Types of Propellers

(a) Fixed Pitch Propellers

The unconventional propellers in this category are Super-cavitating propellers and Surface Piercing
propellers.

Super-cavitating propellers.

When propeller diameters are restricted and the propellers are required to produce large thrusts, the
propeller are likely to experience a phenomenon called cavitation resulting reduced efficiency and noise. In
circumstances where extensive cavitation is unavoidable, the propellers are specially designed to operate in
conditions of full cavitation. Such propellers are known as super-cavitating propellers.

For some small, high-speed vessels where both the propeller advance and rotational speeds are high and the
immersion low, a point is reached where it is not possible to control the effects of cavitation acceptably
within the other constraints of the propeller design. To overcome this problem, all or some of the blade
sections are permitted to fully cavitate, so that the
cavity developed on the back of the blade extends
beyond the trailing edge and collapses into the wake
of the blades in the slipstream. Such propellers are
termed super-cavitating propellers and frequently
find application on high-speed naval and pleasure
craft. Figure illustrates schematically this design
philosophy in contrast to non-cavitating and partially
cavitating propeller sections.

Surface Piercing Propellers. Surface piercing

propellers, are sometimes referred to as ventilated or
partially submerged propellers. They are normally
used in special cases of high-speed propulsion: in
some cases in the region of 100 knots. These types of
propeller provide a means of maintaining a reasonable
propulsion efficiency when operating under difficult
hydrodynamic conditions. With these types of
propeller and with the ship at rest the propeller is
usually, although not in all cases, fully submerged. Then as the vessel accelerates to high-speed and the hull
starts to plane the propeller takes up a partially submerged attitude: in these conditions the degree of partial
submergence may be up to 0.5 D.

The blade chordal section forms of surface piercing propellers differ considerably from more conventional
propellers: typically, they might take a form not dissimilar to that shown in Figure C above. During operation
in the fully ventilated design condition, the backs, or suction surfaces, of the propeller blades should be
surrounded by an air film which extends to the free surface and only the pressure faces remain wetted. As
such, these types of propellers have specific design and analysis methods which are applicable to their mode
of operation in order to achieve the correct performance and power absorption characteristics.

In the case of surface piercing propellers three principal operating regimes may be identified. These are the
partially ventilated, the transition and the fully ventilated conditions.

- In the former case of the partially ventilated condition, air cavities start near the blunt trailing edges of the
blade sections and vent towards the free surface. In this condition the extent and volume of the air cavities
are frequently seen to increase as the propeller advance coefficient decreases: similarly, with the time-
averaged thrust and torque coefficients developed by the propeller.

- In the final condition, the fully ventilated design condition, when the advance coefficient of the propeller is
further reduced the flow over the propeller suction surfaces has cavities which start near the leading edge
and extend over the blade surfaces and eventually vent to atmosphere. This fully developed flow regime is
relatively stable and the blade trailing edges remain continuously ventilated.
- The intermediate transition region between these two operating conditions is very unstable and
considerable vibratory forces are frequently developed. This is because during this transition regime the air
cavities on the blade surfaces begin to spread towards the leading edges but in doing so suffer significant
fluctuations both in shape and size.

Surface piercing propellers, in this context, should be distinguished from a conventional merchant ship
propeller which is driving a ship in a light draft condition and in so doing is not fully submerged: the two
propellers and their operating regimes are quite different.

(b) Variable pitch Propellers. In this category we have the controllable pitch propeller or CPP

Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP)

Unlike fixed pitch propellers whose only operational variable is rotational speed, the controllable pitch
propeller provides an extra degree of freedom in its ability to change blade pitch. However, for some
propulsion applications, particularly those involving shaft-driven generators, the shaft speed is held
constant, thus reducing the number of operating variables again to one. While this latter arrangement is very
convenient for electrical power generation it can cause difficulties in terms of the cavitation characteristics
of the propeller by inducing back and face cavitation at different propulsion conditions.

Unlike the fixed pitch propeller, the blades not made integral with the boss but are mounted on spindles and
can be rotated about their own axis through a mechanism inside the boss. Thereby, it is possible to change
the pitch of the propeller blades. Using this mechanism, the pitch could be changed from a remote location
like the bridge. Each manufacturer has an individual design of pitch actuating mechanism.

The hub boss, in addition to providing housing for the blade actuation mechanism, must also be sufficiently
strong to withstand the propulsive forces supplied to and transmitted from the propeller blades to the shaft.
In general, therefore, controllable pitch propellers tend to have larger hub diameters than those for
equivalent fixed pitch propellers. Typically, the controllable pitch propeller hub has a diameter in the range
0.24 to 0.32 D, but for some applications this may rise to as high as 0.4 or even 0.5 D. In contrast, fixed pitch
propeller boss diameters are generally within the range 0.16 D to25 D.

Advantages:-
- Full power of the machinery can be used in all loading conditions.
- Better acceleration to reach maximum speed
- better stopping abilities
- The propulsion plant may be operated at optimum efficiency over a range of speeds and displacements,
even at very low speeds
- Reversing propulsion machinery is not required, thereby reducing space required, weight and cost
- Speed of the ship can be varied without varying the shaft speed. This is especially useful when the main
engine has a shaft driven alternator for generating electricity.
- Can produce higher astern thrust at better efficiency.

Disadvantages:-
- Pitch control mechanism is complicated for manufacturing and installation
- High initial cost which rises sharply with diameter
- maintenance costs are also high
- vulnerable to damage
- length and diameter of the propeller hub are large reducing the efficiency of the propeller compared to
an equivalent fixed pitch propeller
- When pitch is changed from basic design value, the efficiency is affected further because of non optimal
pitch distribution
- Limited blade area ratio and thicker blades result in cavitation and noise

These propellers are used on tugs, trawlers, coasters, ferries, ice-breakers, warships like frigates and
destroyers with slow speed operation.
(c) Multiple propellers: Problems due to conditions of high propeller thrust and restricted diameter may
also be avoided by dividing the load between two propellers on the same shaft. Multiple propellers
mounted on the same shaft and turning in the same direction are called tandem propellers. Some
improvement in the efficiency can be obtained by having the two propellers rotate in opposite directions
on co-axial shafts. Such propellers are known as Contra-rotating propellers.

8. Tandem Propellers

Tandem propellers consist of two propellers mounted on the same shaft and turning in the same direction.
When high thrust requirement is combined with a restricted propeller diameter there is a problem of
reduced efficiency and increased cavitation. These propellers usually have the same diameter and have same
number of blades. The two propellers are designed, taking into account the induced velocities due to each
propeller.

Advantages:-
- Required thrust load is distributed on two propellers
- High efficiency at higher loading compared to equivalent single
propeller.
- Reduction in cavitation
- Lower propeller induced vibrations
Disadvantages:-
- Greater wight and cost
- Higher rotational energy losses
- No significant advantages at normal loading

7. Contra-rotating Propellers

The contra-rotating propeller principle, comprising two coaxial

propellers sited one behind the other and rotating in opposite directions,
has traditionally been associated with the propulsion of aircraft. Contra-
rotating propulsion systems have the hydrodynamic advantage of
recovering part of the slipstream rotational energy which would
otherwise be lost to a conventional single-screw system. In marine
applications of contra-rotating propulsion it is normal for the aftermost
propeller to have a smaller diameter than the forward propeller and, in
this way, accommodate the slipstream contraction effects. Similarly, the
blade numbers of the forward and aft propellers are usually different;
typically, four and five for the forward and aft propellers, respectively.
Furthermore, because of the two propeller configuration, contra-
rotating propellers possess a capability for balancing the torque reaction
from the propulsor which is an important matter for torpedo and other
similar propulsion problems

Advantages:-
- Required thrust load is distributed on two propellers
- Improved efficiency compared to equivalent single propeller. (However it is less than two single
propellers producing same thrust)
- Induced heel due to a single propeller is cancelled out. This is particularly useful for torpedoes.
- Reduction in cavitation and noise
Disadvantages:-
- Greater wight
- Gear and co-axial shafts make it complex for manufacture and installation during ship construction
- Sealing of the shafting against water ingress is a problem
- Hydrodynamic gains are somewhat compensated by mechanical losses in shafting
Apart from the long standing use on torpedoes, these have been tried out recently on Japanese bulk carrier
and a car carrier. It appears that an efficiency improvement of 15% can be achieved provided favourable
hull propeller interaction can be ensured. However, in general, the
efficiency improvement is not commensurate with the complications in
installation of these propellers.

Propeller boss cap fins, Sometimes, to increase the efficiency small blades
or fins are fitted onto the propeller boss cap. The number of blades or
fins being equal to the number of blades of the propeller. These weaken
the hub vortex and thereby reduce cavitation and noise due to collapse
of hub vortex cavities on the rudder. The increase in efficiency due to
such arrangement is of the order of 3 – 7%

Vertical Axis Cycloidal Propellers

These propellers consist of a number of spade-

like blades mounted on a disc normally set
flush with the ship’s hull. The disc is made to
rotate about a vertical axis, while the blades
are made to rotate about their own vertical
axes, through a mechanical linkage system.
There are two types of vertical axis propellers.

(a) Kirsten Boeing Propeller

- While the wheel completes one rotation, individual blades make half rotation about own axis
- The control point C can be changed depending upon the direction of thrust required
- Distance OC is called eccentricity
- It is fixed and is equal to the radius of the wheel
- Magnitude of the thrust can only be varied for a given speed of advance by varying the angular velocity
ω = 2πn of the propeller
- Eccentricity, which is similar to the pitch of the screw propeller, cannot be varied and therefore the
propeller is analogous to a fixed pitch propeller
(b) Voith Schneider Propellers

- While the wheel completes one rotation

individual blades make full rotation about
own axis
- Eccentricity OC can be varied to any value
between 0 and radius R of the wheel
- Magnitude of thrust can be varied by
varying the eccentricity OC
- Direction of thrust can be varied by
varying angle between OC and velocity of
advance VA
- For a given thrust, the eccentricity OC and
angular velocity ω have an optimum
combination which gives the minimum
delivered power required. However the
propeller is run at constant RPM and the
magnitude of thrust is varied by adjusting
the eccentricity.
- The Propeller is analogous to the
controllable pitch propeller.
- Can be fitted anywhere on the hull.
Generally fitted in pairs, at locations
depending on the type of ship.
- In ferries they may be fitted forward and
aft to facilitate sideways movement and
turning in a circle of diameter equal to its own length

Advantages:
- Exceptional manoeuvrability
- Ability to vary magnitude and direction of thrust without changing the speed or direction of revolution
of the engine
- elimination of rudder and steering gear requirement
- Hull form can be simplified

Disadvantages:
- Efficiency significantly lower than the screw propellers
- Complex mechanism requiring high maintenance

Ducted Propellers

Ducted propellers, as their name implies, generally comprise two

principal components: the first is an annular duct having an aerofoil
cross-section which may be either of uniform shape around the duct
and, therefore, symmetric with respect to the shaft centreline, or have
certain asymmetric features to accommodate the wake field flow
variations. However, due to the cost of wake adapted ducts it is normally
axisymmetric ducts that predominate. The second component, the
propeller, is a special case of a non-ducted propeller in which the design
of the blades has been modified to take account of the flow interactions
caused by the presence of the duct in its flow field.

The ducts can be of two types – accelerating and decelerating.

The propeller for these units can be either of the fixed or controllable pitch type and in some special
applications, such as torpedo propulsion, may be a contra-rotating pair.

Accelerating ducts are called Kort Nozzles following the extensive experimentation carried out by Kort in
developing these such ducts.
The propeller develops the thrust and at the same time, a circulation develops around the duct section
resulting in a component of force that acts in line with the thrust, which we call the duct thrust

A thrust ratio τ is now defined as the ratio of the propeller thrust Tp to the total thrust T= TP +TD where TP
is the thrust of the propeller and TD is the thrust due to the duct:
𝑇𝑃 𝑇𝑃
𝜏= =
𝑇𝑃 + 𝑇𝐷 𝑇

Accelerating Ducts (Kort Nozzle):

The shape of the accelerating duct at the forward end increases the mass flow
to the propeller. The following changes to the inflow into the propeller, help
reduce the kinetic energy losses and increase in efficiency.

- the small clearance between the blade tips and the inner surface of the duct
suppresses the trailing free vortices shed by the blades
- the after end of the duct is shaped to suppress the slipstream
contraction.

- The increase in velocity causes decrease in the thrust and torque of the propeller. However, due to the
increase in flow velocity inside the duct, a circulation develops around the duct resulting in an inward
force, which has a forward component. The duct also has a drag but substantially lower that the thrust
developed.

The total thrust of the propeller and the duct together is greater than that of an equivalent propeller
whereas torque smaller. τ is greater than one.

The efficiency of the propeller with accelerating duct is therefore better than that of the open propeller.

These are therefore used in heavily loaded propellers.

Decelerating Ducts:

Decreases the inflow velocity, thereby increasing the pressure at the propeller
location, which delays cavitation.

The duct has a circulation around it, which produces an outward directed lift
with a component opposing the thrust of the propeller.

The efficiency of the propeller with decelerating duct is therefore lower than
that of the equivalent open propeller. The τ is smaller than one.

However, its cavitation properties are superior

These are therefore used in high speed hydrodynamic bodies where it is

necessary to minimise cavitation and underwater noise.

Blade shape in Ducted Propeller: The radial distribution of circulation in a ducted propeller is quite different
from that in a open propeller. The sharp drop in circulation towards the
blade tip in an open propeller is not present in a ducted propeller due
to suppression of trailing vortices at the tips. Therefore it is necessary
that a suitable blade outline matching the different loading distribution
is used in ducted propellers. Propellers operating in ducts usually have
wide tipped outlines. And are known as Kaplan type propellers. Sometimes,
for shallow water operations, a modified Kaplan outline is used to avoid
jamming of the blades due to entrapment of foreign material between the
blades and the duct due to low clearance available.
Advantages:
- Improved efficiency at high loading
- More homogeneous flow into the propeller and hence reduced vibrations
- Smaller effect of loading and speed variation on efficiency
- Improved course stability
- Lower vulnerability to damage due to larger floating debris

Disadvantages:
- Poor astern propulsive performance
- reduced astern manoeuvrability and directional stability
- Greater vulnerability to jamming and damage in shallow water due to possible entrapment of debris
and small stones.

Ducted propellers with accelerating ducts may be used with advantage in low speed vessels having high
thrust loads such as tugs and trawlers. A substantial improvement of about 30% in bollard pull can be
attained by using ducted propellers. These may also be used on large tankers and bulk carriers.

Waterjet Propulsion

The principle of operation of the present-day waterjet is that in which water is drawn through a ducting
system by an internal pump which adds energy, after which the water is expelled aft at high velocity. The
unit’s thrust is primarily generated as a result of the momentum increase imparted to the water. Figure
shows, in outline form, the main features of the
waterjet system

By directing the jet sideways the ship can be

manoeuvred and by deflecting the jet forward
astern thrust can be obtained.

Water jet propulsion is less efficient than

conventional screw propulsion at moderate
speeds, but for high speed craft, water jets may
have a higher efficiency.

Advantages:
- No appendages, hence reduction in resistance
- No limitation on pump size for use in shallow waters
- Improved manoeuvrability, stopping and backing ability
- No reversing gear or reversing of engines is required
- Torque is constant over the complete speed range, i.e. full power can be maintained at low speeds
without overloading the engines.
- Speed of the ship from full ahead to full astern can be controlled without altering the engine RPM.
- A higher static thrust can be obtained permitting high acceleration to full speed.
- There is less noise and vibration.

Disadvantages:
- Occupies considerable space inside the ship.
- Water passing through causes a significant decrease in buoyancy.
It is necessary to provide a grating at the water inlet to prevent debris from getting in damaging the pump.
The grating reduces the efficiency of the system, particularly as it gets clogged.
Other types of propellers

(a) Propellers with end plates. The use of propellers with end plates, has
been proposed to improve propeller efficiency by suppressing the trailing
vortices shed from the propeller blade tips. Such propellers are sometimes
known as TVF (tip vortex free) propellers or CLT (contracted and loaded
tip) propellers. The end plates at the blade tips modify the distribution of
circulation along the radius and give a better spread of the trailing vortices.
This decreases the induced drag of the blades and reduces tip vortex
cavitation. Several different types of end plates have been tried: end plates
at a constant radius or aligned with the streamline at the blade tip, end
plates on the suction side (back of the blade) near the leading edge and on
the pressure side (face) towards the trailing edge, and end plates of different
shapes - bulbous blade tips, porous tips and winglets. An improvement in efficiency up to 4' percent can be
obtained provided the blades and the end plates are optimized together to obtain the optimum distribution
of circulation.

(b) Ring Propeller. In a ring propeller, a ring or a small duet is attached to the
propeller blade tips so that the ring revolves with the propeller. The action of the
ring is similar to that of the end plates: spreading the trailing vortices at the tip,
altering the radial distribution of circulation, reducing tip vortex cavitation, and
thus improving efficiency A ring propeller has been found to produce a greater
bollard pull than a conventional propeller. The ring also increases the strength of
the propeller and reduces blade vibration.

(c) Podded Propeller: In a podded propeller, the propeller is supported in a streamlined body of revolution (pod)
by a vertical strut extending downward from the hull of the ship. The propeller is driven through a shaft from inside
the hull through bevel gears contained within the pod. The propeller with its
pod and supporting strut can be rotated about a vertical axis through 360
degrees by a separate mechanism so that the propeller thrust can be directed at
any angle in a horizontal plane. To allow for the rotation of the inflow to the
propeller, the strut is usually not symmetrical on the two sides about its centre
plane. It is possible to design the strut so that it augments the propeller thrust
and compensates for the drag of the pod. The interaction between the strut and
the pod is important. Podded propellers, which are also known by several other
names such as "azimuthing thrusters" and "steering rudder propellers", offer
several advantages for small vessels: excellent manoeuvrability, very good
backing performance, good speed control over the complete range and the use of non-reversing machinery.
however, podded propeller units are available only upto a limited power, and the complicated Z-drive and
azimuthing mechanism are serious disadvantages. There is also the possibility of interference between the podded
propeller strut and the hull, or between the different podded propeller units, which are often used hi pairs. In recent
years, the Z-drive has been replaced by an electric motor housed within the pod, and the power range has been
continuously extended.