Non Destructive Testing
-The most fundamental method of inspecting aircraft
structures and components is through visual
inspection.
~ The basic tools required to conduct a visual inspec-
tion include a good light, a mirror, and some form of
magnifying glass
~ A borescope is an optical device similar in principle to
a telescope in that it enlarges objects like a magnifying
glass.
~ A fiberoptic borescope is similar to a standard
borescope, but has a flexible, articulated probe that
can bend around corners. The maximum length
borescopes is four feet
With a video scope, light is carried to an object by
fiberoptics or light-emitting diodes. The image is
viewed through a lens by a light sensitive chip and
transmitted to a video processor where the
electronic signal from the chip is assembled and
output to a monitor and VCR as appropriate
Weld inspection
~ A good weld is uniform in width, with even
ripples that taper off smoothly into the base metal.
There should be no burn marks or signs of
overheating, and no oxide should form on the base
metal more than 1/2 inch from the weld.
Furthermore, a good weld must be free of gas pockets,
porosity, and inclusions
~Penetration is the depth of fusion in a weld, and is the
most important characteristic of a good weld.
Penetration depends on the thickness of the material to
be joined, the size of the filler rod, and welding
technique. A typical butt weld should penetrate 100
percent of the thickness of the base metal, while a fillet
weld must penetrate 25 to 50 percent
~Poor welds display certain telltale characteristics. For
example, too much acetylene makes the molten metal
boil, causing bumps along the center and craters
along the weld's edge. A cold weld has irregular edges
and considerable variation in depth of penetration,
while excessive heat produces a weld with pitting
along its edges and long, pointed ripples. If a part is
cooled too quickly after being welded, cracks often
appear adjacent to the weld. Whenever a welded
joint displays any of these defects, all of the old weld
must be removed and the joint rewelded
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
~ inspection suitable for locating cracks, porosity, or
other types of faults open to the surface.
~usable on ferrous and non-ferrous metals, as well as
nonporous plastic materia
~Dye penetrant inspection is based on the principle
of capillary attraction. The area being inspected is
covered with a penetrating liquid that has a very low
viscosity and low surface tension.
~ After sufficient time, the excess penetrant is washed
off and the surface is covered with a developer
~. The developer, by the process of reverse capillary
action, blots the penetrant out of cracks or other
faults forming a visible line in the developer.
~. If an indication is fuzzy instead of sharp and clear,
the probable cause is that the part was not thoroughly
washed before the developer was applied
~1 When performing a liquid penetrant inspection,
the penetrant is spread over the surface of the
material being examined, and allowed sufficient time
for capillary action to take place. (B) 1 The excess
penetrant is then washed from the surface, leaving
any cracks and surface flaws filled. (C) 1 An
absorbent developer is sprayed over the surface
where it blots out any penetrant. The crack then
shows up as a bright line against the white developer.
~ There are two types of dyes used in liquid penetrant
inspection: fluorescent and colored. An ultraviolet
light is used with the fluorescent penetrant and any
flaw shows up as a green line.
~ using liquid penetrant it is important that the surface
be free of grease, dirt, and oil. The best method of
cleaning a surface is with a volatile petroleum-based
solvent. If vapor degreasing is not practical, the part is
cleaned by scrubbing with a solvent or a strong
detergent solution. Parts to be inspected with liquid
penetrant should not be cleaned by abrasive blasting,
scraping, or heavy brushing
PENETRANT APPLICATION
~ Penetrant is typically applied to a surface by
immersing the part in the liquid or by swabbing or
brushing a penetrant solution onto the part's
surface
~The amount of time required for a penetrant to cure
is called its dwell time and is determined by the size
and shape of the discontinuities being looked for. For
example, small, thin cracks require a longer dwell time
than large and more open cracks. Dwell time is
decreased if a part is heated. However, if the part gets
too hot the penetrant evaporates
REMOVAL OF SURFACE PENETRANT
~ Liquid penetrants are typically removed using
either water, an emulsifying agent, or a solvent. with
water that is sprayed at a pressure of 30 to 40 psi,
spray nozzle is held at a 45
~ Some penetrants are neither water soluble nor
emulsifiable, but instead are solvent-removeable.
~ When using this type of penetrant, excess penetrant
is removed with an absorbent towel, and the part's
surface is then wiped with clean towels dampened
with solvent. The solvent should not be sprayed
onto the surface nor should the part be immersed in
the solvent, since this will wash the penetrant out of
faults or dilute
three kinds of developers
~Dry developer is a loose powder material such as
talcum that adheres to the penetrating liquid and
acts as a blotter to draw the penetrant out of any sur-
face faults
~Wet developer typically consists of a white powder
mixed with water that is either flowed over a surface,
or a part is immersed in it. The part is then air-dried a
~ Nonaqueous developer consists of a white chalk-
like powder suspended in a solvent that is normally
applied from a pressure spray can, or sprayed onto a
surface with a paint gun.
~ Colored dye is used in this penetrating liquid so
that examination under white light can be
accomplished. (B) right2 A fluorescent dye is used in
this penetrant inspection and then the part is
examined under black or ultraviolet light where any
fault appears as a vivid green mark.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
~ made of iron or iron alloys
~, a part is magnetized and an oxide containing
magnetic particles is poured or sprayed over the
part's surface. Any discontinuities in the material,
either on or near the surface, create disruptions in
the magnetic field around the part
~ useful for detecting cracks, splits, seams, and voids
that form when a metal ruptures. It is also useful for
detecting cold shuts and inclusions of foreign matter
that occurred when the metal was cast or rolled.
MAGNETIC ORIENTATION
~, the part must be magnetized in such a way that the
lines of flux are perpendicular to the fault
~ To ensure that the flux lines are nearly
perpendicular to a flaw, a part should be magnetized
both longitudinally and circularly.
~ longitudinal magnetization, the magnetizing current
flows either through a coil in which the part is placed,
or through a coil around a soft iron yoke.
~CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION . Current is sent through
the part by placing it between the heads of
magnetizing equipment.
~ Large flat objects are circularly magnetized by using
test probes that are held firmly against the surface
with current passed through them.
~ Either circular or longitudinal magnetization can
reveal defects that are 45 degrees to the magnetic
field.
METHODS OF MAGNETIZATION
~ magnetic particle inspection employs direct
current magnetization, half-wave rectified DC
magnetization, or alternating current magnetization.
DIRECT CURRENT.Pure direct current at voltages
from 110 to 440 has excellent penetrating qualities
and is suitable for magnetizing parts in coils and with
yokes. However, DC has the disadvantage of being
difficult to change its value as required for inspecting
objects of different sizes.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIED DC,, can be rectified to
DC with a half-wave rectifier. In addition, by
controlling the AC input the DC output can be
adjusted to any value. Half-wave DC has the identical
penetrating qualities as straight DC, and its pulsating
nature helps distribute the magnetic particles so
they arrange themselves over any fault
ALTERNATING CURRENT..The principle of
magnetization is based on the magnetic domains of a
material aligning with the external magnetizing force.
TESTING MEDIUM
~ magnetic particle inspection is ferromagnetic. In
other words, the material is finely divided, has a
high permeability, and a low retentivity.
Furthermore, for operator safety it is nontoxic.
~ these materials are extremely fine iron oxides that
are dyed gray, black, red, or treated with a dye that
causes them to fluoresce when illuminated with
ultraviolet light.
~ iron oxides are often used dry, but can be mixed with
kerosene or some other light oil and sprayed over a
surface.
~ Dry particles are typically applied with hand
shakers, spray bulbs, or powder guns.
~ Wet particles are flowed over a part as a bath.
~ Measuring particle concentration is accomplished
by collecting a sample of the agitated bath in a
centrifuge tube.
TESTING METHOD
The two methods you must be familiar with are the
residual magnetism method and the continuous
magnetism method.
RESIDUAL MAGNETISMWhen a part is
magnetized and the magnetizing force is removed
before the testing medium is applied, . The residual
procedure is only used with steels that have been
heat-treated for stressed applications.
CONTINUOUS MAGNETISM magnetization
requires that a part be subjected to the magnetizing
force when the testing medium is applied. The
continuous process of magnetization is most often
used to locate invisible defects since it provides a
greater sensitivity in locating subsurface
discontinuities
INSPECTION~ gray, black, or red dye is used, the
inspection is made in white light. However, if a
fluorescent dye is used, the part is inspected using a
black light in a dark booth.
~FATIGUE CRACKS give sharp, clear patterns, generally
uniform and unbroken throughout their length. These
cracks are often jagged in appearance. are only found
in parts that were in service. These cracks are usually
in highly stressed areas of a part where a stress
concentration exists.
HEAT-TREAT CRACKS,have a smooth outline, and
are usually less clear with less buildup than fatigue
cracks. a characteristic form, consisting of short
jagged lines grouped together\
SHRINK CRACKS,give a sharp, clear pattern and the
line is usually very jagged
GRINDING CRACKS are fine, sharp, and seldom
have a buildup because of their limited depth.
SEAMS Indications of seams are typically straight,
sharp, and fine. They are often intermittent and
sometimes have very little buildup.
HAIRLINE CRACKS are very fine seams in which
the faces are forced very close together during fabrica-
tion.. Discontinuities of this type are normally
considered detrimental only in highly stressed parts.
INCLUSIONS,,are nonmetallic materials that have
been trapped in the solidifying metal during the
manufacturing process.
DEMAGNETIZATION before a part is returned to
service, it is required to be thoroughly demagnetized.
~ AC DEMAGNETIZATION the part is subjected
to a magnetizing force opposite the force used to
magnetize it. the magnetizing force was AC, the
domains alternate in polarity, and if the part is slowly
removed from the field while current is still flowing,
the reversing action progressively becomes weaker.
~ DC DEMAGNETIZATION AC current does not
penetrate a surface very deeply. a part is placed in a
coil and subjected to more current than initially used
to magnetize the part
~ The presence of any residual magnetism is
checked with a magnet strength indicator
TEST SENSITIVITY AND STANDARDS
~ Some factors affecting sensitivity include the
method of magnetization, the magnetizing amperage,
the current type (AC or DC), the type of particles
used, and the method of particle application
~. Manufacturer's requirements for testing engine
parts are detailed and specific. Any flaw found on
tested parts, such as a hairline crack, is cause for part
rejection.
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION
~ Eddy current inspection is based on the principle of
current acceptance. In other words, it determines
the ease with which a material accepts induced cur-
rent.
~. The ease with which a material accepts the
induced eddy currents is determined by four
properties: its conductivity, permeability, mass, and
by the presence of any voids or faults.
~ The conductivity of a metal varies with alloy type,
grain size, degree of heat treatment, and tensile
strength
~, a comparison probe and a test probe are held on a
reference, or sample material and the meter is
balanced to a null indication.
~ The permeability of a material is the measure of its
ability to accept lines of magnetic flux.
~ eddy current meter indirectly measures current
flowing in the test probe, and the probe current is
proportional to the current induced into a test spec-
imen. The mass of the material being tested deter-
mines the ease with which eddy currents flow.
~probe passes over an area containing corrosion or
some sort of discontinuity, the meter needle deflects,
indicating a decrease in mass. However, as the probe
is moved over a surface free from faults, it remains
steady
ABSOLUTE METHOD OF INSPECTION
In the absolute method of inspection, bridge-type
eddy current equipment is used to identify a mater-
ial's characteristics by measuring the amount of
probe current that flows when current is induced
into a test specimen.
COMPARISON METHOD OF INSPECTION The
comparison method of inspection uses a double-coiled
probe. Instead of zeroing to a standard piece of
material, the comparison method indicates
differences in characteristics between the material
under the reference probe and that under the test
probe.
~ Several eddy current instruments which use a two
dimensional display, such as an X-Y oscilloscope, are
available without the limitations associated with
the meter type instrument
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
~ that can be used on plastics, ceramics, and most
metals. . Ultrasonic energy bounces off a fault
and is reflected on the CRT screen as a peak
on the base line between the peaks
representing the front and back surfaces.
~ Under normal conditions, these sound waves
propagate longitudinally from the source of
vibration and are called longitudinal waves. However,
a second type of wave propagation occurs at right
angles to the direction of the sound. This type of wave
propagation occurs only in materials made of tightly
bonded molecules, such as solids, and are called
transverse, or shear waves. Shear waves that travel
along the surface of a material, and do not
appreciably extend into the material, are known as
surface, or Rayleigh, waves.
~ Ultrasonic waves used for nondestructive inspection
vary in frequency from 200 kilohertz to 25 megahertz,
and are either reflected, focused, or refracted
~ but for sonar operation and for ultrasonic cleaning.
Some materials produce electricity when they are
struck, pressed, bent, or otherwise distorted.
Materials that possess this property are called piezo-
electric materials. In addition to producing current,
piezoelectric materials vibrate when subjected to
alternating current. This makes these types of mate-
rials useful as transducers
ENERGY INTRODUCED INTO TEST
MATERIALThere are three basic ways in
which ultrasonic energy is introduced into the
test specimen. The first is by direct contact on
only one side of the material. The energy is
transmitted from this point and the return echo
is received from the same side. The second
method uses a transducer on both sides of the
material; one introduces a pulse into the
material, and the other receives the signal and
sends it to the CRT. The third way of inducing
sound energy into a material is the immersion
method. the test specimen is immersed in
water and the transducer beams its energy
. The desired orientation is achieved through the
use of acrylic wedges inserted between the
transducer and the material's surface
FAULT INDICATIONS
Two basic systems are used in ultrasonic
inspection. They are the pulse-echo system and
resonance system. With the pulse-echo system a
cathode ray oscilloscope is used in conjunction
with a CRT as a fault indicator. . A time based
signal produces a straight line across a CRT
screen and when a pulse of energy is sent into
the material, a pip, or peak, occurs on this
horizontal line.
~ Because ultrasonic test equipment indicates
the thickness of a material, it is an efficient
means of inspecting for corrosion on the inside
of a structure
~ resonance system. Like the pulse-echo system,
the resonance system is also used to measure
the thickness of material However, its principle
of operation differs from that of the pulse-echo
system in that the resonance system depends on
matching the oscillator's frequency to the
resonance point of the material being tested.
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
Radiographic inspection allows a photographic view
inside a structure. In other words, this method uses
certain sections of the electromagnetic spectrum to
photograph an object's interior.
~ X-ray and gamma ray radiation are forms of
high energy, short wavelength electromagnetic
waves. amount of absorption is proportional to
the density of the material.
~ An x-ray generator consists of a tube
containing a heavy insulating envelope. A coil at
one end of the tube serves as a cathode that
emits electrons when it is heated with electrical
current.
SET-UP AND EXPOSURE
For a permanent record of a radiographic
inspection, a sheet of photographic film is
placed on one side of the object being inspected,
and the radiation source on the other.
~ The denser the specimen, the less radiation
passes through, and the less the film is exposed.
The specimen is then exposed to the radiation
source.
Factors that determine the proper exposure include,
but are not limited, to the following:
1. Material thickness and density
2. Shape and size of the object
3. Type of defect to be detected
4. Characteristics of the equipment used
5. Exposure distance
6. Exposure angle
7. Film characteristics
8. Types of intensifying screen, if used
~ Photographic film is composed of flexible
transparent plastic sheets coated with a thin
layer of gelatin. This gelatin contains an emulsion
of extremely fine silver bromide grains.
~ The exposed film is then treated with devel-
oper which reduces only the silver bromide
grains that were touched by the radiation into
clumps of black metallic silver. After all of the
affected emulsion is converted, the developing
action is stopped with an acid stop bath.

~ Because of this, less-dense areas or places with the

most radiation exposure are dark. Those places where
the density is the greatest get the least radiation and
are the clearest.
~ Atypical camera is made of lead to contain the
isotope's gamma radiation. To expose a film and
obtain an x-ray, the cover is raised and the control
rod is extended to expose the source and provide
a wider angle of coverage.

~ FLUOROSCOPY For high-speed radiographic

inspection where no permanent record is required, a
fluoroscope is used. main advantage of fluoroscopy is
that objects are viewed in real time. Furthermore, the
test piece can be moved or rotated in front of the
screen by handling devices. Moving the object closer to
the x-ray tube for magnification is also possible.

INSPECTING COMPOSITES

COIN TAP TEST

Although it is one of the most simple tests available,

the coin tap test is also one of the most effective on
laminated, bonded, and honeycomb materials.

~ Undamaged material produces a solid ringing sound,

while a damaged area. makes a hollow thud. Impact
damage to laminated structure, such as ice and rain
impingement on radomes, is quickly and easily found
using the coin tap test.
Thermography locates flaws in a part by measuring
temperature variations at the part's surface. A part is
heated, and temperature differences are then mea-
sured with an infrared camera or film.
Thermography requires a knowledge of the test
material's thermal conductivity, which is then com-
pared to a reference standard.

RADIOGRAPHY

Although x-rays are not effective on certain bonded

structures, other types of radiographic inspection
can detect surface cracks and internal damage on
many composite structures. In particular, radiography
can detect water inside honeycomb core cells.

LASER HOLOGRAPHY

To inspect a part using laser holography, the part is

heated and then photographed using a laser light
source and a special camera system. Laser holography
can detect disbonds, entrapped water, and impact
damage in a variety of composites