How Twins Came About

Generally humans are singleton (one birth) but at times humans can give
multiple birth (two or more births).
Every menstrual cycle a female ovary expels one ripe ovum to the fallopian
tube.
During some moments sperms enter the uterus and reach the fallopian tube.

Identical Twins or Monozygotic Twins

By luck of nature, two sperms happen to meet and fertilize the single ovum.
When this happens, the ovum splits into two separate fertilized zygotes
Usually alike and are of the same sex

Fraternal or Dizygotic Twins

When the ovary either from the right or left expels two ripe ova and these
two are penetrated and fertilized by two sperms
Usually, fraternal twins are not alike and are of different sex.

MECHANICS OF HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Reproductive Cells

Developmental Stages

An Individual undergoes definite stages of development. In each stage the child has
to experience certain developmental characteristics to prepare him for the next
stage.

1. Prenatal Stage - this stage starts from conception to birth which lasts for a
period of 280 days or 9 months or 10 lunar months gestation. Prenatal stage is
divided into 3 periods:

• Period of the zygote - this is the form of fertilization to the end of the second
week. The size of the zygote is as big as a pinhead.
- It has no source of nourishment but it is kept alive by the yolk in
the ovum.
• Period of the embryo - this is from the second week to the end of the second lunar
month.
- In this period, all the important structures and features start to
function.
- It is now possible to tell the sex of the child
- The embryo forms into three germ layers which also form different
organ and tissues:
1. Mesoderm - forms the skeletal system, muscles, and skin
2. Endoderm - becomes the lining of the respiratory tract,
the tempanic membrane, eustachian tube, and the glands
3. Ectoderm - forms the central nervous system and
peripheral nervous system
 *During the prenatal period, the accessory apparatus develops.
Accessory apparatus:

a. The placenta - source of nourishment

- Absorbs the nourishment from the mother
b. The umbilical cord - the only real connection between the unborn
child and the mother which carries the
nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the child.
c. The amniotic sac - a thin membrane that houses the fetus and
protects it from injury.

• Period of the Fetus - starts from the end of the second month to birth
- During this period, the important structures that were formed
durimg the embryonic period continue to grow and develop.
- There are fetal activities like kicking and twisting.
- At this period, the fetus is already viable which means that it can
live outside the mother’s uterus even if born prematurely, say 7
months (Bustos, et.al., 1999).
- By the eighth month, the fetal body is completely formed.

2. Infancy - Birth to second week

- Shortest and most dangerous period
- The infant displays different reflexes such as pupiliary, grasping,
gurgling, rooting, Babinsky, etc.
- Infancy is subdivided into periods:

• Period of Partunate - from 15-30 minutes after birth which begins when
the fetus has emerged from the mother’s body and lasts until the
umbilical cord is cut and tied
• Period of the Neonate - from the cutting and tying of the umbilical cord
to the end of the second week.

3. Babyhood - from 2 weeks of life to 2 years

- The baby has already attained some amount of independence
- Babyhood (Hurlock, 1982) is the true foundation age because the
patterns of behavior, attitudes, and habit laid at this stage will
determine the individual’s development and adjustment in later years

4. Childhood - 2nd year of life to 10 or 12 years

- formative years in values, habits attitudes snd behavior
- development of skill and mastering these skills are very important

5. Puberty - a short period that covers the later part of childhood and early part of
adolescence
 - time of rapid growth and change
- Called “Age of Manhood”

6. Adolescence - teen years from 13-19

- at this period the individual is now considered a young adult
- A period of search of identity

7. Adulthood - the stage where the individual is considered a responsible person

- the longest stage covering19-40 years
- Settling down and reproductive age

8. Middle Age - starts from 40-60 years

- Period of transition from healthy adults to a change of patterns of life

9. Old Age - covers 60 years of age to senescence or end of life

- A time of decline, physically, emotionally, mentally, and socially.
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Principles of Heredity

There are some principles that govern heredity:

Principle of Reproduction
- This asserts that “like begets like”, meaning human produces human, animal
produces animal
- Children resemble their parents in some traits or their grandparents in some
characteristics
- Heredity produces similarities among those who belong to the same family

Principle of Variation
- If heredity produces similarities, it also produces dissimilarities or variations
- In a family, there are some differences like complexion, shape of face or body
built
- Variation is also seen in the color of the skin (e.g. Americans, Asians,
Europians, Africans)

Principle of Chance
- Usually, one egg ripens wt ovulation period
- Ovulation is the process of escape of one ripe ovum from the ovary to the
fallopian tube
- During ovulation, there are several thousands of spermatozoa that enter the
fallopian tube
- As to which sperm fertilizes the ovum and produces combination of genes is a
matter of chance
 Principles of Dominance and Recessiveness
- Dominant traits - characteristic traits are sure to appear in the children
whenever they are present
- Recessive traits - characteristic traits that do not appear in children whenever
the opposite traits are present
- They show themselves only in the absence of the dominant
traits

Principles of Sex-linked Characteristics

- Genosomes - traits that are carried by the chromosomes which determine sex.
They are only found in a certain sex.
- Examples of sex-linked characteristics are: hemophilia and baldness
- Sex-linked characteristics are inherited only by males.