as these are required
for maritime study.

Ocean currents are measured in Sverdrup with the symbol Sv, where 1 Sv is
equivalent to a volume flow rate of 106 cubic meters per second (0.001 km³/s, or
about 264 million U.S. gallons per second). On the other hand, current direction
is called set and speed is called drift.

Causes of ocean current are a complex method and not yet fully understood.
Many factors are involved and in most cases more than one factor is contributing
to form any particular current. Among the many factors, main generating factors
of ocean current are wind force and gradient force.

Current caused by wind force: Wind has a tendency to drag the uppermost
layer of ocean water in the direction, towards it is blowing. As well as wind piles
up the ocean water in the wind blowing direction, which also causes to move the
ocean. Lower layers of water also move due to friction with upper layer, though
with increasing depth, the speed of the wind-induced current becomes
progressively less.

As soon as any motion is started, then the Coriolis force (effect of earth’s
rotation) also starts working and this Coriolis force causes the water to move to
the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
Theoretically the resultant effect between wind force and Coriolis force is 45º to
the right of the wind direction for NH (left for SH), but practically this effect varies
between 20º to 45º.

Many experts tries to find out the ratio between the wind speed and surface
current speed, but it is not yet decided due to so many complicacy related with
earth’s curvature, friction amount, viscosity & density of water, type of costal
areas, period of wind blow etc. Just for an idea it is said that if wind blows for 10

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hours over the ocean, then can cause an ocean current, with rate of 2% of the
wind speed.

Ekman's Theory of wind affect on surface current: The first reasonable

theory, regarding wind affects on surface currents was introduced by Swedish
oceanographer and mathematician Valfrid Ekman, in 1890.

Ekman considered an infinitely wide and deep ocean of constant density, divided
into an infinite number of horizontal layers, where the top horizontal layer of
ocean is affected by two forces, one is wind and the other is friction by below
layer. Similarly the second layer is also affected by friction at top and bottom, and
so on. As the same, the Coriolis force is also affecting each layer, as they are
moving.

Due to resultant of wind force, friction and the Coriolis force, Ekman concluded
that the currents rate decreased exponentially with depth and current deviations
to the wind direction increased with depth, where surface current moves at a 45º
angle to the wind direction, forming a spiral (which is known as Ekman spiral).
Such Ekman spirals are rare, as the oceans are neither infinitely wide, nor of
constant density, as Ekman assumed.

Ekman layer a relatively thin surface layer of ocean, which is 10 to 200m thick.
Due to the low viscosity of water, wind stress is not directly communicated to the
below of this layer. Within the Ekman layer, the currents actually form a spiral

Ekman transport is the motion of Ekman layer. Because of the deflection by the
Coriolis force, the Ekman transport is not in the direction of the wind, but to the
right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The
amount of water flowing in this layer depends on the wind and the Coriolis force.
The large scale convergence or divergence of Ekman transport serves to drive
the general ocean circulation

Ekman pumping is the convergence of Ekman transports.

Current caused by gradient: Water has a tendency to move due to pressure

gradient in water. This pressure gradient develops, where water surface creates
differences, caused by variations in heat and salt. The density of the ocean
varies both horizontally and vertically. Scientists can use this density structure of
the ocean, to calculate the pressure field and hence the pressure gradient.
Current generated by this force is modified by the rotation of the earth.

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In practice, the distribution of density is determined by measurements of salinity
and temperature. From this the horizontal pressure gradient, as well as surface
currents can be obtained.

Currents at Bay of Bengal in February are an interesting example of gradient

current. In this month, a temperature gradient arises between the cold water in
the north and warm water in the south. Due to this, a density difference is
created, which makes a current flow towards north, then deflection to east, which
is against the wind flow, caused by north-east monsoon.

Other then above two factors; some other factors, such as depth of water,
underwater topography including shape of the basin in which the current is
running, extent and location of land, evaporation from ocean water etc are
involved with ocean current formations. The other factor is centrifugal force, as
currents may move in a curved path rather than in a straight line. In cyclonic
motion the centrifugal force augments the Coriolis force. In anti-cyclonic motion
the centrifugal force augments the pressure-gradient force.

Types of Ocean Currents as per ocean depth:

1. Surface Currents are the movements of ocean waters, at the upper 400
meters of the ocean, with about 10% of ocean water, generally moves clockwise
in the northern hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere

Surface ocean currents are generally wind driven, as due to the low thickness of
water, wind stress is not directly communicated to the ocean interior. The amount
of water flowing in this layer depends upon the wind and the Coriolis force, as
Coriolis force acts 90° to the right of wind effect in the Northern Hemisphere and
90° to the left of wind effect, in the Southern Hemisphere. .

2. Deep Water Currents are the movements of deeper ocean water, around the
ocean, with about 90% of ocean water.

Deep Ocean currents are driven by density and other factors, as density of water
varies with salinity, temperature and pressure. This type of ocean circulation is
also called Thermohaline circulation (THC), where ‘thermo’ means temperature
and ‘haline’ means salt content. The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called
as the “ocean conveyor belt”, the “great ocean conveyor”, or the “global conveyor
belt”.

Some definitions
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Periodic current changes speed or direction cyclically at regular intervals, such
as a tidal current. This current is produced by the tidal influence of moon and sun
or by any other oscillatory forcing activities.

Seasonal current changes speed or direction due to seasonal winds.

Coastal current flows roughly parallel to a coast, outside the surf zone.

Longshore current flows parallel to a shore, inside the surf zone. It moves along
the beach, eroding it from some areas and depositing it in other areas. This
process is called longshore drift. This way, it is able to move entire islands in the
direction of the current. It can carry people too, so can be very dangerous for
people, swimming in the ocean

Offshore current is a current away from the shore.

Inshore current is a current close to the shore.

Warm ocean currents are the corridors of warm water at ocean, moving from
the tropics towards pole.

Since this current starts from equatorial areas, so it will have an affect of easterly
trade winds, which blow to west. For that reason, warm currents are normally
available along the western shore of large oceans.

Gulf Stream, Norwegian current, Brazilian current, Alaska current, Kuroshio

current, East Australian current, Mozambique current, Agulhas current etc are
the examples of warm current.

Warm ocean currents Cold ocean currents

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Cold ocean currents are the corridors of cold water at ocean, moving from
higher latitudes toward the equator.

Since this current starts from higher latitudes areas, so it will have an affect of
westerlis winds, which blow to east. For that reason, cold currents are normally
available along the eastern shore of large oceans.

Labrador current, Falkland current, Benguela current, California current,

Humboldt current, west Australian current, Oyashio current, Baffin land current
etc are the examples of cold current.

Upwelling

Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon, where wind force pushes dense,

cooler deep water towards the ocean surface and also replaces warmer surface
water. There are various types of upwelling; some of them are described as
below.

Coastal upwelling is the best known type of upwelling of ocean current. Here
wind blows away from coastline for a considerable length of time, which causes
outflow of surface water from the coast. So the deep water of about 150 meters
comes up, to replace surface water.

Due to easterly trade wind’s blow, along the eastern shores of ocean, in low
latitudes, causes upwelling at these areas. Some examples are Canary &
Benguela currents (east Atlantic), Californian & Peru Currents (east Pacific) etc.

Some regions of coastal upwelling include coast of Peru, Chile, California,

western South Africa, eastern New Zealand, southeastern Brazil etc.

Equatorial upwelling is a related phenomenon available near equator or can tell

more accurately, it occurs within Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ, located
at north or south of the equator). In this zone, easterly (westward) winds are
blowing over Pacific and Atlantic areas, causing this equatorial upwelling at these
areas. This phenomenon upwells denser, nutrient-rich water from below, for this
reason, equatorial area in the Pacific can be detected from space, as a broad line
of high phytoplankton concentration.

Southern Ocean upwelling is available in the Southern Ocean. Here strong

westerly (eastward) winds are blowing around Antarctica, which drives the water
significantly to northwards. Since there are no lands between South America and
the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, so some water is drawn up from great depths,
causes this Southern Ocean upwelling.

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Tropical cyclone upwelling occurs when a tropical cyclone transits an area,
usually at speeds of less than 5 mph (8 km/h). This way cooler water comes up
from lower layers of the ocean. This phenomenon causes the cyclone to be
weakened.

Artificial upwelling is produced artificially, to pump ocean water to the surface

from below. The nutrients brought to the surface by this upwelling process,
increase biological production.

Non-oceanic upwelling occurs not at oceans, mainly available at other types of

fluid environments, such as the lakes, the magma in Earth's mantle or the plasma
within a star. This occurs due to convection.

Charting of currents

Ocean currents may be shown in a variety of ways, for various requirements. The
changes of rate and drift of currents, in some areas are very small and in some
areas are very large. For that reason, charting of currents becomes necessary for
the mariners, at ocean voyages.

There 3 forms of current display are commonly used.

1. Vector mean chart: It represents the overall movements of ocean water

over a considerable period. It is good for averages readings of rate and
drift, over a prolonged period, but does not give the most likely current on
any particular occasion. It gives the direction by an arrow pointing towards
the direction, in which the current is moving. It also gives the rate in knots
and number of observations, upon which the mean chart is based.
Normally upper figure indicates rate and lower figure indicates the number
of observations.

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2. Predominant current chart: It represents an approximation to most
frequent or most likely current’s rate and drift. Here percentage of ‘legend
for constancy’ is indicated by thickness of arrows, where constancy is
defined as the percentage of the number of observations, within the
selected sector to the total number of observations. So for high constancy
areas, there is little difference between the vector mean current and
predominant current. Here arrow indicates the mean current’s set and
figure beside arrow indicates the mean speed in knots.

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 3. Current rose chart: It represents the relative frequency, with which the
current sets in each direction and also the relative frequency of various
categories of speed within each direction. Here most commonly either 8-
points or 16-points compass is used, so that individual sectors cover 45º
or 22.5º. Each arrow extending from the centre of rose is subdivided, for
that reason the relative frequency of observations within various speed
categories can be indicated. Although this chart provides more
information, but to be safe side it is better use both Predominant current
chart and Current rose chart.

Some currents

Agulhas Current is the narrow, swift and strong current of South-West Indian
Ocean. It originates from the East Madagascar Current & the Mozambique
Current; then flows down the east coast of Africa. Some waters from this current
also re-curve to south-eastwards and enter the northern part of the Southern
ocean current.

Alaska Current is a northward warm-water current along the coast of British

Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle. It forms a part of the counterclockwise
gyre, in the Gulf of Alaska. In the northern Gulf of Alaska, the Alaska Current
continues into the Alaskan Stream, which starts near Kodiak Island and flows
southwestward along the Alaska Peninsula.

Angola current is a temporary ocean surface current. It is an extension of the

Guinea Current, flowing near western Africa's coast. It is created by weaker
upwelling effect, at west coast of Africa.

Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) or West Wind Drift is an ocean current,

which flows from west to east around Antarctica. It connects the Atlantic, Pacific
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and Indian Ocean basins and also serves as a principal lane of exchange
between these basins. It is strongly constrained by landform and bathymetric
features. The current consists of a number of fronts, i.e. the northern boundary,
which is defined by the Subtropical Front, a boundary between warm, salty
subtropical waters and fresher, cooler sub polar waters.

Baffin Island Current (or Baffin Current) is an ocean current, along Baffin
Island, in the Arctic Ocean. It stats from West Greenland Current and runs
southward, at western side of Baffin Bay. Its speed is approximately 17 km per
day.

Benguela Current is the northward flowing, relatively cool ocean current. It

originates forms the eastern portion of the South Atlantic Ocean gyre, which is
driven by the prevailing South Easterly Trade winds. The water of this current is
mainly derived by the upwelling of water off the south-west coast of Africa. It
flows north-westerly along the south-west coasts of Africa. It is 2-300 km wide
and widens further as it flows north and northwest.

Brazil Current is a warm ocean water current, flowing southward, from the
equator along the Brazilian south coast to the mouth of the Río de la Plata. It
originates by diversion of a portion of the Atlantic South Equatorial Current. It is
considerably shallower and weaker.

Canary current is an ocean current, located by Northern Africa, flowing toward

the south-west up to about Senegal, then it turns west. It is named as per Canary
Islands. It is responsible for the generally southward movement of ocean
circulation and takes actions for the improvement of coastal fisheries in western
Morocco. The water of this current is cold.

Cape Horn Current is a cold water current and flowing west-to-east around
Cape Horn. It is caused by the strengthening of the West Wind Drift.

East Madagascar Current is an oceanic flow near Madagascar. It flows

southward, on the east side of Madagascar, to the southern limit at Cape Saint
Marie.

Equatorial Counter Current is a significant ocean current in the Pacific and

Indian Oceans, which flows west-to-east, at approximately five degrees north. It
results from balancing the westward flow of water, in each ocean, by the North
and South Equatorial currents.

Falkland Current is a cold water current and flowing northward along the
Atlantic coast of Patagonia, up to the mouth of the Río de la Plata. This current
originates from the movement of water from the West Wind Drift.
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Florida Current is a thermal ocean current and flowing from the Gulf of Mexico
to the Atlantic Ocean. This current originates from the movement of water,
pushed from the Atlantic into the Caribbean Sea, by the rotation of the Earth. It is
sometimes named as the Gulf Stream, however it joins the Gulf Stream off the
east coast of Florida.

Gulf Stream is a warm Atlantic ocean current, originates in the Gulf of Mexico,
runs through the Strait of Florida and follows the eastern coastlines of the United
States and Newfoundland, before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. At about 30°W,
40°N, it divides in two parts, with the northern stream crossing to northern
Europe and the southern stream to off West Africa. It influences the climate of
the east coast of North America (from Florida to Newfoundland) and the west
coast of Europe.

It is a strong ocean current, which weakens at the east side of Grand Banks of
Newfoundland. It is 100 kilometers wide and 800 meters to 1,200 meters deep.
The current velocity is fastest near the surface, with the maximum speed of about
2.5 meters per second.

Humboldt Current is a cold, low-salinity ocean current, which flows north-

westward along the west coast of South America, from the southern tip of Chile
to northern Peru. The presence of the Humboldt Current and its associated wind
shear prevents the formation of tropical cyclones. It also has a considerable
cooling influence on the climate of Chile.

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Kuroshio Current (or Japan Current, Kuro Siwo, or Black Stream) is a strong
western boundary current in the western North Pacific Ocean. It starts off the
east coast of Taiwan and flows northeastward and then it merges with the
easterly drift of the North Pacific Current. It is similar to the Gulf Stream in the
Atlantic Ocean, transporting warm, tropical water northward towards the polar
region.

The warm waters of the Kuroshio Current maintain the coral reefs of Japan. It is
also responsible for the mild weather, experienced around Alaska's southern
coast.

Labrador Current is a North Atlantic Ocean cold current, flowing from the Arctic
Ocean towards south, along the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland. It is a
continuation of the West Greenland Current and the Baffin Island Current. It
meets the warm Gulf Stream at the Grand Banks southeast of Newfoundland and
again north of the Outer Banks of North Carolina.

In spring and early summer, it transports icebergs from the glaciers of Greenland
to the trans-Atlantic shipping lanes. The waters of the Labrador Current have a
cooling effect on the Canadian Atlantic provinces and the coastal New England.

Leeuwin Current is a warm ocean current, flows southwards near the western
coast of Australia. Its strength varies through out the year, which is weakest
during November to March and apparently stronger during March to November.

Due to this current, the continental shelf waters of Western Australia are warmer
in winter and cooler in summer than the corresponding regions off the other
continents.

Madagascar Current is an ocean current, flows northwards near the western

coast of Madagascar. From southern Africa to India voyage, this current is helpful
for the sailors. This current is not strong and wide, as its opposing Agulhas
current.

Mediterranean Current is a gradient current, caused due to differences in level

and density between Mediterranean and Atlantic, as Mediterranean Sea, being
land locked, experiences severe evaporation. The main circulation of this current
is a counterclockwise. Here the water is coming in through the Strait of Gibraltar,
flows eastward along the north coast of Africa and then branches off. It is more
powerful in summer than in winter, because there is more evaporation during the
summer.

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Mozambique Current is a strong, steady Indian Ocean current, which flows
southward along the African east coast in the Mozambique Channel, between
Mozambique and the island of Madagascar.

North Atlantic Current is a powerful warm ocean current that continues the Gulf
Stream to northeast. At west of Ireland, it splits in two braches, one is Canary
Current, which goes south and the other continues to north along the coast of
northwestern Europe. It is driven by the global thermohaline circulation (THC).

North Atlantic Drift is an ocean current, which continues from the North Atlantic
Current.

North Equatorial Current is a significant Pacific and Atlantic Ocean current that
flows east to west between about 10° north and 20° north. In both oceans, it is
separated from the equatorial circulation by the Equatorial Countercurrent (North
Equatorial Countercurrent), which flows eastward.

Norwegian Current (Norwegian Coastal Current) flows north-easterly along the

Atlantic coast of Norway. It is a colder (winter temperatures is typically between 2
- 5 °C) and less salty current, but considerably warmer and more salty than the
Arctic Sea.

South Equatorial Current is a significant Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean

current, which flows east to west between the equator and about 20º south. In
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, it also extends across the equator to about 5º
north.

On the equator, the South Equatorial Current is driven directly by the trade
winds, which blow from east to west. Directly above the equator, the winds are
reversed twice a year due to the monsoons and so here current can be westward
also.

Currents at Bay of Bengal

Since this area is an “Area of Monsoon”, so the monsoons have an effect on

currents. In the more open part of Bay, at S of about 10ºN latitude, the current’s
respond to the monsoon is more observed. At this area, during December to
March, current’s general flow is westerly, due to NE monsoon and during May to
September, current’s general flow is easterly, due to SW monsoon. Here Coriolis
force also works on currents. Due to this, instate of completely monsoon’s wind
direction, current flow is inclined by about 45º to the right.

In restricted part of Bay, at N of about 10ºN latitude, the currents respond to the
monsoon is less observed. Here coastal boundaries and seasonal temperature
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changes also have an effect on currents. So due to so many effects, such as
costal shape, areas, Coriolis Effect, pressure gradient, temperature etc currents
circulations become clockwise at NE monsoon and anti-clockwise at SW
monsoon.

At Bay of Bengal, Tropical revolving storms (TRS) also have some effects on
currents, which become stronger at some times. It is estimated that a wind with
40 knots speed is bowing for 48 hrs at same direction, can increase the current
at a considerable amount, which can be achieved with slow moving TRS. Since
the wind effects on currant depend on duration and wind flow with steady
direction, which normally can not be offered by a TRS, as very occasionally wind
moves in a steady direction for a longer duration with TRS.

Except in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, currents normally get stronger and
occasionally attain 2 or 3 knots.

Vector-mean currents during January at Bay of Bengal (courtesy: Bay of Bengal pilot)

Vector-mean currents during July at Bay of Bengal (courtesy: Bay of Bengal pilot)

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