Quadratic Function

In algebra, a quadratic function, a quadratic polynomial, a polynomial of degree 2, or simply a

quadratic, is a polynomial function with one or more variables in which the highest-degree term is of
the second degree. For example, a quadratic function in three variables x, y, and z contains
exclusively terms x2, y2, z2, xy, xz, yz, x, y, z, and a constant:

{\displaystyle f(x,y,z)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cz^{2}+dxy+exz+fyz+gx+hy+iz+j,}
f(x,y,z)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cz^{2}+dxy+exz+fyz+gx+hy+iz+j,

with at least one of the coefficients a, b, c, d, e, or f of the second-degree terms being non-zero.

A quadratic polynomial with two real roots (crossings of the x axis) and hence no complex roots.
Some other quadratic polynomials have their minimum above the x axis, in which case there are no
real roots and two complex roots.

A univariate (single-variable) quadratic function has the form[1]

{\displaystyle f(x)=ax^{2}+bx+c,\quad a\neq 0} f(x)=ax^{2}+bx+c,\quad a\neq 0

in the single variable x. The graph of a univariate quadratic function is a parabola whose axis of
symmetry is parallel to the y-axis, as shown at right.

If the quadratic function is set equal to zero, then the result is a quadratic equation. The solutions to
the univariate equation are called the roots of the univariate function.

The bivariate case in terms of variables x and y has the form

{\displaystyle f(x,y)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cxy+dx+ey+f\,\!} f(x,y)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cxy+dx+ey+f\,\!

with at least one of a, b, c not equal to zero, and an equation setting this function equal to zero gives
rise to a conic section (a circle or other ellipse, a parabola, or a hyperbola).
In general there can be an arbitrarily large number of variables, in which case the resulting surface is
called a quadric, but the highest degree term must be of degree 2, such as x2, xy, yz, etc.

Forms of a univariate quadratic function

A univariate quadratic function can be expressed in three formats

{\displaystyle f(x)=ax^{2}+bx+c\,\!} f(x)=ax^{2}+bx+c\,\! is called the standard form,

{\displaystyle f(x)=a(x-r_{1})(x-r_{2})\,\!} {\displaystyle f(x)=a(x-r_{1})(x-r_{2})\,\!} is

called the factored form, where r1 and r2 are the roots of the quadratic function and the
solutions of the corresponding quadratic equation.

{\displaystyle f(x)=a(x-h)^{2}+k\,\!} f(x)=a(x-h)^{2}+k\,\! is called the vertex form,

where h and k are the x and y coordinates of the vertex, respectively.

The coefficient a is the same value in all three forms. To convert the standard form to
factored form, one needs only the quadratic formula to determine the two roots r1 and r2.
To convert the standard form to vertex form, one needs a process called completing the
square. To convert the factored form (or vertex form) to standard form, one needs to
multiply, expand and/or distribute the factors.
 Vertex Form of Quadratic Functions
The vertex form of a quadratic function is given
by
2
f (x) = a(x - h) + k, where (h, k) is the vertex of
the parabola.
FYI: Different textbooks have different interpretations of the reference "standard form" of a quadratic function. Some
sayf (x) = ax2 + bx + c is "standard form", while others say that f (x) = a(x - h)2 + k is "standard form". To avoid confusion,
this site will not refer to either as "standard form", but will reference f (x) = a(x - h)2 + k as "vertex form" and will
reference f(x) = ax2 + bx + c by its full statement.

When written in "vertex form":

• (h, k) is the vertex of the parabola, and x = h is the axis of symmetry.

• the h represents a horizontal shift (how far left, or right, the graph has
shifted from x = 0).

• the k represents a vertical shift (how far up, or down, the graph has shifted
from y = 0).

• notice that the h value is subtracted in this form, and that the k value is
added.
If the equation is y = 2(x - 1)2 + 5, the value of h is 1, and k is 5.
If the equation is y = 3(x + 4)2 - 6, the value of h is -4, and k is -6.

To Convert from f (x) = ax2 + bx + c Form to Vertex

Form:
Method 1: Completing the Square
To convert a quadratic from y = ax2 + bx + c form to vertex form, y = a(x -
h)2+ k, you use the process of completing the square. Let's see an example.
 Convert y = 2x2 - 4x + 5 into vertex form, and state
the vertex.

Equation in y = ax2 + bx + c form. y = 2x2 - 4x + 5

Since we will be "completing the square"
we will isolate the x2 and x terms ... so
move the + 5 to the other side of the equal
y - 5 = 2x2 - 4x
sign.
We need a leading coefficient of 1 for
completing the square ... so factor out the y - 5 = 2(x2 - 2x)
current leading coefficient of 2.
Get ready to create a perfect square
trinomial. BUT be careful!! In previous
completing the square problems with a
leading coefficient not 1, our equations
were set equal to 0. Now, we have to deal
with an additional variable, "y" ... so we
cannot "get rid of " the factored 2. When
we add a box to both sides, the box will be
multiplied by 2 on both sides of the equal
sign.
Find the perfect square trinomial. Take half
of the coefficient of the x-term inside the
parentheses, square it, and place it in the
box.
Simplify and convert the right side to a
squared expression.
y - 3 = 2(x - 1)2
Isolate the y-term ... so move the -3 to the
other side of the equal sign.
y = 2(x - 1)2 + 3
In some cases, you may need to transform y = 2(x - 1)2 + 3
the equation into the "exact" vertex form Vertex form of the equation.
of Vertex = (h, k) = (1, 3)
y = a(x - h)2 + k, showing a "subtraction" (The vertex of this graph will be moved one unit to
the right and three units up from (0,0), the vertex of
sign in the parentheses before the h term,
its parent y = x2.)
and the "addition" of the k term. (This was not
needed in this problem.)

Here's a sneaky, quick tidbit:

When working with the vertex form of a quadratic
function,

and .
The "a" and "b" referenced here refer to f (x) = ax2 + bx
+ c.

Method 2: Using the "sneaky tidbit", seen above, to convert to vertex

form:

y = ax2 + bx + c form of the equation. y = 2x2 - 4x + 5

Find the vertex, (h, k). a = 2 and b = -4

and .
[f (h) means to plug your answer for h into the
original equation for x.]
Vertex: (1,3)
Write the vertex form.
2 y = 2(x - 1)2 + 3
y = a(x - h) + k
 To Convert from Vertex Form to y = ax2 + bx + c Form:
Simply multiply out and combine like terms: y = 2(x - 1)2 + 3
y = 2(x2 - 2x + 1) + 3
y = 2x2 - 4x + 2 + 3
y = 2x2 - 4x + 5

Graphing a Quadratic Function in Vertex Form:

1. Start with the function in vertex form:

y = 3(x - 2)2 - 4
y = a(x - h)2 + k
2. Pull out the values for h and k.
If necessary, rewrite the function so you can clearly y = 3(x - 2)2 + (-4)
see the h and k values. h = 2; k = -4
(h, k) is the vertex of the parabola. Vertex: (2, -4)
Plot the vertex.
3. The line x = h is the axis of symmetry.
x = 2 is the axis of symmetry
Draw the axis of symmetry.
4. Find two or three points on one side of the
axis of symmetry, by substituting your
chosen x-values into the equation.

For this problem, we chose (to the left of the axis of

symmetry):

x = 1; y = 3(1 - 2)2 - 4 = -1
x = 0; y = 3(0 - 2)2 - 4 = 8
Plot (1, -1) and (0,8)
5. Plot the mirror images of these points
across the axis of symmetry, or plot new
points on the right side.
Draw the parabola.
Remember, when drawing the parabola to
avoid "connecting the dots" with straight line
segments. A parabola is curved, not straight,
as its slope is not constant.
Applications of Quadratic Functions

Key Points

 The Pythagorean Theorem, c2=a2+b2c2=a2+b2relates the length of the hypotenuse (cc) of

a right triangle to the lengths of its legs (aa and bb).
 Problems involving gravity and projectile motion are typically dependent upon a second-order
variable, usually time or initial velocity depending on the relationship.
 Coulomb’s Law, which relates electrostatic force, charge amount and distance between two
charged particles, has a second-order dependence on the separation of the particles. Solving
for either charge results in a quadratic function.

Key Terms

 acceleration: The change of velocity with respect to time (can include changing direction).
 velocity: A vector quantity that denotes the rate of change of position with respect to time, or
a speed with the directional component.
 Quadratic relationships between variables are commonly found in physical sciences,
engineering, and elsewhere. Perhaps the most universally used example of quadratic
relationships in problem solving concerns right triangles.

 The Pythagorean Theorem

 The Pythagorean Theorem is used to relate the three sides of right triangles. It states:
 c2=a2+b2c2=a2+b2
 This says that the square of the length of the hypotenuse (cc) is equal to the sum of
the squares of the two legs (aa and bb) of the triangle. This has been proven in many
ways, among the most famous of which was devised by Euclid.
 In practice, the Pythagorean Theorem is often solved via factoring or completing the
square. If any of the variables aa, bb, or cc represent functions in themselves, it is
often useful to expand the terms, combine like variables, and then re-factor the
expression.

 Gravity and Projectile Motion

 Most all equations involving gravity include a second-order relationship.

 Gravitational Force

 Consider the equation relating gravitational force (FF) between two objects to the
masses of each object (m1m1 and m2m2) and the distance between them (rr):
 F=Gm1m2r2F=Gm1m2r2
 The shape of this function is not a parabola, but becomes such a shape if rearranged
to solve for m1m1 or m2m2, as seen below:
 m2=Fr2Gm1=(FGm1)r2m2=Fr2Gm1=(FGm1)r2
 The general form of this function is:
 a(x−h)2+ka(x−h)2+k
 which you should recognize as the vertex form of a quadratic equation.

 Projectile Motion

 The maximum height of a projectile launched directly upwards can also be

calculated from a quadratic relationship. The formula relates height (hh) to initial
velocity (v0v0) and gravitational acceleration (gg):
 h=v202gh=v022g
 The same maximum height of a projectile launched directly upwards can be found
using the time at the projectile’s peak (thth):
 h=v0th(12)gt2hh=v0th(12)gth2
 Substituting any time (tt) in place of thth leaves the equation for height as a quadratic
function of time.

 Electrostatic Force

 The equation relating electrostatic force (FF) between two particles, the particles’
respective charges (q1q1 and q2q2), and the distance between them (rr) is very
similar to the aforementioned formula for gravitational force:
 F=q1q24πϵ0r2F=q1q24πϵ0r2
 This is known as Coulomb’s Law. Solving for either charge results in a quadratic
equation where the charge is dependent on r2r2.
 Graphing Quadratic Functions

The term quadratic comes from the word quadrate meaning square or rectangular.
Similarly, one of the definitions of the term quadratic is a square. In an algebraic
sense, the definition of something quadratic involves the square and no higher power
of an unknown quantity; second degree. So, for our purposes, we will be working with
quadratic equations which mean that the highest degree we'll be encountering is a
square. Normally, we see the standard quadratic equation written as the sum of three
terms set equal to zero. Simply, the three terms include one that has an x2, one has an
x, and one term is "by itself" with no x2 or x.

Thus, the standardized form of a quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0, where "a"

does not equal 0. Note that if a = 0, the x2 term would disappear and we would have a
linear equation!

[As a review, if the highest degree in an equation is 1, meaning that the x-term is x1 or
in the form ax + by = c or y = mx + b, the equation is always linear.]

What about a quadratic equation? What are the characteristics of a quadratic function?
Well, if we look at the simplest case when a = 1, and b = c = 0, we get the equation y
= 1x2 or y = x2. We talked a little bit about this graph when we were talking about the
Vertical Line Test. We said that the graph of y = x2 was a function because it passed
the vertical line test.

Let's graph the equation again. Remember, if you are not sure how to start graphing an
equation, you can always substitute any value you want for x, solve for y, and plot the
corresponding coordinates. So, let's try substituting values in for x and solving for y as
depicted in the chart below.

x y = x2 y = x2 (x, y)

-3 (-3)2 9 (-3, 9)

-2 (-2)2 4 (-2, 4)

-1 (-1)2 1 (-1, 1)

0 (0)2 0 (0, 0)
 1 (1)2 1 (1, 1)

2 (2)2 4 (2, 4)

3 (3)2 9 (3, 9)

Plot the graph on your own graph paper and make sure that you get the same graph as
depicted below.

Graph of y = x2

What is the lowest point on the graph? Can you tell if there are any high points on the
graph? Where does it cross the x- and y-axes? Going from left to right like you would
read, where does the graph seem to be decreasing and where does it increase?
Click here for the answers.

The general shape of a parabola is the shape of a "pointy" letter "u," or a slightly
rounded letter, "v." You may encounter a parabola that is "laying on it's side," but we
won't discuss such a parabola here because it is not a function as it would not pass the
Vertical Line Test.

Parabolas are in one of two forms. The first form is called the standard form, y = ax2 +
bx + c. The second form is called the vertex-form or the a-h-k form, y = a(x - h)2 + k.

Parabolas in the standard from y = ax2 + bx + c.

Let's trying graphing another parabola where a = 1, b = -2 and c = 0. So, we would

have the equation, y = x2- 2x. Let's substitute the same values in for x as we did in the
chart above and see what we get for y.

x y = x2 y = x2 - 2x (x, y)

-3 (-3)2-2x 15 (-3, 15)

-2 (-2)2-2x 8 (-2, 8)

-1 (-1)2-2x 3 (-1, 3)

0 (0)2-2x 0 (0, 0)

1 (1)2-2x -1 (1, -1)

2 (2)2-2x 0 (2, 0)

3 (3)2-2x 3 (3, 3)

What are the x-and y-intercepts? What is the lowest point on the graph?

Here, we see again that the x- and y-intercepts are both (0, 0), as the parabola crosses
through the origin. The lowest point on the graph is (1, -1) and is called the vertex. If
you draw a vertical line through the vertex, it will split the parabola in half so that
either side of the vertical line is symmetric with respect to the other side.

This vertical line is called the line of symmetry or axis of symmetry. Since the line
of symmetry will always be a vertical line in all of our parabolas, the general formula
for the line will be x = c.
Remember from earlier lessons that vertical lines are always in the form x = c. To find
the equation of the line of symmetry, it will always be y = c, where c is always the x-
value of the vertex (x, y). Remember, to graph a vertical line, go across the x-axis to
the value of "c" where the equation indicates, x = c, and draw the vertical line. So, in
this case, the line of symmetry would be x = 1.

The vertex is the lowest point on the parabola if the parabola opens upward and is
the highest point on the parabola if the parabola opens downward.

Now let's try graphing the parabola: y = -3x2 + x + 1. Substitute our standard values in
for x and solve for y as illustrated in the chart below:

x y = x2 y = -3x2+x + 1 (x, y)

-3 -3 (-3)2+ x + 1 -29 (-3, -29)

-2 -3 (-2)2+ x + 1 -13 (-2, -13)

-1 -3 (-1)2+ x + 1 -3 (-1, -3)

0 -3 (0)2+ x + 1 1 (0, 1)

1 -3 (1)2+ x + 1 -1 (1, -1)

2 -3 (2)2+ x + 1 -9 (2, -9)

3 -3 (3)2+ x + 1 -23 (3, -23)

The points and the graph through these points are shown below

Graph of the quadratic function y = -3x2 + x + 1