Sam Hagginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences (SHUATS)

Gospel and plough institute of theology (GPIT)

Topic: Psychoanalysis approach to counselling Sigmund Freud

Program: Master of Theology in Counselling, 1st semester
Presenter: Nukhozo Kezo
Submitted to: Dr. Vibeituonuo Mere

Introduction:

Instincts

Instincts are the basic elements of the personality, the motivating forces that drive behavior
and determine its direction. Instincts are a form of energy transformed physiological energy
that connects the body’s needs with the mind’s wishes. The instincts are internal when a need
such as hunger is aroused in the body; it generates a condition of physiological excitation or
energy. The mind transforms this bodily energy into a wish. It is this wish the mental
representation of the physiological need that is the instinct or driving force that motivates the
person to behave in a way that satisfies the need. A hungry person, for example, will act to
satisfy his or her need by looking for food. The instinct is not the bodily state; rather, it is the
bodily need transformed into a mental state.

When the body is in a state of need, the person experiences a feeling of tension or pressure.
The aim of an instinct is to satisfy the need and thereby reduce the tension. Freud’s theory
can be called a homeostatic approach insofar as it suggests that we are motivated to restore
and maintain a condition of physiological equilibrium, or balance, to keep the body free of
tension1.

Types of Instincts

Freud grouped the instincts into two categories: life instincts and death instincts. The life
instincts serve the purpose of survival of the individual and the species by seeking to satisfy
the needs for food, water, air, and sex. The life instincts are oriented toward growth and
development. The psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido. The libido can
be attached to or invested in objects, a concept Freud called cathexis. If you like your
roommate, for example, Freud would say that your libido is cathected to him or her.

The life instinct Freud considered most important for the personality is sex, which he defined
in broad terms. He did not refer solely to the erotic but included almost all pleasurable
behaviors and thoughts. He described his view as enlarging or extending the accepted concept
of sexuality.2

In opposition to the life instincts, Freud postulated the destructive or death instincts.3 When
he was in his 60s, Freud put forth the idea of a death instinct that accounted for aggressive

1
Duane P. Schultz and Sydney Ellen Schultz, Theories of personality (Belmont: Wadsworth, Cengage
Learning, 2013), 47.
2
Duane P. Schultz and Sydney Ellen Schultz, Theories of personality..., 48.
3
Duane P. Schultz and Sydney Ellen Schultz, Theories of personality..., 49.
drives. These include unconscious desires to hurt others or oneself. Often conflict arises
between the life instincts eros and the death instincts thanatos. Examples of conflict include
the love and hate that marriage partners may have for each other. When the hate comes out in
destructive anger, then the aggressive drive (thanatos) is stronger. Often the two instincts
work together, such as in eating, which maintains life but includes the aggressive activities of
chewing and biting. Soldiers may express their aggressive drives through socially condoned
fighting. Sports provide a more acceptable outlet for physical aggressive expression. Often,
libido and aggressive drives are expressed without an individual’s awareness or
consciousness4.

View of Human Nature

The psychoanalytic view of human nature is basically deterministic. Freud advanced that
human behaviour is determined by unconscious motivation, irrational forces, biological,
instinctual drives and psychosexual activities during the first six years of life. There are
internal conflicts of an individual during the first six years of life. That, certain psychic
energy and aggressive impulses were repressed during the first six years of life. Also, Freud
posited that, if the psychic energy and aggressive impulses were allowed to become
conscious, would produce extreme anxiety. Furthermore, Freud postulated that, although
these memories and experience are buried unconscious, they still have powerful influence or
effect on the individual’s personality and behaviour in later life. Unconscious experiences
have a powerful influence on our everyday activities. Freud explained human nature in terms
of a conscious mind, preconscious mind, and an unconscious mind. The conscious mind
enacts reality with the outside world, while the preconscious mind operates between the
conscious and unconscious minds and has aspects of the two minds (conscious and
unconscious). According to Freud, within the preconscious are buried memories of forgotten
life occurrences that can be recollected with the proper and adequate therapy

In Freud’s system, there is only one ultimate and necessary goal in life: to reduce tension. On
the nature–nurture issue, Freud adopted a middle ground. The id, the most powerful part of
the personality, is an inherited, physiologically based structure, as are the stages of
psychosexual development. However, other parts of our personality are learned in early
childhood, from parent child interactions5.

Theory of personality

According to Freud, the human personality is made of three distinct parts. They are the id,
ego, and superego.6

4
Richard S. Sharf. Theories of Psychotherapy and counselling (Belmont: Brooks, Cengage Learning,
2012), 33.
5
Duane P. Schultz and Sydney Ellen Schultz, Theories of personality (Belmont: Wadsworth, Cengage
Learning, 2013), 61.
6
Nick Rennison, Freud and Psychoanalysis (Great Britain: Cox & Wyma, 2001), 38.
The Id

The id corresponds to Freud’s earlier notion of the unconscious (although the ego and
superego have unconscious aspects as well). The id is the reservoir for the instincts and libido
(the psychic energy manifested by the instincts). The id is a powerful structure of the
personality because it supplies all the energy for the other two components

Because the id is the reservoir of the instincts, it is vitally and directly related to the
satisfaction of bodily needs. When tension is produced and the body is in a state of need the
person acts to reduce this tension by satisfying the need. The id operates in accordance with
what Freud called the pleasure principle; through its concern with tension reduction, the id
functions to increase pleasure and avoid pain. The id strives for immediate satisfaction of its
needs and does not tolerate delay or postponement of satisfaction for any reason. It knows
only instant gratification; it drives us to want what we want when we want it, without regard
for what anyone else wants. The id is a selfish, pleasure-seeking structure, primitive, amoral,
insistent, and rash7.

The Ego

The ego follows the reality principle. For example, the young child learns to ask for food
rather than to cry immediately when her needs are not met. This realistic thinking is referred
to as the secondary process, which is in marked contrast to the fantasizing of the primary
process. It is the function of the ego to test reality, to plan, to think logically, and to develop
plans for satisfying needs. Its control or restraint over the id is referred to as anticathexis. In
this way the ego serves to keep us from crying or acting angrily whenever we do not get our
way 8 . The ego serves two masters—the id and reality—and is constantly mediating and
striking compromises between their conflicting demands. Also, the ego is never independent
of the id. It is always responsive to the id’s demands and derives its power and energy from
the id9.

The Superego

The super-ego aims for perfection. It forms the organized part of the personality structure,
mainly but not entirely unconscious, that includes the individual's ego ideals, spiritual goals,
and the psychic agency (commonly called "conscience") that criticizes and prohibits their
drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions. “The Super-ego can be thought of as a type of
conscience that punishes misbehaviour with feelings of guilt. For example, having extra
marital affairs.”10 The superego is no rational, seeking perfection and adherence to an ideal,
inhibiting both the id and the ego, and controlling both physiological drives (id) and realistic
striving for perfection (ego)11.

7
Duane P. Schultz and Sydney Ellen Schultz, Theories of personality..., 50.
8
Ibid.
9
Ibid.
10
David J. Meyers, Psychology in modules (New York: worth publishers, 2009), 8.
11
Ibid.
Psychosexual Developmental Stages

The Anal Stage: 1 to 3 years Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the Libido was on controlling
bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training the child has
to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.
Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to
become competent, productive, and creative adults12.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents instead
punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is
too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful,
or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive
personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The Anal Stage: 1 to 3 years Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of psychosexual development is the anal stage, spanning from the age of
eighteen months to three years, wherein the infant's erogenous zone, changes from the mouth
to the anus, while the ego formation continues. Toilet training is the child's key anal-stage
experience, occurring at about the age of two years, and results in conflict between the id
(demanding immediate gratification) and the ego (demanding delayed gratification) in
eliminating bodily wastes, and handling related activities (e.g. manipulating excrement,
coping with parental demands). The style of parenting influences the resolution of the id–ego
conflict, which can be either gradual or psychologically uneventful, or which can be sudden
and psychologically traumatic13.

The Phallic Stage: 3 to 6 Years Initiative vs. Guilt: Developing a sense of purpose

The focus of pleasure is the genitals. Boys start to perceive their fathers as rivals for their
mother’s affections while girls feel similarly toward their mother. Fear of punishment can
lead to repression of feelings felt toward the opposite sex parent. Fixation at this stage may
bring about sexual deviancy or weak sexual identity.

According to Freud basic conflict centres on unconscious incestuous feeling that the infant
developed for parent of opposite sex, but because of fear of threat, feelings are repressed.
Oedipus complex affects both boys and girls. The Oedipus complex for girls is sometimes

12
Kendra Cherry, “Freud’s Psychosexual stages of development”, March 22nd
2019,https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962 (accessed on 28th,
April 2019).
13
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosexual_development (accessed on 28th, April 2019).
called Electra stage of “Penis envy” among girls. While, the boys demonstrate desire to
possess the mother sexually14.

The Latent Period: 6 to Puberty Industry vs. Inferiority

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed.
Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the
family. The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage
begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests. The latent period is a time of exploration in which
the sexual energy repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into
other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the
development of social and communication skills and self-confidence15.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this
phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The Genital Stag: Puberty to Death Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of
psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite
sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life. Where in
earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows
during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life
areas. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be
well-balanced, warm, and caring.

Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and
superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the
id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants. Teens in the
genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges against the need to
conform to the demands of reality and social norms16.

Defence Mechanisms

Defence mechanisms are what shield or protect the individual from being overpowered by
anxiety, through denial of events. The following are some defence mechanisms commonly
used by clients during counselling sessions17.

Repression: This is the mechanism whereby the ego in voluntarily keeps out any unwanted
or painful thoughts, feeling, memories, or impulses from consciousness.

14
Psychological notes HQ, “ Freud’s theory of psychological development,” Developmental psychology
13/4 (July 2014), 34-38.
15
Kendra Cherry, “Freud’s Psychosexual stages of development”, March 22 nd
2019,https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962 (accessed on 28th,
April 2019).
16
Duane P. Schultz and Sydney Ellen Schultz, Theories of personality..., 60.
17
Anna Freud, The ego and the mechanisms of defence (Great Britain: Poleslnr Whcatons Ltd, Exeter,
1966), 44.
Projection: The mechanism by which a client disguises the source of conflict in oneself by
attributing motives to someone else. For example, a woman may say that her friend is
annoyed with her instead of her to say she is annoyed with her friend.

Reaction Formation: The mechanism whereby anxiety producing thought, feelings, or

impulses are repressed and their opposites expressed. For example, when a person pretend
liking a disliked person by showing attention.

Displacement: The mechanism whereby a person’s energy is channelled away from one
object or person to another, which is considered safe to the person doing the displacement.
For example, John had a bad day with his boss at work, when he returned home; he kicked
his poor dog at the door welcoming him.

Regression: The mechanism whereby an individual returns to an earlier stage of

development. For example, a child when put under pressure may result in wetting the bed.

Rationalization: The mechanism whereby a person finds a reasonable explanation for

unreasonable act in order to make the act sound logical and acceptable. For example, a
student who parties every day and fails an English test would rationalize the failing grades as
being from the unfair nature of the teacher.

Denial: The mechanism whereby an unpleasant or traumatic reality is not acknowledged

consciously as reality. For example, a man whose left leg was amputated after a soccer match
sees his leg as not being amputated. Denial may help the individual cope with the situation
initially.

Identification: The mechanism whereby a person incorporates the qualities of another

person. Example, a younger one may identify with his feared older brother. It helps because
the younger brother may remove the fear he has of his older brother18.

Anxiety:

A Threat to the Ego We already has a general idea of what the word anxiety means and how
we feel when we are anxious. We know that anxiety is not unlike fear, although we may not
know what we are frightened of. Freud described anxiety as an objectless fear; often, we
cannot point to its source, to a specific object that induced it. Freud made anxiety an
important part of his personality theory, asserting that it is fundamental to the development of
neurotic and psychotic behaviour. He suggested that the prototype of all anxiety is the birth
trauma, a notion elaborated on by a disciple, Otto Rank. The fetus in its mother’s womb is in
the most stable and secure of worlds, where every need is satisfied without delay. But at
birth, the organism is thrust into a hostile environment. Suddenly, it is required to begin
adapting to reality because its instinctual demands may not always be immediately met19. The
newborn’s nervous system, immature and ill prepared, is bombarded with diverse sensory

18
Duane P. Schultz and Sydney Ellen Schultz, Theories of personality (United state of America: Wadsworth,
Cengage Learning, 2013), 53-54.
19
Duane P. Schultz and Sydney Ellen Schultz, Theories of personality..., 50.
stimuli. Consequently, the infant engages in massive motor movements, heightened
breathing, and increased heart rate. This birth trauma, with its tension and fear that the id
instincts won’t be satisfied, is our first experience with anxiety. From it is created the pattern
of reactions and feelings that will occur whenever we are exposed to some threat in the
future. When we cannot cope with anxiety, when we are in danger of being overwhelmed by
it, the anxiety is said to be traumatic. What Freud meant by this is that the person, regardless
of age, is reduced to a state of helplessness like that experienced in infancy. In adult life,
infantile helplessness is re-enacted to some degree whenever the ego is threatened20.

Types of anxiety

Reality Anxiety

The first type of anxiety, the one from which the others are derived, is reality anxiety (or
objective anxiety). This involves a fear of tangible dangers in the real world. Most of us
justifiably fear fires, hurricanes, earthquakes, and similar disasters. We run from wild
animals, speeding cars, and burning buildings. Reality anxiety serves the positive purpose of
guiding our behaviour to escape or protect ourselves from actual dangers. Our fear subsides
when the threat is no longer present. These reality-based fears can be carried to extremes,
however. The person who cannot leave home for fear of being hit by a car or who cannot
light a match for fear of fire is carrying reality-based fears beyond the point of normality.

Neurotic Anxiety

Neurotic anxiety is more consistently troublesome to our mental health. Neurotic anxiety has
its basis in childhood, in a conflict between instinctual gratification and reality. Children are
often punished for overtly expressing sexual or aggressive impulses. Therefore, the wish to
gratify certain id impulses generates anxiety. This neurotic anxiety is an unconscious fear of
being punished for impulsively displaying id-dominated behaviour. The fear is not of the
instincts, but of what may happen as a result of gratifying the instincts. The conflict becomes
one between the id and the ego, and its origin has some basis in reality.

Moral Anxiety

Moral anxiety results from a conflict between the id and the superego. In essence, it is a fear
of one’s conscience. When you are motivated to express an instinctual impulse that is
contrary to your moral code, your superego retaliates by causing you to feel shame or guilt. In
everyday terms, you might describe yourself as conscience-stricken. Moral anxiety is a
function of how well developed the superego is. A person with a strong inhibiting conscience
will experience greater conflict than a person with a less stringent set of moral guidelines.
Like neurotic anxiety, moral anxiety has some basis in reality. Children are punished for
violating their parents’ moral codes, and adults are punished for violating society’s moral
code. The shame and guilt feelings in moral anxiety arise from within; it is our conscience

20
Sergio Starkstein, “Sigmund Freud and the psychoanalytical concept of fear and anxiety,” A
conceptual and therapeutic analysis of fear 2/4 (April 2018), 231-257.
that causes the fear and the anxiety. Freud believed that the superego exacts a terrible
retribution for violation of its tenets. (TOP 52)

Defences against Anxiety

Anxiety is a signal that impending danger, a threat to the ego, must be counteracted or
avoided. The ego must reduce the conflict between the demands of the id and the strictures of
society or the superego. According to Freud, this conflict is ever present because the instincts
are always pressing for satisfaction, and the taboos of society are always working to limit
such satisfaction. Freud believed that the defences must, to some extent, always be in
operation. All behaviours are motivated by instincts; similarly, all behaviours are defensive in
the sense of defending against anxiety. The intensity of the battle within the personality may
fluctuate, but it never ceases. Freud postulated several defence mechanisms and noted that we
rarely use just one; we typically defend ourselves against anxiety by using several at the same
time (see Table 2-1). Also, some overlap exists among the mechanisms. Although defence
mechanisms vary in their specifics, they share two characteristics: (1) they are denials or
distortions of reality— necessary ones, but distortions nonetheless, and, (2) they operate
unconsciously. We are unaware of them, which means that on the conscious level we hold
distorted or unreal images of our world and ourselves.

Conclusion

Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalytic theory over a hundred years ago. His theoretical
perspective influenced several therapists around the entire world of learning. The
psychoanalytic view of human nature is basically deterministic. Freud advanced that people’s
behaviour is determined by unconscious motivation, irrational forces, biological, instinctual
drives, and psychosexual activities during the first six years of life. Freud, human personality
is made of three distinct parts; namely – id, ego and superego. There are five stage of
psychosexual development. They are oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, and
genital stage. The goals of psychoanalysis cover personal adjustment of client’s internal
forces, unconscious aspects of personality, gaining insight and growth and development. The
counsellor functions in the role of expert in fostering a transference relationship. Therefore
pertinent for counsellors and educationists to explore the various findings of the theory in
handling clients and students. Parents on the other hand have been provided with workable
tools for raising children that will be useful both in the home and society.