“Graphical Organization of Topics in

Mathematical Analysis”

Author - Kavya K N , Reg no: MATT 33, Bangalore.

Guide - Murugesan Venkatapathi, CDS Department,IISC Bangalore.
ABSTRACT

In this report ,we read about Graphical organization of topics in Mathematical Analysis. The Mathematics Subject
Classification [MSC] has classified analysis [study of change and quantity] into 19 topics. This 19 topics can be further
condensed into 4 main topics such as Calculus and Real Analysis ,Complex Analysis,Functional and Harmonic
Analysis,Differential equations and its Application.
The idea of the project is to understand fundamental concepts and techniques of Analysis and different areas in it. And also try
to answer 3 questions in each topic such as

1) Algebraic definitions in the topic.

2) Find one or more "parent" topics.
3) What are the topics that are derived from it i.e."children" topics?
The pattern may serve as a tool to help researchers in writing informative abstracts and, beyond that, in entering the
mainstream of research in Analysis.

Keywords:
Mathematics subject classification[MSC],Calculus and Real analysis,Complex Analysis,Functional and Harmonic Analysis.
1.Introduction.

Mathematics encompasses a growing variety and depth of subjects over

history,and comprehension requires a system to categorize and organize
the many subjects into more general area of Mathematics. A traditional
division of mathematics is into Pure Mathematics, Mathematics studied
for its intrinsic interest, an Applied Mathematics, Mathematics which
can be directly applied to real world problems. The Mathematics
Subject Classification (MSC) is an alphanumerical
classification schemebased on the coverage of, the two major
Mathematical reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and
Zentralblatt MATH. The MSC is used by many Mathematics journals,
which ask authors of research papers and expository articles to list
subject codes from the Mathematics Subject Classification in their
papers.
MSC has classified Analysis into 19 topics .These 19 topics can be
studied under the 4 main topics such as Calculus and Real
Analysis,Complex Analysis,Functional Analysis and Harmonic
Analysis,Differential equations and its Applications.
In this project we are going to study 3 main topics ,Calculus and Real
Analysis,Complex Analysis and Functional and Harmonic Analysis and
Subtopics under them and organize them Graphically. And also try to
answer 3 question in each topic as mentioned in the Abstract.
1.1 Mathematical subject Classification(MSC)

The Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC) is an alphanumerical classification scheme collaboratively produced by staff
of, and based on the coverage of, the two major mathematical reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt
MATH. The MSC is used by research Mathematical societies.

The Mathematical subject classification (Msc) breaks

●

down Analysis into 19 topics,they are:

26: Real functions (including derivatives and integrals) 40: Sequences,Series,Summability

28: Measure and integration 41: Approximations and Expansions
30: Functions of a complex variable (including 42: Harmonic Analysis on Euclidean space
approximation theory in the complex domain) 43: Abstract Harmonic Analysis
31: Potential theory 44: Integral transforms,operational calculus
32: Several complex variables and analytic spaces 45: Integral Equations
33: Special functions 46: Functional Analysis
34: Ordinary differential equations 47: Operator Theory
35: Partial differential equations 49: Calculus of variations and optimal
37: Dynamical systems and ergodic theory control,Optimization
39: Difference (equations) and functional equations
1.2 The 19 sub topics of Analysis can be grouped in this main topics :

Calculus and Real Complex Analysis Functional Analysis and Differential Equations
Analysis Harmonic Analysis its Applications
26: Real functions 30: Complex variables 46: Functional analysis 34: Ordinary differential
equations
28: Measure theory and 31: Potential theory 42: Harmonic analysis
integration 35: Partial differential
32: Several complex variables 43: Abstract harmonic analysis equations
33: Special functions
44: Integral transforms 37:Dynamical systems
39: Finite differences and
functional equations 47: Operator theory 45: Integral equations

40: Sequences and series 49: Calculus of variations and

optimization

41: Approximation and

expansions(Connect to
Numerical analysis and
operational research)
2. Calculus
Calculus (from Latin calculus, literally 'small pebble', used for counting
and calculations, as on an abacus) is the mathematical study of continuous Geometric meaning :
change. It has two major branches, Differential calculus (concerning
instantaneous rates of change and slopes of curves),and Integral calculus
(concerning accumulation of quantities and the areas under and between
curves).These two branches are related to each other by the fundamental
theorem of calculus.

Calculus is a part of modern mathematics education. A course in calculus

is a gateway to other, more advanced courses in mathematics devoted to
the study of functions and limits, broadly called mathematical analysis.
Calculus has historically been called "the calculus of infinitesimals", or
"infinitesimal calculus”.

In mathematics, the limit of a function is a fundamental concept in

calculus and analysis concerning the behavior of that function near a
particular input. The notion of a limit has many applications in modern
calculus. In particular, the many definitions of continuity employ the limit:
roughly, a function is continuous if all of its limits agree with the values of The area shaded in red stripes is close to h times f(x). Alternatively, if the
the function. In mathematics, a continuous function is a function for which function A(x) were known, this area would be exactly A(x + h) − A(x). These
sufficiently small changes in the input result in arbitrarily small changes in two values are approximately equal, particularly for small h
the output. Otherwise, a function is said to be a discontinuous function
The fundamental theorem of calculus is a theorem that links the concept of differentiating a function with the concept of
integrating a function.

The theorem has two versions.

(a) x
d
dx
∫ f ( t)dt= f (x )
a

We start with a continuous function f and we define a new function for the area under the curve y= f(t)
x
F (x )=∫ f (t)dt
a

This version of the theorem says is that the derivative of F is f. In other words, F is an anti derivative of f. Thus, the theorem
relates differential and integral calculus, and tells us how we can find the area under a curve using anti differentiation.
(b) b

∫ f ( x)=F ( b)−F ( a)
a

This version gives more direct instructions to finding the area under the curve y=f(x) Between x=a and x=b. Simply find an
anti derivative F and take F(b) − F(a).
2.1 Real Analysis
The subject of real analysis is concerned with studying the behavior and properties of functions, sequences, and sets on the real number line, which we denote as
the mathematically familiar R. Concepts that we wish to examine through real analysis include properties like Limits, Continuity, Derivatives (rates of change),
and Integration (amount of change over time).

Generalizations and related areas of real Analysis.

Various ideas from real analysis can be generalized from the real line to broader or more abstract contexts. These generalizations link real analysis to other
disciplines and subdisciplines, in many cases playing an important role in their development as distinct areas of mathematics. Generalization of ideas like
continuous functions and compactness from real analysis to metric spaces and topological spaces connects real analysis to the field of General
topology.Generalization of finite-dimensional Euclidean spaces to infinite-dimensional analogs led to the study of Banach spaces, and Hilbert spaces as topics of
importance in Functional analysis. Georg Cantor's investigation of sets and sequence of real numbers, mappings between them, and the foundational issues of real
analysis gave birth to naive Set theory. The study of issues of convergence for sequences of functions eventually gave rise to Fourier analysis as a subdiscipline of
mathematical analysis. Investigation of the consequences of generalizing differentiability from functions of a real variable to ones of a complex variable gave rise
to the concept of holomorphic functions and the inception of Complex analysis as another distinct subdiscipline of analysis. On the other hand, the generalization
of integration from the Riemann sense to that of Lebesgue led to the formulation of the concept of abstract measure spaces, a fundamental concept in Measure
theory. Finally, the generalization of integration from the real line to curves and surfaces in higher dimensional space brought about the study of vector calculus,
whose further generalization and formalization played an important role in the evolution of the concepts of differential forms and smooth (differentiable) manifolds
in Differential geometry and other closely related areas of geometry and topology.
 Real functions are those which focus on their derivatives and integrals, and general inequalities. This
category includes familiar functions such as rational functions.
26.Real functions Subtopics are:
26A: Functions of one variable
26B: Functions of several variables
26C: Polynomials, rational functions
26D: Inequalities. For maximal function inequalities, for probabilistic inequalities
Measure theory and integration is the study of lengths, surface area, and volumes in general spaces. This is
a critical feature of a full development of integration theory; moreover, it provides the basic framework for
28.Measure theory and probability theory. Measure theory is a meeting place between the tame applicability of real functions and
Integration the wild possibilities of set theory.
Subtopics are:
28A: Classical measure theory
28B: Set functions, measures and integrals with values in abstract spaces
28C: Set functions and measures on spaces with additional structure
28D: Measure-theoretic ergodic theory

Special functions are just that specialized functions beyond the familiar trigonometric or exponential
functions. The ones studied (hyper geometric functions, orthogonal polynomials, and so on) arise very
naturally in areas of analysis, number theory, Lie groups, and combinatorics.
33.Special functions Many special functions appear as solutions of differential equations or integrals of elementary functions.
Subtopics are :
33A:
33B: Elementary classical functions
33B:
33C: Hypergeometric functions
33C:
33D: Basic hypergeometric functions
33D:
33E: Other special functions
33E:
33F: Computational aspects
Continued…
Functional equations are those in which a function is sought which is to satisfy certain relations among its values
at all points. For example, we may look for functions satisfying f(x*y)=f(x)+f(y) and enquire whether the
logarithm function f(x)=log(x) is the only solution. (It's not.) In some cases the nature of the answer is different
39: Finite differences and when we insist that the functional equation hold for all real x, or all complex x, or only those in certain domains.
A special case involves difference equations, that is, equations comparing f(x) - f(x-1), for example, with some
functional equations expression involving x and f(x).
Subtopics are :
39B12: Iteration theory, iterative and composite equations
39B22: Equations for real functions
39B32: Equations for complex functions
39B42: Matrix and operator equations
39B52: Equations for functions with more general domains and/or ranges
39B55: Orthogonal additivity and other conditional equations
39B62: Systems of functional equations
39B72: Inequalities involving unknown functions

Sequences and series are really just the most common examples of limiting processes; convergence criteria and
rates of convergence are as important as finding "the answer". (In the case of sequences of functions, it's also
important do find "the question"!) Particular series of interest (e.g. Taylor series of known functions) are of
interest, as well as general methods for computing sums rapidly, or formally. Series can be estimated with
integrals, their stability can be investigated with analysis. Manipulations of series (e.g. multiplying or inverting)
40: Sequences and series are also of importance.
Subtopics are :
40A: Convergence and divergence of infinite limiting processes
40B05: Multiple sequences and series (should also be assigned at least one other classification number in this
section)
40C: General summability methods
40D: Direct theorems on summability
40E: Inversion theorems
40F05: Absolute and strong summability
26.Real functions
Def:A function whose range is the real number is said
to be real function,also called real valued function.
Here the focus is on their derivatives and integrals and
general inequalities. This category includes familiar
functions such as Rational functions.
Subfield
26A: Functions of one variable.
26B: Functions of several variables.
26C: Polynomials, rational functions.
26D: Inequalities. For maximal function inequalities,
for probabilistic inequalities.
Difference between real and real valued function?
●
A function which has either R or one of its subsets as
its range is called a real valued function. Further, if its
domain is also either R or a subset of R, it is called a
real function.
Rational function :
●
a rational function is any function which can be
defined by a rational fraction, i.e. an algebraic fraction
such that both the numerator and the denominator are
polynomials.
●
A function f(x) is called a rational function if and only
if it can be written in the form P (x )
q ( x)
example :
26 A. Functions of one variable:
In the study of functions of one variable, we encounter domains and ranges of functions, function graphs, and properties of functions such as continuity
and differentiation . The simplest functions are constant functions and linear functions.
The domain of a function of one variable is a subset of the real line { x | x ∈ {R} }
The range of a real-valued function f is the collection of all real numbers f(x) where x is in the domain of f.
The graph of a function of one variable is the collection of points (x,f(x)) in the coordinate plane where x is in the domain of f.
Example:

The graph of the curve y = sin x shows the range to be betweeen −1 and 1.
Range: −1≤y≤1

The domain of y = sin x is "all values of x", since there are no restrictions on
the values for x. (Put any number into the "sin" function in your calculator.
Any number should work, and will give you a final answer between −1 and 1.)

26 B. Functions of several variables:

A real valued function of n–variables is a function f:D→R, where the domain D is a subset of Rn.So: for each(x1,x2,...,xn)in D, the value of f is a real
number f(x1,x2,...,xn). For example, the volume of a cylinder: V= πr2h(i.e.V=F(r,h)) is a function of two variables.
Elementary calculus is the calculus of real-valued functions of one real variable, and the principal ideas of differentiation and integration of such functions
can be extended to functions of more than one real variable; this extension is multivariable calculus. The topics further studied are
1 Partial derivatives
2 Multivariable differentiability
3 Differentiability classes
4 Multiple integration
5 Vector calculus
26 C. Polynomials,Rational functions: A great deal of information is available concerning the algebraic nature of polynomials, particularly those
with integral (or rational) coefficients; this material is most in the section on Field Extensions.
The use of polynomials for interpolation. The computational process of finding the roots is a task of numerical analysis. Families of orthogonal
polynomials (e.g. Legendre polynomials) are treated as part of special functions and Fourier analysis.
Example:
The field is an extension field of Q , also clearly a simple extension.The degree is 2 because

can serve as a basis.

The field

is an extension field of degree 2 and 4 respectively.

26 D. Inequalities for maximal function,for probabilistic inequalities:Maximal inequalities play an important role in understanding, for example,
the differentiability properties of functions, singular integrals and partial differential equations. They often provide a deeper and more simplified
approach to understanding problems in these areas than other methods. Markov inequality in real analysis and in probability are the best examples.

Example : Chebyshev's inequality is usually stated for random variables, but can be generalized to a statement about measure spaces. Let X
(integrable) be a random variable with finite expected value μ and finite non-zero variance σ2.

Only the case k > 1 is useful. When k ≤ 1 the right-hand side and the inequality is trivial as all probabilities are ≤ 1.
Graphical representation of real functions :
Real functions: Focus on Derivatives,Integrals and
General Inequalities of Real number.

Polynomial ,
Function of one variables Function of several variables Inequalities
rational functions

PDE
Partial derivatives
Field Extension
Domain of functions

Multi variable Differentiability

Probability inequalities
Numerical Analysis
Range of functions
Differentiable classes

Multiple Integration Fourier Analysis

Graph of functions

Vector calculus
28: Measure and integration
Measure theory and integration is the study of lengths, surface area, and volumes in general spaces. This is a
critical feature of a full development of Integration theory. A Measure on a set is a systematic way to assign a
number to each suitable subset of that set, intuitively interpreted as its size. In this sense, a measure is a
generalization of the concepts of length, area, and volume. A particularly important example is the Lebesgue
measure on a Euclidean space, which assigns the conventional length, area, and volume of Euclidean geometry
to suitable subsets of the n-dimensional Euclidean space R n.

Subfields

28A: Classical measure theory

28B: Set functions, measures and integrals with values in abstract spaces

28C: Set functions and measures on spaces with additional structure

28D: Measure-theoretic ergodic theory

Classical Measure theory :

In mathematical analysis, a measure on a set is a systematic way to assign a number to each suitable subset of that set, intuitively
interpreted as its size. In this sense, a measure is a generalization of the concepts of length, area, and volume. A particularly important
example is the Lebesgue measure on a Euclidean space, which assigns the conventional length, area, and volume of Euclidean geometry to
suitable subsets of the n-dimensional Euclidean space Rn. For instance, the Lebesgue measure of the interval [0, 1] in the real numbers is its
length in the everyday sense of the word, specifically, 1.
Example: Some important measures are listed here.
The counting measure is defined by μ(S) = number of elements in S.
The Lebesgue measure on R is a complete translation-invariant measure on a σ-algebra containing the intervals in R such that μ([0, 1]) = 1; and every other
measure with these properties extends Lebesgue measure.
Circular angle measure is invariant under rotation, and hyperbolic angle measure is invariant under squeeze mapping.
The Haar measure for a locally compact topological group is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure (and also of counting measure and circular angle
measure) and has similar uniqueness properties.

Measure-theoretic ergodic theory : Is a branch of mathematics that studies dynamical systems with an invariant measure and related problems. Its initial
development was motivated by problems of statistical physics.A central concern of ergodic theory is the behavior of a dynamical system when it is allowed to run
for a long time. The first result in this direction is the Poincaré recurrence theorem, which claims that almost all points in any subset of the phase space eventually
revisit the set. More precise information is provided by various ergodic theorems which assert that, under certain conditions, the time average of a function along
the trajectories exists almost everywhere and is related to the space average. Two of the most important theorems are those of Birkhoff (1931) and von Neumann
which assert the existence of a time average along each trajectory. For the special class of ergodic systems, this time average is the same for almost all initial
points: statistically speaking, the system that evolves for a long time "forgets" its initial state. Stronger properties, such as mixing and equidistribution, have also
been extensively studied.

Example: Let G be a compact abelian group, μ the normalized Haar measure, and T a group automorphism of G. Let G* be the Pontryagin dual group,
consisting of the continuous characters of G, and T* be the corresponding adjoint automorphism of G*. The automorphism T is ergodic if and only if the
equality (T*)n(χ) = χ is possible only when n = 0 or χ is the trivial character of G. In particular, if G is the n-dimensional torus and the automorphism T is
represented by a unimodular matrix A then T is ergodic if and only if no eigenvalue of A is a root of unity.
Graphical representation of measure theory :

Measure theory and Integration

Intuitive foundations Measure theory and the Lebesgue integral Integral equations

Length
Area
Volume
Probability Borel algebra Fredholm equation
Moving average Borel measure Fredholm operator
Indicator function Liouville–Neumann series
Lebesgue measure
Lebesgue integration
Lebesgue's density theorem
Counting measure
Complete measure
Riemann integral Haar measure
Outer measure
Riemann sum Borel regular measure etc...
Riemann–Stieltjes
integral
Bounded variation
40: Sequences, series, summability

A sequence of real numbers is any function a : N→R.It may be written in the form (a1, a2, a3, …), when the sequence is infinite, or (a1, a2, …, an) when the sequence is finite.
A series of real numbers is an infinite formal sum ∑ a,nwhere each term a n is a real number.
The n-th partial sum of a sequence an is defined to be the sum of the first n terms of (an), that is

Subtopics are :

40A: Convergence and divergence of infinite limiting processes

40B05: Multiple sequences and series (should also be assigned at least one other classification number in this section)
40C: General summability methods
40D: Direct theorems on summability
40E: Inversion theorems
40F05: Absolute and strong summability
40G: Special methods of summability
40H05: Functional analytic methods in summability

40J05: Summability in abstract structures

39: Difference and functional equations

Functional equations are equations where the unknowns are functions, rather than a traditional variable. However, the methods used to solve
functional equations can be quite different than the methods for isolating a traditional variable.

A functional equation is any equation in which the unknown represents a function. Often, the equation relates the value of a function (or functions)
at some point with its values at other points. For instance, properties of functions can be determined by considering the types of functional
equations they satisfy. The term functional equation usually refers to equations that cannot be simply reduced to algebraic equations or differential
equations.

Subfield are :
39B12: Iteration theory, iterative and composite equations

39B22: Equations for real functions

39B32: Equations for complex functions

39B42: Matrix and operator equations

39B52: Equations for functions with more general domains and/or ranges

39B55: Orthogonal additivity and other conditional equations

39B62: Systems of functional equations

39B72: Inequalities involving unknown functions

Functional equation :In mathematics, a functional equation is any equation in which the unknown represents a function. Often, the equation relates
the value of a function (or functions) at some point with its values at other points. For instance, properties of functions can be determined by considering
the types of functional equations they satisfy. The term functional equation usually refers to equations that cannot be simply reduced to algebraic
equations or differential equations.
Examples
The functional equation

is satisfied by the Riemann zeta function. The capital Γ denotes the gamma function.
The gamma function is the unique solution of the following system of three equations:

Difference equation, mathematical equality involving the differences between successive values of a function of a discrete variable. A discrete variable is
one that is defined or of interest only for values that differ by some finite amount, usually a constant and often 1; for example, the discrete variable x may
have the values x0 = a, x1 = a + 1, x2 = a + 2, . . ., xn = a + n. The function y has the corresponding values y0, y1, y2, . . ., yn, from which the differences
can be found:
 33: Special functions
Special functions are particular mathematical functions which have more or less established names and notations due to their importance in mathematical analysis, functional analysis,
physics, or other applications. Many special functions appear as solutions of differential equations or integrals of elementary functions. Because symmetries of differential equations are
essential to both physics and mathematics, the theory of special functions is closely related to the theory of Lie groups and Lie algebras, as well as certain topics in mathematical physics.

A special function is a function (usually named after an early investigator of its properties) having a particular use in mathematical physics or some other branch of mathematics. Among the
functions studied: Trigonometric functions, Exponential functions, Hyperbolic functions, Error functions, Elliptic integrals, Gamma functions, Bessel functions, Fresnel integrals, Airy
functions, Kelvin functions, Pochhammer's symbols.

The modern theory of orthogonal polynomials is of a definite but limited scope. Hypergeometric series became an intricate theory, in need of later conceptual arrangement. Lie groups, and
in particular their representation theory, explain what a spherical function can be in general; from 1950 onwards substantial parts of classical theory could be recast in terms of Lie groups.
Further, work on algebraic combinatorics also revived interest in older parts of the theory. Conjectures of Ian G. Macdonald helped to open up large and active new fields with the typical
special function flavour. Difference equations have begun to take their place besides differential equations as a source for special functions.

Subfields

33A: Elementary classical functions

33B: Hyper geometric functions

33C: Basic hypergeometric functions

33D: Other special functions

33E: Computational aspects

33A: Elementary classical functions:

The mathematical definition of an elementary function, or a function in elementary form, is considered in the context of differential algebra. A differential
algebra is an algebra with the extra operation of derivation (algebraic version of differentiation). Using the derivation operation new equations can be written
and their solutions used in extensions of the algebra. By starting with the field of rational functions, two special types of transcendental extensions (the
logarithm and the exponential) can be added to the field building a tower containing elementary functions.
A function u of a differential extension F[u] of a differential field F is an elementary function over F if the function u

is algebraic over F, or
is an exponential, that is, ∂u = u ∂a for a ∈ F, or
is a logarithm, that is, ∂u = ∂a / a for a ∈ F.

In mathematics, an elementary function is a function of one variable which is the composition of a finite number of arithmetic operations (+ – × ÷),
exponentials, logarithms, constants, and solutions of algebraic equations (a generalization of nth roots).
There are various equivalent ways for defining the hyperbolic functions.
Hyperbolic sine: the odd part of the exponential function, that is

33B: Hyper geometric functions:

In mathematics, the Gaussian or ordinary hypergeometric function 2F1(a,b;c;z) is a special function represented by the hypergeometric series, that includes
many other special functions as specific or limiting cases. It is a solution of a second-order linear ordinary differential equation (ODE). Every second-order
linear ODE with three regular singular points can be transformed into this equation.

Example:Q-form
The hypergeometric differential equation may be brought into the Q-form

by making the substitution w = uv and eliminating the first-derivative term. One finds that

which is

The Q-form is significant in its relation to the Schwarzian derivative.

33E: Computational aspect :
Computational Aspects of Incomplete Gamma Functions with Large Complex Parameters,Theoretical and computational aspects of multivariate interpolation with
increasingly flat radial basis functions are some of the examples of computational aspects of special functions.

Example: These radial basis functions are from C ∞ ( R ) and are strictly positive definite functions
Gaussian:

Polyharmonic spline

Real analysis serves as the basis for measure theory, axiomatic probability, which follow to stochastic processes. Stochastic processes are used in
finance, trading, computer and network simulations, modelling, manufacturing, quality control, etc.Real analysis is an area of analysis that studies
concepts such as sequences and their limits, continuity, differentiation, integration and sequences of functions. By definition, real analysis focuses on
the real numbers, often including positive and negative infinity to form the extended real line.

Real analysis is closely related to complex analysis, which studies broadly the same properties of complex numbers. In complex analysis, it is natural
to define differentiation via holomorphic functions, which have a number of useful properties, such as repeated differentiability, expressability as
power series, and satisfying the Cauchy integral formula.In real analysis, it is usually more natural to consider differentiable, smooth, or harmonic
functions, which are more widely applicable, but may lack some more powerful properties of holomorphic functions. However, results such as the
fundamental theorem of algebra are simpler when expressed in terms of complex numbers.
3. Complex Analysis
Complex Analysis, in a nutshell, is the theory of differentiation and integration
1/2 .
of functions with complex-valued arguments z = x +i y, where i = (-1)
Complex analysis, traditionally known as the theory of functions of a complex
variable, is the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions of
complex numbers. Complex analysis is particularly concerned with analytic
functions of a complex variable (that is, holomorphic functions). A complex
function is a function from complex numbers to complex numbers. In other
words, it is a function that has a subset of the complex numbers as a domain
and the complex numbers as a co domain.
As a differentiable function of a complex variable is equal to the sum of its Taylor
series (that is, it is analytic), complex analysis is particularly concerned with analytic
functions of a complex variable (that is, holomorphic functions). It is useful in many In complex analysis, domain coloring or a color wheel
branches of mathematics, including algebraic geometry, number theory, analytic graph is a technique for visualizing complex functions by
assigning a color to each point of the complex plane. By
combinatorics, applied mathematics; as well as in physics, including the branches of assigning points on the complex plane to different colors
hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, and particularly mechanics. By extension, use of and brightness, domain coloring allows for a four
dimensional complex function to be easily represented and
complex analysis also has applications in engineering fields such understood. This provides insight to the fluidity of complex
as nuclear, aerospace, mechanical and Electrical engrineering. functions and shows natural geometric extensions of real
functions.
In modern times, it has become very popular through a new boost from complex
dynamics and the pictures of fractals produced by iterating holomorphic functions.
Another important application of complex analysis is in string theory which studies
conformal invariants in quantum field theory
3.1 Topics in Complex Analysis from Msc
30. COMPLEX VARIABLES
Complex variables studies the effect of assuming
differentiability of functions defined on complex
numbers. The effect on complex numbers are
markedly different than for real functions; these
functions are much more rigidly constrained, and in
particular it is possible to make very definite
comments about their global behavior, convergence,
and so on.
Some of topics studied in this are:
30A: General properties
30B: Series expansions
30C: Geometric function theory
30D: Entire and meromorphic functions, and related
topics
30E: Miscellaneous topics of analysis in the
complex domain
30F: Riemann surfaces
30G: Generalized function theory
30H: Spaces and algebras of analytic functions.
31.POTENTIAL THEORY
Potential theory may be viewed as the mathematical
treatment of the potential-energy functions used in
physics to study gravitation and electromagnetism.
Harmonic functions in the plane include the real and
complex parts of analytic functions, so Potential Theory
overlaps Complex Analysis and Real analysis.
Some topics studied in this are:
31A: Two-dimensional theory
31B: Higher-dimensional theory
31C: Other generalizations
31D: Axiomatic potential theory
32.SEVERAL COMPLEX
VARIABLES
Several complex variables is, naturally, the
study of (differentiable) functions of more
than one complex variable.
In particular, study of the related spaces tends
to resemble algebraic geometry, except that
tools of analysis are used in addition to
algebraic constructs. Differential equations on
these spaces and automorphisms of them
provide useful connections with these other
areas.
Some topics studied under this are:
32A: Holomorphic functions of several
complex variables
32B: Local analytic geometry
32C: [General theory of] Analytic
spaces 32D: Analytic continuation
32E: Holomorphic
convexity
32F:Geometricconvexity
32G: Deformations of analytic structures
32J: Holomorphic fiber spaces
32L: Complex manifolds.
32M: Singularities
32N: CR Manifold
3.2 COMPLEX VARIABLES
A complex function is a function from complex numbers to complex numbers. In
other words, it is a function that has a subset of the complex numbers as
a domain and the complex numbers as a codomain. Complex functions are generally
supposed to have a domain that contains a nonempty open subset of the complex
plane.
For any complex function, the values z from the domain and their images f ( z ) in
the range may be separated into real and imaginary parts:

Where are real valued functions.

Complex variable, In mathematics, a variable that can take on the value of
a complex number. In basic algebra, the variables x and y generally stand for values
of real numbers. The algebra of complex numbers (complex analysis) uses the
complex variable z to represent a number of the form a + bi. The modulus of z is Dimensional plot of the absolute value of the complex
its absolute value. A complex variable may be graphed as a vector from the origin to gamma function
the point (a,b) in a rectangular coordinate system, its modulus corresponding to the
vector’s length. Called an Argand diagram, this representation establishes a
connection between complex analysis and vector analysis.
Example of complex variable :Riemann surface
In mathematics, particularly in complex analysis, a Riemann surface is a one-dimensional complex manifold.
These surfaces were first studied by and are named after Bernhard Riemann. Riemann surfaces can be thought
of as deformed versions of the complex plane: locally near every point they look like patches of the complex
plane, but the global topology can be quite different. For example, they can look like a sphere or a torus or
several sheets glued together. The main interest in Riemann surfaces is that holomorphic functions may be
defined between them. Riemann surfaces are nowadays considered the natural setting for studying the global
behavior of these functions, especially multi-valued functions such as the square root and other algebraic
functions, or the logarithm. Every Riemann surface is a two-dimensional real analytic manifold (i.e., a
surface), but it contains more structure (specifically a complex structure) which is needed for the unambiguous
definition of holomorphic functions. A two-dimensional real manifold can be turned into a Riemann surface
(usually in several inequivalent ways) if and only if it is orientable and metrizable. So the sphere and torus
admit complex structures, but the Möbius strip, Klein bottle and real projective plane do not. Geometrical facts
about Riemann surfaces are as "nice" as possible, and they often provide the intuition and motivation for
generalizations to other curves, manifolds or varieties. The Riemann–Roch theorem is a prime example of this
influence. Riemann surface for the function f(z) = √z. The two
horizontal axes represent the real and imaginary
Some properties of complex-valued functions (such as continuity) are nothing more than the corresponding parts of z, while the vertical axis represents the real
properties of vector valued functions of two real variables. Other concepts of complex analysis, such as part of √z. The imaginary part of √z is represented
differentiability are direct generalizations of the similar concepts for real functions, but may have very by the coloration of the points. For this function, it is
different properties. In particular, every differentiable complex function is analytic, and two differentiable also the height after rotating the plot 180° around the
functions that are equal in a neighborhood of a point are equal on the intersection of their domain (if the vertical axis.
domains are connected). The latter property is the basis of the principle of analytic continuation which allows
extending every real analytic function in a unique way for getting a complex analytic function whose domain
is the whole complex plane with a finite number of curve arcs removed. Many basic and special complex
functions are defined in this way, including exponential functions, logarithmic functions, and trigonometric
functions.
Graphical representation of topics of complex variables

Complex Variables

Complex numbers Complex functions Basic Theory Geometric function theory

Zeros and poles

Complex-valued function 1.1Conformal maps
Cauchy's integral theorem
Real number Imaginary
Analytic function 1.2Quasiconformal maps
Local primitive
number Complex plane
Holomorphic function 1.3Analytic continuation
Cauchy's integral formula Winding
Complex conjugate
Cauchy–Riemann equation 1.4 Geometric properties of
number polynomials and algebraic
Unit complex number functions
Formal power series
Laurent series

Isolated singularity 1.4.1 Riemann surface

Residue theorem 1.5 Extremal problems

3.2 Potential theory
For irregular, non spherical mass distributions in three dimensions, Newton’s original vector equation is inefficient, though theoretically it could be
used for finding the resulting gravitational field. The main progress in classical gravitational theory after Newton was the development of potential
theory, which provides the mathematical representation of gravitational fields. It allows practical as well as theoretical investigation of the gravitational
variations in space and of the anomalies due to the irregularities and shape deformations of Earth. Potential theory led to the following elegant
formulation: the gravitational acceleration g is a function of position R, g(R), which at any point in space is given from a function Φ called
the gravitational potential, by means of a generalization of the operation of differentiation.

In which i, j, and k stand for unit basis vectors in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. The potential and therefore g are determined

by an equation discovered by the French mathematician Siméon-Denis Poisson :

where ρ(R) is the density at the vector position R.

The potential theory comes from mathematical physics, in particular, from electro-static and gravitational problems and finds their
applications in the probability theory,scattering theory, biological systems and many other branches of science. During the last century the
classical potential theory and the non-linear potential theory has occupied an important place in mathematics. We present the original
gravitational and electrostatic problems that lead to the notion of capacity and harmonic functions.

Some topics studied in this are:

31A: Two-dimensional theory 31B:Higher-dimensional theory 31C:Other generalizations 31D:Axiomatic potential theory
31A: Two-dimensional theory and 31B: Higher dimensional theory - From the fact that the group of conformal transforms is infinite-
dimensional in two dimensions and finite- dimensional for more than two dimensions, one can surmise that potential theory in two dimensions is
different from potential theory in other dimensions. This is correct and, in fact, when one realizes that any two-dimensional harmonic function is
the real part of a complex analytic function, one sees that the subject of two-dimensional potential theory is substantially the same as that of
complex analysis. For this reason, when speaking of potential theory, one focuses attention on theorems which hold in three or more dimensions.
In this connection, a surprising fact is that many results and concepts originally discovered in complex analysis (such as Schwarz's theorem,
Morera's theorem, the Weierstrass-Casorati theorem, Laurent series, and the classification of singularities as removable, poles and essential
singularities) generalize to results on harmonic functions in any dimension. By considering which theorems of complex analysis are special cases
of theorems of potential theory in any dimension, one can obtain a feel for exactly what is special about complex analysis in two dimensions and
what is simply the two-dimensional instance of more general results.

List of special features of complex analysis in 2 dimensions: Non exhaustive list of instances of theorems holding in higher
dimension:
 injective holomorphic functions are conformal (preserve angles)
 Cauchy inequality
 Riemann's uniformization theorem
 maximum principle
 the measurable Riemann mapping theorem
 identity principle
 the λλ-lemma on holomorphic motions
 Koebe's distortion theorem  Liouville theorem
 Montel's theorem on normal families  implicit and inverse function theorem
 31C: Other generalizations - A useful starting point and organizing principle in the study of harmonic functions is a consideration of the
symmetries of the Laplace equation. Although it is not a symmetry in the usual sense of the term, we can start with the observation that the
Laplace equation is linear. This means that the fundamental object of study in potential theory is a linear space of functions.

As for symmetry in the usual sense of the term, we may start with the theorem that the symmetries of the n-dimensional Laplace equation are
exactly the conformal symmetries of the n-dimensional Euclidean space. This fact has several implications. First of all, one can consider
harmonic functions which transform under irreducible representations of the conformal group or of its subgroups (such as the group of rotations
or translations). Proceeding in this fashion, one systematically obtains the solutions of the Laplace equation which arise from separation of
variables such as spherical harmonic solutions and Fourier series. By taking linear superpositions of these solutions, one can produce large
classes of harmonic functions which can be shown to be dense in the space of all harmonic functions under suitable topologies.

31D: Axiomatic potential theory - In mathematics, an axiomatic system is any set of axioms from which some or all axioms can be used in
conjunction to logically derive theorems. A theory consists of an axiomatic system and all its derived theorems. An axiomatic system
that is completely described is a special kind of formal system.

Example of potential theory: Laurent series

The Laurent series for a complex function f(z) about a point c is given by:

where an and c are constants, with an defined by a line integral that generalizes Cauchy's integral formula.
The path of integration is counterclockwise around a Jordan curve enclosing c and lying in an annulus A in
which is holomorphic (analytic). The expansion for will then be valid anywhere inside the annulus. The
annulus is shown in red in the figure on the right, along with an example of a suitable path of integration
labeled . If we take to be a circle , where , this just amounts to computing the complex Fourier coefficients of
the restriction of to . The fact that these integrals are unchanged by a deformation of the contour is an
immediate consequence of Green's theorem. A Laurent series is defined with respect to a particular
In practice, the above integral formula may not offer the most practical method for computing the coefficients point c and a path of integration γ. The path of integration
for a given function ; instead, one often pieces together the Laurent series by combining known Taylor must lie in an annulus, indicated here by the red color,
expansions. Because the Laurent expansion of a function is unique whenever it exists, any expression of this inside which f(z) is holomorphic (analytic).
form that actually equals the given function in some annulus must actually be the Laurent expansion of f(z)
3.3 SEVERAL COMPLEX VARIABLES
The theory of functions of several complex variables is the branch of mathematics dealing
with complex valued functions on the space Cn of n-tuples of complex numbers.
As in complex analysis, which is the case n = 1 but of a distinct character, these are not just any
functions they are supposed to be holomorphic or complex analytic, so that locally speaking they
are power series in the variables zi. Equivalently, as it turns out, they are locally uniform
limits of polynomials; or local solutions to the n-dimensional Cauchy–Riemann equations.

Example: The Cn space

The simplest Stein manifold is the space Cn (the complex n-space), which consists of n-tuples of
complex numbers. It can be considered as an n-dimensional vector space over complex numbers,
which gives its dimension 2n over R. Hence, as a set, and as topological space, Cn is identical
to R2n and its topological dimension is 2n.
In coordinate-free language, any vector space over complex numbers may be thought of as a real
vector space of twice dimensions, where a complex structure is specified with a linear
operator J (such that J 2 = −I) which defines the multiplication to the imaginary unit i.
Any such space, as a real space, is oriented. On the complex plane thought of as the Cartesian

plane, multiplication to a complex number w = u + iv has the real matrix ( uv −v

u )
a 2 × 2 real matrix that has the determinant u 2 +v 2 =w 2
Likewise, if one expresses any finite-dimensional complex linear operator as a real matrix (which
will be composed from 2 × 2 blocks of the aforementioned form), then its determinant equals to
the square of absolute value of the corresponding complex determinant. It is a non-negative number,
which implies that the (real) orientation of the space is never reversed by a complex operator. The
same applies to Jacobians of holomorphic functions from Cn to Cn.
With work of Friedrich Hartogs, and of Kiyoshi Oka in the 1930s, a general theory began to emerge; others working in the area at the
time were Heinrich Behnke, Peter Thullen and Karl Stein. Hartogs proved some basic results, such as every isolated singularity is
removable, for any analytic function f : C n ⟶ C ,whenever n > 1.

● The natural domains of definition of functions, continued to the limit, are called Stein manifolds and their nature was to
make sheaf cohomology groups vanish. In fact it was the need to put (in particular) the work of Oka on a clearer basis that
led quickly to the consistent use of sheaves for the formulation of the theory (with major repercussions for algebraic
geometry, in particular from Grauert's work).

● From this point onwards there was a foundational theory, which could be applied to analytic geometry (a name adopted,
confusingly, for the geometry of zeroes of analytic functions: this is not the analytic geometry learned at school),
automorphic forms of several variables, and partial differential equations.

● Subsequent developments included the hyperfunction theory, and the edge-of-the-wedge theorem, both of which had some
inspiration from quantum field theory. There are a number of other fields, such as Banach algebra theory, that draw on
several complex variables.
4.Functional and Harmonic Analysis
●
Functional analysis and harmonic analysis both arose out of the study of the
differential equations of mathematical physics. Wave and diffusion phenomena
are highly amenable to the techniques of these areas, and so functional and
harmonic analysis continue to find new applications in fields such as quantum
mechanics and electrical engineering. While harmonic analysis focuses on the
behavior of a particular function, functional analysis considers the properties of
large collections of functions.
●
The interests of the group range from classical problems, analysis on Lie
groups, single operator theory in Banach spaces through semi group theory to
von Neumann and C*-algebras. Harmonic analysis is a branch of mathematics
concerned with the representation of functions or signals as the
superposition of basic waves, and the study of and generalization of the
Topics of interest include: Computations in infinite
notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms (i.e. an extended form of dimensions, Sampling theory, Compressed Sensing,
Fourier analysis). In the past two centuries, it has become a vast subject with Mathematical Signal Processing, Computational
applications in areas as diverse as number theory, representation theory, Harmonic Analysis, Inverse Problems, Complexity
and Computability Theory, Computational Spectral
signal processing, quantum mechanics, tidal analysis and neuroscience. Theory, Spectral Theory and Ergodic Theory, Kinetic
Theory, Multiscale Problems, Medical Imaging (MRI
and CT), Seismic Tomography.

42: Fourier analysis
43: Abstract harmonic analysis
44: Integral transforms
Fourier analysis studies approximations and decompositions of functions using trigonometric polynomials. Of
incalculable value in many applications of analysis, this field has grown to include many specific and powerful results,
including convergence criteria, estimates and inequalities, and existence and uniqueness results. Extensions include the
theory of singular integrals, Fourier transforms, and the study of the appropriate function spaces. This heading also
includes approximations by other orthogonal families of functions, including orthogonal polynomials and wavelets.
Subfields
42A: Fourier analysis in one variable
42B: Fourier analysis in several variables
42C: Non trigonometric Fourier analysis
Abstract harmonic analysis: if Fourier series is the study of periodic real functions, that is, real functions which are
invariant under the group of integer translations, then abstract harmonic analysis is the study of functions on general
topological groups which are invariant under a (closed) subgroup. This includes topics of varying level of specificity,
including analysis on Lie groups or locally compact abelian groups. This area also overlaps with representation theory of
topological groups.
Subfields
43A05: Measures on groups and semigroups, etc.
43A07: Means on groups, semigroups, etc.; amenable groups
43A10: Measure algebras on groups, semigroups, etc.
43A15: L^p-spaces and other function spaces on groups, semigroups, etc.
43A17: Analysis on ordered groups, H^p-theory
43A20: L^1-algebras on groups, semigroups, etc.
43A22: Homomorphisms and multipliers of function spaces on groups, semigroups, etc.
43A25: Fourier and Fourier-Stieltjes transforms on locally compact abelian groups
43A30: Fourier and Fourier-Stieltjes transforms on nonabelian groups and on semigroups,
Integral transforms include the Fourier transform as well as the transforms of Laplace, Radon, and others. (The general
theory of transformations between function spaces is part of Functional Analysis) Also includes convolution operators
and operational calculi.
Subfields
44A05: General transforms
44A10: Laplace transform
44A12: Radon transform
44A15: Special transforms (Legendre, Hilbert, etc.)
44A20: Transforms of special functions
44A30: Multiple transforms
44A35: Convolution
44A40: Calculus of Mikusinski and other operational calculi
44A45: Classical operational calculus
44A55: Discrete operational calculus
 Functional analysis views the big picture in differential equations, for example, thinking of a differential operator as a linear map
on a large set of functions. Thus this area becomes the study of (infinite-dimensional) vector spaces with some kind of metric or
other structure, including ring structures (Banach algebras and C-* algebras for example). Appropriate generalizations of measure,
derivatives, and duality also belong to this area.

Subfields
46A: Topological linear spaces and related structures
46: Functional analysis 46B: Normed linear spaces and Banach spaces; Banach lattices
46C: Inner product spaces and their generalizations, Hilbert spaces
46E: Linear function spaces and their duals
46F: Distributions, generalized functions, distribution spaces, For distribution theory on nonlinear spaces
46G: Measures, integration, derivative, holomorphy (all involving infinite-dimensional spaces)
46H: Topological algebras, normed rings and algebras, Banach algebras, For group algebras, convolution algebras and measure
algebras
46J: Commutative Banach algebras and commutative topological algebras
46K: Topological (rings and) algebras with an involution
46L: Selfadjoint operator algebras (C*-algebras, von Neumann (W*-) algebras, etc.)
46M: Methods of category theory in functional analysis

Operator theory studies transformations between the vector spaces studied in Functional Analysis, such as differential operators or
self-adjoint operators. The analysis might study the spectrum of an individual operator or the semigroup structure of a collection of
them.

47: Operator theory Subfields

47A: General theory of linear operators
47B: Special classes of linear operators
47C: Individual linear operators as elements of algebraic systems
47D: Groups and semi groups of linear operators, their generalizations and applications
47E05: Ordinary differential operators
47F05: Partial differential operators
4.1 Fourier analysis
In mathematics, Fourier analysis is the study of the way general functions may be
represented or approximated by sums of simpler trigonometric functions. Fourier
analysis grew from the study of Fourier series, and is named after Joseph Fourier,
who showed that representing a function as a sum of trigonometric functions greatly
simplifies the study of heat transfer.

Today, the subject of Fourier analysis encompasses a vast spectrum of mathematics.

In the sciences and engineering, the process of decomposing a function into
oscillatory components is often called Fourier analysis, while the operation of
rebuilding the function from these pieces is known as Fourier synthesis. For example,
determining what component frequencies are present in a musical note would involve
computing the Fourier transform of a sampled musical note. One could then re-
synthesize the same sound by including the frequency components as revealed in the
Fourier analysis. In mathematics, the term Fourier analysis often refers to the study of
both operations.

The decomposition process itself is called a Fourier transformation. Its output, the Fourier transform of bass guitar time signal of
open string A note (55 Hz). Fourier analysis
Fourier transform, is often given a more specific name, which depends on the domain reveals the oscillatory components of signals
and other properties of the function being transformed. Moreover, the original and functions.
concept of Fourier analysis has been extended over time to apply to more and more
abstract and general situations, and the general field is often known as harmonic
analysis. Each transform used for analysis (see list of Fourier-related transforms) has
a corresponding inverse transform that can be used for synthesis.
Example : a simple Fourier series

We now use the formula above to give a Fourier series expansion of a very simple function. Consider a sawtooth wave

In this case, the Fourier coefficients are given by

Plot of the sawtooth wave, a periodic

continuation of the linear function s ( x ) = x / π
on the interval ( − π , π ]

It can be proven that Fourier series converges to s ( x ) at every point x where s is differentiable, and therefore:

When x = π , the Fourier series converges to 0, which is the half-sum of the left- and right-limit of s at x = π . This is a particular instance of the
Dirichlet theorem for Fourier series.

Heat distribution in a metal plate, using Fourier's method This example leads us to a solution to the Basel problem.
4.2 Abstract harmonic analysis
Harmonic analysis cannot be separated from theory ofgroup representations, which are used as a basis replacing the role of
exponential functions in classical Fourier analysis. In other words, harmonic analysis is an extension of the classical Fourier
analysis derived by replacing thereal line R by an arbitrary group G. In this respect, it should be distinguished
1.Abelian 2.Non-Abelian groups.
The Fourier analysis on an Abelian group G is defined in terms of the corresponding group characters. However, multiplicative
characters are not sufficient to extend the Fourier analysis to non-Abelian groups. In this case,group representations are
required, which can be viewed as a generalization of multiplicative characters by increasing the dimension of them.Notice that
for Abelian groups all the representations are single-dimensional and reduce to group characters.

The group G and the vector space V are often topologized and the group action is normally assumed to be
continuous.When G topologized, for discussion of abstract harmonic analysis, the following topologicalgroups should be
distinguished
1.Compact 2.Locally compact 3.Non-compact.
Abstract harmonic analysis is a branch of harmonic analysis that extends the definition of the Fourier transforms for
functions defined on various groups, and the above mentioned classes of groups will be discussed for both Abelian and
non-Abelian groups.
Example:
Finite Groups The harmonic analysis on finite groups is performed in terms of irreducible unitary representations,
or their characters, for non-Abelian and Abelian groups, respectively. This approach has been developed first for
the symmetric and alternating groups in the work by Frobenius and Young, who introduced theYoung diagrams for
manipulating with irreducible representations

Finite Abelian Groups Notice that when Gis an Abelian groups, the set of group characters χw(x) form a
multiplicative group Γisomorphic to G. Therefore, a function f(x) on a finite Abelian group Gof order |G|=g can
be represented as

f(x) =g−1∑w∈ΓSf(w) χw(x)

where Γ ={χw(x)}, x∈Gis the set of characters of G

For compact groups, either Abelian or non-Abelian, theFourier transform has been defined in terms of finite-
dimensional irreducible unitary representations. In thecase of compact Abelian groups, the representations
aresingle-dimensional. For locally compact Abelian groups,the representations are again single-dimensional.
How-ever, for locally compact non-Abelian groups, the ir-reducible infinite-dimensional representations are re-
quired.Notice that, in general, a non-compact groupGmay have representations that are not unitarizable ina
Hilbert space.
 4.3 Integral transforms
In mathematics, an integral transform maps an equation from its original domain into another domain where it might be manipulated and
solved much more easily than in the original domain. The solution is then mapped back to the original domain using the inverse of the
integral transform. Mathematical notation aside, the motivation behind integral transforms is easy to understand. There are many classes of
problems that are difficult to solve—or at least quite unwieldy algebraically—in their original representations. An integral transform "maps"
an equation from its original "domain" into another domain. Manipulating and solving the equation in the target domain can be much easier
than manipulation and solution in the original domain. The solution is then mapped back to the original domain with the inverse of the
integral transform.

There are many applications of probability that rely on integral transforms, such as "pricing kernel" or stochastic discount factor, or the
smoothing of data recovered from robust statistics.As an example of an application of integral transforms, consider the Laplace transform.
This is a technique that maps differential or integro-differential equations in the "time" domain into polynomial equations in what is termed
the "complex frequency" domain. (Complex frequency is similar to actual, physical frequency but rather more general. Specifically, the
imaginary component ω of the complex frequency s = -σ + iω corresponds to the usual concept of frequency, viz., the rate at which a
sinusoid cycles, whereas the real component σ of the complex frequency corresponds to the degree of "damping", i.e. an exponential
decrease of the amplitude.) The equation cast in terms of complex frequency is readily solved in the complex frequency domain (roots of
the polynomial equations in the complex frequency domain correspond to eigenvalues in the time domain), leading to a "solution"
formulated in the frequency domain. Employing the inverse transform, i.e., the inverse procedure of the original Laplace transform, one
obtains a time-domain solution. In this example, polynomials in the complex frequency domain (typically occurring in the denominator)
correspond to power series in the time domain, while axial shifts in the complex frequency domain correspond to damping by decaying
exponentials in the time domain.

The Laplace transform finds wide application in physics and particularly in electrical engineering, where the characteristic equations that
describe the behavior of an electric circuit in the complex frequency domain correspond to linear combinations of exponentially damped,
scaled, and time-shifted sinusoids in the time domain. Other integral transforms find special applicability within other scientific and
mathematical disciplines.
Example of Integral transforms:
The Laplace transform is used frequently in engineering and physics; the output of a linear time-invariant system can be
calculated by convolving its unit impulse response with the input signal. Performing this calculation in Laplace space
turns the convolution into a multiplication; the latter being easier to solve because of its algebraic form. For more
information, see control theory.
The Laplace transform can also be used to solve differential equations and is used extensively in mechanical engineering
and electrical engineering. The Laplace transform reduces a linear differential equation to an algebraic equation, which
can then be solved by the formal rules of algebra. The original differential equation can then be solved by applying the
inverse Laplace transform. The English electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside first proposed a similar scheme, although
without using the Laplace transform; and the resulting operational calculus is credited as the Heaviside calculus.

Let

or

Letting s → 0, gives one the identity

provided that the interchange of limits can be justified. Even when the interchange cannot be justified the
calculation can be suggestive. For example, with a ≠ 0 ≠ b, proceeding formally one has

The validity of this identity can be proved by other means. It is an example of a Frullani integral.
 4.4 Functional analysis
Functional analysis is a branch of mathematical analysis, the core of which is formed by the study of vector
spaces endowed with some kind of limit-related structure (e.g. inner product, norm, topology, etc.) and the
linear functions defined on these spaces and respecting these structures in a suitable sense. The historical
roots of functional analysis lie in the study of spaces of functions and the formulation of properties of
transformations of functions such as the Fourier transform as transformations defining continuous, unitary
etc. operators between function spaces. This point of view turned out to be particularly useful for the study
of differential and integral equations.

The usage of the word functional as a noun goes back to the calculus of variations, implying a function
whose argument is a function. The term was first used in Hadamard's 1910 book on that subject. However,
the general concept of a functional had previously been introduced in 1887 by the Italian mathematician
and physicist Vito Volterra.The theory of nonlinear functionals was continued by students of Hadamard, in
particular Fréchet and Lévy. Hadamard also founded the modern school of linear functional analysis further
developed by Riesz and the group of Polish mathematicians around Stefan Banach.

In modern introductory texts to functional analysis, the subject is seen as the study of vector spaces One of the possible modes of vibration of an
endowed with a topology, in particular infinite-dimensional spaces. In contrast, linear algebra deals mostly idealized circular drum head. These modes are
with finite-dimensional spaces, and does not use topology. An important part of functional analysis is the eigenfunctions of a linear operator on a function
extension of the theory of measure, integration, and probability to infinite dimensional spaces, also known space, a common construction in functional
as infinite dimensional analysis. analysis.
Examples

1.Hilbert spaces

Hilbert spaces can be completely classified: there is a unique Hilbert space up to isomorphism for every cardinality of the
orthonormal basis. Finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are fully understood in linear algebra, and infinite-dimensional
separable Hilbert spaces are isomorphic to Separability being important for applications, functional analysis of
Hilbert spaces consequently mostly deals with this space. One of the open problems in functional analysis is to prove that
every bounded linear operator on a Hilbert space has a proper invariant subspace. Many special cases of this
invariant subspace problem have already been proven.
2.Hahn–Banach theorem

The Hahn–Banach theorem is a central tool in functional analysis. It allows the extension of bounded linear functionals
defined on a subspace of some vector space to the whole space, and it also shows that there are "enough" continuous linear
functionals defined on every normed vector space to make the study of the dual space "interesting".
If p : V → R is a sublinear function, and φ : U → R is a linear functional on a linear subspace U ⊆ V which is dominated by p on U,
i.e. φ ( x ) ≤ p ( x ) ∀ x ∈ U then there exists a linear extension ψ : V → R of φ to the whole space V, i.e., there exists a linear
functional ψ such that

Most spaces considered in functional analysis have infinite dimension. To show the existence of a vector space basis for
such spaces may require Zorn's lemma. However, a somewhat different concept, Schauder basis, is usually more relevant in
functional analysis. Many very important theorems require the Hahn–Banach theorem, usually proved using axiom of choice
, although the strictly weaker Boolean prime ideal theorem suffices. The Baire category theorem, needed to prove many
important theorems, also requires a form of axiom of choice.
4.5 Operator theory

In mathematics, operator theory is the study of linear operators on function spaces, beginning with differential operators
and integral operators. The operators may be presented abstractly by their characteristics, such as bounded linear operators
or closed operators, and consideration may be given to nonlinear operators. The study, which depends heavily on the
topology of function spaces, is a branch of functional analysis.
If a collection of operators forms an algebra over a field, then it is an operator algebra. The description of operator algebras
is part of operator theory.

Connection with Complex Analysis

Many operators that are studied are operators on Hilbert spaces of holomorphic functions, and the study of the operator
is intimately linked to questions in function theory. For example, Beurling's theorem describes the invariant subspaces
of the unilateral shift in terms of inner functions, which are bounded holomorphic functions on the unit disk with
unimodular boundary values almost everywhere on the circle. Beurling interpreted the unilateral shift as multiplication
by the independent variable on the Hardy space. [4] The success in studying multiplication operators, and more
generally Toeplitz operators (which are multiplication, followed by projection onto the Hardy space) has inspired the
study of similar questions on other spaces, such as the Bergman space.
Examples :

Spectrum of operators

The spectral theorem is any of a number of results about linear operators or about matrices.In broad terms the spectral theorem provides
conditions under which an operator or a matrix can be diagonalized (that is, represented as a diagonal matrix in some basis). This concept
of diagonalization is relatively straightforward for operators on finite-dimensional spaces, but requires some modification for operators on
infinite-dimensional spaces. In general, the spectral theorem identifies a class of linear operators that can be modelled by
multiplication operators, which are as simple as one can hope to find. In more abstract language, the spectral theorem is a statement about
commutative C*-algebras. Examples of operators to which the spectral theorem applies are self-adjoint operators or more generally
normal operators on Hilbert spaces. The spectral theorem also provides a canonical decomposition, called the spectral decomposition,
eigenvalue decomposition, or eigendecomposition, of the underlying vector space on which the operator acts.

Polar decomposition

The polar decomposition of any bounded linear operator A between complex Hilbert spaces is a canonical factorization as the product of a
partial isometry and a non-negative operator.

The polar decomposition for matrices generalizes as follows: if A is a bounded linear operator then there is a unique factorization of A as
a product A = UP where U is a partial isometry, P is a non-negative self-adjoint operator and the initial space of U is the closure of the
range of P.

The operator U must be weakened to a partial isometry, rather than unitary, because of the following issues. If A is the one-sided shift on
l2(N), then |A| = {A*A}½ = I. So if A = U |A|, U must be A, which is not unitary.

The existence of a polar decomposition is a consequence of Douglas' lemma

Conclusion :

Is this division "real"?

In a word, "no". It's false to assume that Mathematics consists of discrete sub fields, it's false to assume that there is an objective way to gather those
sub fields into main divisions, and it's false to assume that there is an accurate two-dimensional positioning of the parts. For example, a division into
"Pure" and "Applied" Mathematics is traditional, but the boundaries are unclear and cross-fertilization is common. There are many topics under
Mathematical analysis ,but the intersection of topics is common. This division into different main topics and sub topics is only the way of
convenience to understand the topic better and for simplification.

Acknowledgement :
I am grateful to Indian Academy of sciences,Indian National Science Academy and The National Academy of Sciences,India for Providing me this
opportunity to carry out this project.
I want to extend my deep sense of gratitude to my project guide Prof V.MURUGESAN for his guidance throughout this Programme
I want to thank Author cafe team for their assistance and prompt reply to my queries and working on Author cafe portal has been a Great Experience.