Fossil Preservation

Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of

animals, plants, and other organisms. The
study of fossils is called paleontology. In this
class you will look at fossils from the rock
record from different periods of time. These
fossils will come from many different time
periods from the oldest in the Cambrian
period 542 million years ago to our current
time period, the Holocene.

Fossils are studied to better understand the

Earth's biological history and how it has changed over time. Fossils are also used in other areas of
geology to better define plate tectonics and stratigraphy. Paleontology studies ancient life forms, their
interactions with their environments and their evolution over time. Paleontology has several areas of
specialty including: paleobotany, the study of fossil plants; micropaleontology, the study of
microscopic fossils; invertebrate paleontology, the study of fossil organisms without backbones; and
vertebrate paleontology, the study of fossil organisms with backbones.

What is a fossil?
The term fossil refers to an object identified as direct evidence of, or an indication of, pre-existing life.
Fossils containing the remains of animals and plants are called body fossils. Fossils which are the
traces or evidence of animals or plants such as from burrows, feces, plant roots, or foot prints are
called trace fossils. Most organisms are not preserved in the fossil record. Over the past 600 million
years only an estimated 2 to 10% of organisms which ever lived have been preserved as fossils. Why is
this?

Consider all of the different types of plants and animals alive today. All of these living organisms will
eventually die, but very few will be preserved as fossils. When most organisms die, they begin to
decompose as a result of other organisms eating them and as the result of being exposed to oxygen.
The chances of any one fossil being preserved long enough for us to find it are extremely low. But
against all odds, many organisms have been preserved as fossils from each geologic time period
allowing scientists to construct a line of evolution extending from the Pre-Cambrian to today. What we
know today from the fossil record represents only a tiny fraction of life which has existed on Earth.

Fossil preservation depends upon many conditions. To be preserved in the geologic record, an
organism must:
• Have parts which can be preserved such as bones, shells, teeth or wood
• Have lived in a suitable environment for fossilization, most often in a marine environment
• Have died and buried quickly after death
• Not be disturbed after burial
• Be protected from contact with oxygen

Fossils represent organisms from both extinct and living species. An extinct species is one which lived
for a specific time period and is not alive today. A living species is one which has been present through

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many time periods and is still alive today. For example, trilobites became extinct at the Permian-
Triassic boundary 250 million years ago. Any trilobites found preserved in rocks must be at least 250
million years old. Another example is Asteroidia, commonly known as starfish. These first appeared in
the geologic record 450 million years ago and the class of animals is still alive today. If a fossilized
Asteroidia is found, additional information from the environment around the fossil will need to be
gathered to determine its age.

Modes of Preservation
The method of preservation varies considerably from location to location and fossil to fossil.
Preservation depends upon the composition of the preservable parts and/or the type of environment in
which the organism died. The most common types of preservation are detailed here:

Body Fossil Preservation

A. Pristine (Unaltered) Preservation
Most marine shells are composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). There are two different minerals
sharing this chemical formula used by organisms to make their shells, tests, and skeletons: aragonite
and calcite. Aragonite and calcite are polymorphs: they have the same chemical composition but
different crystal structures. These slightly different crystal structures result in different solubility in
fresh water. Aragonite is slightly more soluble than calcite in fresh water so aragonite will dissolve
before calcite will dissolve. As a result, fossils composed of aragonite are not well preserved and less
common in the geologic record. Fossils composed of aragonite lose their pristine appearance and will
look chalky. This chalky appearance means the fossil is dissolving. A calcite structure will preserve its
natural body color and form longer because it is less likely to dissolve. The left photo is a Forked
Venus clam. This animal is still alive. On the right is another type of Venus which has died and
because it is composed of aragonite, the coloring is dissolving and the valve (what each side of the
shell is called) has a chalky look. Venus can be commonly found along the Alabama coast.

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B. Replacement
In this type of fossil preservation, there is an actual substitution of one mineral with another mineral.
Mineral replacement occurs when pore water flowing through rocks carries minerals to the preserved
fossils. As the water seeps through the rocks, it dissolves some components of the fossil but
precipitates another mineral in its place. This replacement may occur molecule by molecule preserving
the detail of the fossil. If the replacement is less precise, some of the detail of the fossil will not be
preserved. Replacement can be made with several different minerals. Photos of the most common ones
are shown below:
• Replacement by Calcite (Recrystallization)

Recrystallized scleractinian coral

(right) originally aragonite which
has been replaced with calcite. This
fossil is from the Jurassic period in
southern Israel. A trilobite (left) has
been replaced with calcite. Calcite
will darken with age so Paleozoic
fossils are often dark grey to black
in color due to the aged calcite.
Replacement with calcite means it
will retain the properties of calcite:
reacts with acid and is low on the hardness scale. This type of
replacement occurs in environments rich in calcite – usually areas
with limestone

• Replacement by Dolomite
• Replacement by Chert (Silicification)
• Replacement by Quartz (Silicification)

Silicified (replaced with quartz) fossils from the Road Canyon Formation (Middle Permian of Texas)
(left photo). When wood or bone is replaced with quartz some people use the term permineralization to
describe the replacement (right photo). Chert is another form of quartz and often called chalcedony.
Replacement with
quartz means it
will retain quartz
properties:
hardness, non-
reactive to acid
and conchoidal
fracturing.
Replacement with
quartz occurs in
areas rich with
quartz, or
dissolved quartz, often in river systems draining quartz rich
igneous and metamorphic rocks or sandstone.

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 • Replacement by Pyrite (Pyritization)

Replacement by pyrite is almost as common as replacement with calcite. Pyrite forms from sulfur and
iron molecules in the environment. Fossils replaced with pyrite are gold colored, but because of the
iron will darken with age (tarnish).

• Replacement by Hematite
• Replacement by Limonite
• Replacement by Opal

Jaw of a freshwater fish that long ago swam at Lightning Ridge; after eons buried at New South Wales,
Australia. On display at the Australian Opal Centre, New South Wales.

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C. Carbonization
Carbonization results in a thin, carbon film remaining on the surface of the rock. This occurs when,
during the decomposition process, the organism loses all of its oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen leaving
behind carbon. The carbon film is dark grey or black. Common organisms preserved in this manner
include plants, graptolites, fish, and arthropods. Plant material in this form is called a carbon
impression.

D. Concretions
Clay has an electrostatic charge which causes the sediment to cling to objects. This is why clay will
clump onto shoes and clothes very easily. When an organism dies in an area with clay, the clay will
adhere to the organism and form a ball around the organism. This ball is called a concretion. Minerals
in the clay preserve the organism as a fossil. These minerals include calcite, hematite, or siderite.
Concretions often break along the same plane as the fossil so that when the concretion breaks there
will be a front and back side to the fossil. Soft bodied animals have been found in concretions along
with plants and fish fossils.

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E. Molds
A mold is an impression of the original specimen in the enclosing sediment. The mold can be external
or internal. An external mold would enclose the outside of the organism. An internal mold makes an
impression of the inside of the organism such as the inside of a shell or the inside an organism with an
exoskeleton. A mold makes an opposite image of the fossil. There may be ridges and knobs on the
fossil, but the mold will have indentations and depressions. When you walk on the beach, the sand
makes a mold of your foot which we call a footprint.

F. Casts
A cast is created when minerals or sediment fill the void where the original material once was. The
footprint on the beach is a mold. If that mold is filled in with sediment or if plaster is poured in, a cast
will be created. A cast is a replica of the original organism. Often a cast will not have as much detail as
a mold.

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Trace Fossil Preservation
Ichnofossils, commonly known as trace fossils, are the evidence of a plant or animal's activity. They
record disturbances in the sediment from locomotion, feeding, or habitation. Trace fossils provide
additional information on the environment in which the sediments were deposited. Many organisms
have similar activities and one organism can leave behind traces of different activities.

G. Burrows
Many animals burrow under the ground or under marine sediments. Most of the burrows enable the
animals to feed on debris in the loose sediment. The burrows later fill in with other sediment and
lithify (harden) into rock. Many burrows can be identified and traced to specific animals. The
recognizable burrows are classified in the same way as body fossils are classified and in many cases
are useful for determining paleoenvironments of deposition. The photo below is of fossilized worm
burrows. These types of fossilized burrows are relatively common.

H. Borings
Borings are holes that are drilled into consolidated or hard materials. Borings can also be made into
shells of other organisms. There are many different animals which bore into materials. Some of the
most common are bivalves and snails which bore into materials like rock and wood. Locally, oyster
drills, a type of snail, are common in Mobile Bay and bore into oyster shells to eat the oyster from the
shell. The borings, or holes, are left behind in the shell and could be preserved if the shell became
fossilized. The photo below left shows borings created by bivalves in limestone – they were probably
looking for food in the soft calcite sediments which later became limestone. The right photo shows
worm borings trying to get inside of this Venus bivalve.

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I. Footprints
Footprints can be left in soft sediment which later lithifies. Footprints can tell the size of the organism
including its height and weight. Footprints have been found for organisms as small as trilobites (like
cockroach footprints) to large dinosaurs. All sizes of animals have footprints. The photo below is of a
trilobite and the type of footprints this animal would have left behind. Trilobites were alive 250 – 600
million years ago and most were about 1.5 to 2 inches in size.

J. Coprolites
All animals produce waste products. Feces can fossilize and often display squeeze marks. Coprolites,
fossilized feces, can indicate the size of the animals and the environment of deposition. Some
coprolites are replaced with pyrite. The photo below is of a coprolite – fossilized poop.

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K. Resting Traces
Impressions made in the sediments by animals sitting in one place for a long period of time. Resting
traces can indicate the size of the animal. The photo below is the resting trace of a crab.

Other Fossil Preservation Terms

Abrasion – wearing down of fossils or sediments due to movement and impact with other sediments.
Abrasion indicates a higher energy environment. If the environment has too much energy, the fossils
and sediment can break apart and have details worn completely away or the entire fossil can
completely disintegrate.

Articulation – Skeletons which are complete with no missing bones indicate a rapid burial. These are
articulated skeletons. Skeletons which have been subjected to predation or a high energy environment
can be torn apart and scattered resulting in bones missing from the skeleton. These are disarticulated
skeletons.

Bioturbation – disturbance of sediments due to biologic activity. Often bioturbation is evidenced by

many burrows over an area, but bioturbation can be evidenced by different traces of activity.

Fragmentation – breakage of skeletons, shells, stems indicating a high energy environment resulting
from wave action or high currents. Some fragmentation occurs from other organisms through predation
or scavenging.

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