DAGANG, Marian Elena A.

Ar102P

B68

Azimuth

http://energy-models.com/azimuth-angles-building-surfaces

The direction of a celestial object from the observer, expressed as the angular distance from the
north or south point of the horizon to the point at which a vertical circle passing through the object
intersects the horizon.

The horizontal angle or direction of a compass bearing.

Building Envelope

(also known as building shell)

The envelope consists of walls, windows, doors, roofs and skylights. It provides separation and
protection from outdoor weather conditions. An exposure is the outside surface of a building envelope
component. It has an azimuth direction (also known as exposure orientation). The term exposure is not
usually applied to intermediate floors and interior partitions. These components can be considered as part
of the space envelope but the outside surface is not exposed to the weather. Sometimes the term wall
exposure is used to include the entire vertical surface consisting of the wall and also its windows and
doors. The term roof exposure is used to include the entire horizontal or tilted surface including the roof
and skylights.
 A building's exterior wall azimuth (also referred to as exposure orientation) is the direction faced
by the wall. It is the direction that you are looking at when looking out through the window in the wall
from inside the building. This convention is used later in establishing direction of building surfaces
relative to other building surfaces. The tilt angle of a vertical wall is 90o. It is measured from the
horizontal which has a tilt angle of 0o. However some walls may be tilted slightly away from the vertical.
If this tilt angle is, say, less than 60o then you can treat it as a roof.

A roof has an azimuth angle and a tilt angle. The roof tilt angle is measured from the horizontal
within the enclosed building space. So both the roofs shown in the figure have a tilt angle of 60o. The
roof azimuth angle is the azimuth angle of the equivalent wall. For example increase the tilt angle until it
is vertical and it is the orientation looking out from inside. A horizontal roof has an azimuth angle of 0o
and a tilt angle of 0o.

EXTERIOR ENVELOPE

Walls are considered vertical surfaces. The tilt angle can be 61 to 90 degrees (ASHRAE STD90)

Windows are glass on walls and doors. They are assumed to have the same azimuth (orientation)
angle as the wall it is located on. If the window tilt angle is different from that of the wall, then a separate
wall with 100% glazing must be defined. Windows are affected by solar radiation and infiltration in
addition heat transfer. Overhangs, side fins, canopies, the metal or wood frame are considered as part of
the window configuration.

Roofs are horizontal or tilted surfaces. The tilt angle can vary from 0 to 60 or 90 degrees. The tilt
angle of a horizontal roof is 0 degrees. The DOE2 program does not distinguish between walls & roofs. In
DOE2, the analysis of an external surface is based on azimuth angle and tilt angle. ASHRAE STD90 has
more stringent requirements for roofs. A sloped roof with a tilt angle greater than 60 degrees can be
considered a wall and the less stringent prescriptive criteria for walls can be applied

Skylights are glass on roofs. They have the same azimuth (orientation) and tilt angles as the roof

Doors that open to the outside are part of the building envelope. Exterior doors have air
infiltration rates that depend on the type of door and the usage. Infiltration affects heating and cooling
loads. If the glass area of the door exceeds 50% then it must be considered as window and the prescriptive
criteria for windows must be applied. The prescriptive criteria for infiltration through doors (varies with
the type of door - revolving, swing, etc.) is greater than for windows (fixed, operable, etc.)

Floor on grade (ground) is affected by the ground temperature. About 10 feet below grade the
ground temperature can vary between 40oF (above freezing) and 60oF while the outside temperature
varies from -40oF to 120oF.

INTERIOR WALLS

Floors: The conditions on either side of an intermediate floor can be the same or it can be
different. If they are the same then there is no heat transfer through the floor and the floor can be ignored
or omitted in the heat gain/loss calculations. If the conditions are different (example, one side is air-
conditioned and the other side is not) then the floor cannot be ignored.

Partitions are vertical walls that are not exposed to the outside and are therefore not affected by
solar, wind and other weather and environmental conditions. Partitions that separate spaces with similar
conditions can be ignored. Partitions that separate spaces with different conditions, such as an air
conditioned space and a ventilated space such as a boiler room, must be included in the heat gain loss
calculations. The ventilated space can be assumed to be at outdoor air conditions.

Ceilings are suspended surfaces below a roof or an intermediate wall. A ceiling is considered an
envelope to an air conditioned space because the temperature and humidity conditions above the ceiling
can be different from the occupied space. Computer program will calculate the conditions above the
ceiling based on light heat to ceiling space, equipment in ceiling space, heat exchange through ceiling
from space, return air rates through the ceiling space, etc. Including the ceiling in modeling a space is
important since it affects daylighting, required air changes, etc.

Interior doors that separate spaces with the same condition can be ignored. If the conditions on
either side are different then treat it as a partition.

GREEN ROOFS

Color and material of the exterior surface can significantly affect the solar heat gain through the
wall or roof during summer cooling months. The sun can strike a flat roof in the tropical zones (23.5
degrees south to 23.5 degrees north) at an angle of 90 degrees (sun altitude). The surface will receive the
maximum possible solar radiation intensity.

The surface temperature of a flat roof covered with black tar (which has a very high absorptance
value) that is used to waterproof the roof can reach temperatures of 200oF when the outside temperature
is 100oF or less. Some of the heat is released back to the outside air through convection but most of it will
be conducted into the conditioned space. The solar heat gain through the roof is high. Walls and roofs
with light colored and reflective exterior surfaces can prevent most of the solar radiation striking the
surface from entering the conditioned space.

A green roof is a term being used to describe roof lawns and gardens. This layer of earth and
grass on the roof acts as both insulation against conducted heat gain (summer) and heat loss (winter) with
the outside air and as a barrier to solar heat gain in summer. Roof lawns have to be watered and it adds to
the weight of the roof. They require additional structural support.

ASHRAE Standard 90.1

The Standard applies to building envelope components that enclose conditioned space (heating,
ventilation & air conditioning - cooling) and semi-heated space. It does not apply to unconditioned or
ventilated only spaces. A space is considered conditioned if it is heated and ventilated for normal
occupancy or if it is air-conditioned (HV&AC). A ventilated only space is not considered conditioned
since it is at outdoor conditions. The building envelope requirements are more stringent for conditioned
spaces than they are for semi-heated spaces.

Building envelopes consist of opaque components and fenestration components.

Opaque envelope components include walls, roofs, floors, slabs-on-grade, below-gradewalls and
opaque doors.

Fenestration envelope components (light transmitting areas of walls and roofs) include windows
(walls), skylights (roofs) and doors (walls) that are more than 50% glass.

An envelope component can be either exterior or semi-exterior.

An exterior envelope component separates a conditioned space from outdoor conditions and
ventilated (at outdoor air conditions) crawl spaces and attics.

Semi exterior envelope components separate conditioned spaces from unconditioned spaces and
semi-heated spaces. Semi exterior envelope components also separate semiheated spaces from outdoor
conditions.

Space Conditioning Categories

The ASHRAE Standard 90.1 envelope requirements apply to three types of spaces

- Non-residential
- Residential
 - Semi-heated

Both non-residential and residential occupied spaces in the U.S. are considered conditioned since
they require at least heating for human occupancy. In warmer climates in less developed countries these
spaces might be mechanically or naturally ventilated only.

The residential space category includes spaces in buildings used primarily for living and sleeping.
Examples include, but are not limited to dwelling units, hotel/motel guest rooms, dormitories, nursing
homes, patient rooms in hospitals, fraternity / sorority houses, hostels, prisons, fire stations and lodging
houses. The buildings have to be low-rise and with limited floor area (up to 10,000 sq.ft.). A ten story
hotel with a 1000 units would be considered a commercial building.

The non-residential or commercial space category includes all other conditioned spaces including,
but not limited to, offices, retail stores, shopping malls, theatres, non-patient rooms in hospitals,
restaurants, and convention centers. If the building consists of a mix of residential and nonresidential
spaces then the building is non-residential. High rise residential buildings are also considered commercial
buildings since they will also contain non-residential spaces and are subject to fire, life-safety and other
commercial building codes.

Residential spaces are conditioned (by code they must have heating for normal occupancy) on a
more-or-less continuous basis. A greater investment and requirement in energy efficiency standards can
be justified for spaces that are continuously conditioned, and this is the distinction between the residential
and non-residential categories. Note: the HVAC systems of commercial office buildings are turned off
during unoccupied hours (evenings and weekends) but the heating systems without ventilation operate at
lower night set back temperatures (semi-heated).

Examples of semi-heated spaces are warehouses and light manufacturing facilities that have only
a limited heating system (no cooling) with lower winter indoor space temperatures. They may or may not
have ventilation. Unconditioned spaces have no heating, cooling or ventilation. An example would be a
residential garage. Declaring a space as semi-heated or unconditioned must be approved by the building
code authority.

Some spaces are conditioned even though they may not be heated or cooled. Examples include
storage rooms, telephone/electrical closets and small interior toilets rooms adjacent to conditioned spaces.
These spaces are conditioned indirectly with transferred air from the conditioned spaces and then
exhausted.

Spaces such as toilets in perimeter zones will require occupancy level heating and are therefore
considered directly conditioned. Storage spaces in perimeter zones might fall under the category of semi-
heated spaces (non-occupancy level heating) depending on the type of storage.

Fenestration

The ASHRAE Standard 90.1 criteria for fenestration is based on percent fenestration which is
Window-Wall Ratio or the Skylight-Roof Ratio. The envelope efficiency requirements are greater for
roofs and skylights than they are for walls and windows.

The Window-Wall-Ratio is the ratio of fenestration on the walls to the total gross exterior
window and wall areas. A window is fenestration with a slope greater than 60 degrees measured from the
horizontal. The fenestration area includes non-glass window components such as the frame and sash. The
gross exterior window and wall area is based on the horizontally measured exterior wall distance and the
vertically measured distance from floor to floor or floor to roof.

The Skylight-Roof Ratio is the ratio of skylight area to the total gross exterior skylight and roof
area. A skylight is fenestration with a slope less than 60 degrees measured from the horizontal. The
skylight area includes the frame and other components of the manufactured assembly. For a flat
horizontal roof the area is the plan view area. For sloped roofs it is the total exterior area.
Climate

The building envelope standard varies with climatic conditions. The more extreme the summer
and winter climate conditions, the more stringent the building envelope thermal performance requirement
standard.

Climate categories of different locations are based on heating and cooling degree days. A degree
day is the difference in temperature between the average outdoor air temperature during 24 hours of the
day and a given base temperature.

ASHRAE Standard 90 base temperature for determining the number of cooling degree days in a
year is 50oF and the base temperature for determining the number of heating degree days in a year is
65oF.

- Cooling Degree-Day base 50oF (CDD50) is the average temperature for the day – 50
- The sum of these values (excluding negative values) for 365 days is CDD50 for the year
- Heating Degree-Day base 65oF (HDD65) is 65 - the average temperature for the day
- The sum of these values (excluding negative values) for 365 days is HDD65 for the year

Air Leakage (Infiltration)

The building envelope must be designed to limit the uncontrolled entry of outside air into the
building. Air infiltration introduces sensible heat cooling and heating loads and latent heat cooling loads.
Controlling infiltration is important to achieving energy efficient buildings.

The infiltration rate to be used for the "Prototype" or "Standard" building for comparison with the
"Proposed" building according to the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) 0.3 cfm/sqft of
window. According to the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) it is 0.15 cfm/sqft for fixed windows and
0.37 cfm/sqft for operable windows. ASHRAE Standard 90.1 requires that fenestration products
(windows and skylights) have an infiltration rates that are less than 0.4 cfm/sqft. For glazed entrance
doors, both revolving and swinging (when closed) it is 1.0 cfm/sqft. Manufacturers must test and rate
their products.

Vestibules or revolving doors are required for the main entrance doors for buildings taller than
four floors in winter climates greater than 1800 HDD65. The distance between the vestibule doors must
be at least 7 feet. Vestibules are not required for entrances such as to mechanical rooms, and doors
opening directly from a dwelling space or spaces with less than 3000 sqft. The stack effect, along with
wind effects are the main causes of infiltration in high-rise buildings.

Overhangs

Window overhangs can reduce summer cooling due to solar heat gains. Overhangs must be a
permanent and fixed part of the building structure before credits can be applied to the fenestration.
ASHRAE Standard 90.1 credits overhangs by allowing an adjustment to the SHGC of the window
fenestration. The size and configuration of the overhang is determined by the Projection Factor (PF). PF is
the ratio of the overhang projection measured horizontally to the distance between the window sill
(bottom of the window) to the bottom of the overhang.

Sun and wind orientation

http://www.yourhome.gov.au/passive-design/orientation

Orientation is the positioning of a building in relation to seasonal variations in the sun’s path as
well as prevailing wind patterns. Good orientation can increase the energy efficiency of your home,
making it more comfortable to live in and cheaper to run.
Read about the principles of good orientation in this article in conjunction with Passive solar heating,
Passive cooling and Shading. Identify your climate zone and develop an understanding of appropriate
design responses by referring to Design for climate.

Principles of good orientation

Good orientation, combined with other energy efficiency features, can reduce or even eliminate
the need for auxiliary heating and cooling, resulting in lower energy bills, reduced greenhouse gas
emissions and improved comfort. It takes account of summer and winter variations in the sun’s path as
well as the direction and type of winds, such as cooling breezes.

Good orientation can help reduce or even eliminate the need for auxiliary heating and cooling,
resulting in lower energy bills, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and improved comfort.

Ideally, choose a site or home with good orientation for your climatic and regional conditions and
build or renovate to maximise the site’s potential for passive heating and passive cooling, adjusting the
focus on each to suit the climate. For those sites that are not ideally orientated, there are strategies for
overcoming some of the challenges.

In hot humid climates and hot dry climates with no winter heating requirements, aim to exclude
direct sun by using trees and adjoining buildings to shade every façade year round while capturing and
funnelling cooling breezes.

In all other climates a combination of passive solar heating and passive cooling is desirable. The
optimum balance between capturing sunlight (solar access) and capturing cooling breezes is determined
by heating and cooling needs.

North orientation is generally desirable in climates requiring winter heating, because the position
of the sun in the sky allows you to easily shade northern façades and the ground near them in summertime
with simple horizontal devices such as eaves, while allowing full sun penetration in winter.

North-facing walls and windows receive more solar radiation in winter than in summer. As
shown in the diagram, the opposite is true for other directions — and why, in mixed or heating climates, it
is beneficial to have the longer walls of a house facing north to minimise exposure to the sun in summer
and maximise it in winter.

The site

You can achieve good passive solar performance at minimal cost if your site has the right
characteristics. Where possible, choose a site that can accommodate north-facing daytime living areas that
flow to outdoor spaces with similar orientation. In tropical areas, northerly solar access is not desirable:
sites that allow maximum exposure to cooling breezes and designs that draw or funnel them through the
building are preferable (see Choosing a site).
On smaller sites achieving permanent solar access is more likely on north–south blocks because they
receive good access to northern sun with minimum potential for overshadowing by neighbouring houses.
In summer, neighbouring houses can provide protection from low east and west sun.

However, on narrow blocks, careful design is required to ensure sufficient north-facing glass is
included for adequate passive solar heating.

North–south sites on the north side of the street allow north-facing living areas and gardens to be
located at the rear of the house for privacy.

North–south sites on the south side of the street should be wide enough to accommodate an entry
at the front as well as private north-facing living areas. Set the house back to accommodate a north-facing
garden and consider creating a private outdoor living courtyard with plantings or even a garage on the
northern boundary where planning permits.

The lower angle of winter sun can limit solar access.

Sites running east–west should be wide enough to accommodate north-facing outdoor space.
Overshadowing by neighbouring houses is more likely on these sites — particularly if multi-level housing
is permitted, as winter sun is lower in the sky, particularly in southern latitudes.

Orientation on slopes.

A north-facing slope increases the potential for access to northern sun and is ideal for higher
housing densities. A south-facing slope increases the potential for overshadowing. Your design for solar
access should not compromise that of your neighbours.

At subdivision level, smaller individual lots are ideally located on north-facing slopes where they
still receive solar access at increased densities.

South-facing slopes are often better suited to medium density where party walls can be designed
to provide thermal buffers and smaller floor areas can be solar heated with carefully designed and shaded
east or west-facing windows using advanced glazing.

High level openable windows capture winter sun and create cooling currents in summer.

Views to the north are an advantage, as north is the preferable direction to position windows and
living areas. If the view is to the south, avoid using large areas of glass in order to minimise winter heat
loss or use mirrors to reflect north sun onto the glass (Wrigley 2012).

Clerestory (high level) windows can be used to capture winter sun and create stack ventilation
(rising hot air) in summer. Sunlight entering through clerestory windows should strike thermal mass at
lower levels so that heat is stored for later release. Failure to do this can produce pockets of heat in high
level, uninhabited spaces that is quickly lost through the glass at night.

Clerestory windows should not be used in cold climates unless carefully designed, as daytime
heat gains rarely offset night-time heat losses and cold draughts are unavoidable.

The house

The ideal orientation for living areas is within the range 15°W–20°E of true or ‘solar’ north
(although 20°W–30°E of true north is considered acceptable). It allows standard eaves overhangs to admit
winter sun to heat the building and exclude summer sun with no effort from the occupants and no
additional cost.
 Poor orientation can exclude winter sun as well as cause overheating in summer by allowing low
angle east or west sun to strike glass surfaces, creating a greenhouse effect where it’s not required.
Choose a house that has good orientation or can be easily adapted for better orientation.

Build close to the south boundary to maximise sunny, north-facing outdoor living areas and
protect solar access but avoid compromising the solar access of neighbours. Choose a home with living
spaces that have good access to winter sun.

Checklist for designing a new home or renovating

When you build, buy or renovate, there are things you can do or features to look for to achieve the
best thermal comfort your site or home can offer. The following points are a brief overview: for more
detailed information see Buying an existing home.

 Relocate living areas to take advantage of winter sun and cooling summer breezes.

 Maximise north-facing daytime living areas where passive solar access is available.

 Use smaller, well shaded windows to increase cross-ventilation to the south, east and west.

 Avoid west-facing bedrooms to maintain sleeping comfort.

 Locate utility areas (laundries, bathrooms and garages) on the south or west where possible.

 Avoid placing obstructions such as carports or sheds to the north.

 Plant shade trees in appropriate locations; landscape to funnel cool breezes and block or filter
harsh winds.

 Prune vegetation that blocks winter sun; alternatively plant deciduous vegetation that allows
winter sun in but provides summer shade.

Checklist for choosing a project home

For more detailed information than the following brief overview, read Buying a home off the plan.

 Select a design that allows daytime living areas to face between 15° west of north and 30° east of
north on your site. Most project home companies will mirror or flip a design to suit your needs at
no extra cost. East is best in warmer climates and west in cooler climates.

 Turn north-facing verandas into pergolas (including those with adjustable blades) by replacing
roofing material such as tiles or metal with slats or louvres, particularly over window areas.

 Shade east and west-facing glass by adding or relocating shade structures including verandas and
deep covered balconies.

 Reduce the amount of south, east and especially west-facing glazing, or relocate some to north-
facing walls.

 Select smaller windows on south, east and west-facing walls to aid cross-ventilation.

Checklist for choosing a unit

Orientation is particularly important when buying a unit because external modifications such as
shading are often prohibited by body corporate rules intended to preserve the visual amenity of the
building. For more detailed information than the following brief summary, see Buying and renovating an
apartment.

 Solar access to living areas is highly desirable (except in the tropics).

 Good exposure to cooling breezes is essential in hotter climates.

  Look for well-designed cross-ventilation to distribute cooling breezes through the unit.

 North-east corner units, north–south cross-over (split level) or cross-through (one side to the
other) are ideal.

 North-facing living areas and balconies or outdoor spaces are ideal.

 Look for passive shading to north glass and well-designed adjustable shading to east and west.

 Avoid units facing west only.

 Look for sheltered balconies or courtyards with winter solar access.

 Sunny, sheltered spaces and facilities for community interaction are a desirable feature.

Orientation for cooling dominated climates

Good orientation for passive cooling keeps out unwanted sun and hot winds while ensuring
access to cooling breezes. A degree of passive cooling is required in most Australian climates but in hot
humid climates, orientation should aim to exclude direct sunlight and radiant heat (from nearby
structures) at all times of the year while maximizing access to cooling breezes.