Chapter 1.

Introductory Notions

Meaning of Statistics

Statistics is a branch of scientific methodology which deals with the collection,

organization, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data.

Importance / Function of Statistics

It is basically for research purposes where its focal point is decision making.
Statistical methods are indispensable tools in many researches in education,
psychology, medicine business, agriculture, and other disciplines.
In school, statistics is applied to:
 formulate policies on admission and readmission of students
 devise a system of measurements for measuring certain aspects of a
student’s development
 determine which among several known methods of instruction is best for
certain concepts or skills
 determine the relationship between educational performance and socio-
economic status

In business, statistics enable managers to:

 make a wise decisions in the face of risks and insurmountable uncertainties

 assess observed patterns and behaviors
 forecast trends
 project future economic activity
 solve problems in the areas of finance, production, quality control, promotion
and advertising , and marketing

In medicine, medical researches use statistical tools to:

 evaluate the effectiveness or medical practices in the prevention of particular

diseases
 test the effectiveness of drugs
 determine the rate of growth and life expectancy of certain organism (study in
biology)
 determine the effects of certain treatment or conditions of to human behaviors
like: what is the effect of anxiety on a specific task performance? Are children
from small family better achievers than those coming from large family? Does
alcohol affect the productivity of workers? Is there a difference between heavy
smokers and moderate smokers in relation to their social and personal
adjustments?

Specific uses of Statistics:

  give precise description of data (tell the extent of relationships of variables,
test hypothesis, predicts)
 describe a group in terms of its dispersion or variable
 determine the existence of occurrence of an event or observation
 estimate the value of a population parameter on the basis of observed
statistics

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Types of statistical analyses:
 Descriptive Statistics
-concerned with the collection, organization, and presentation of data in a form
that is understandable to all
-used when the purpose of the research is to describe the data that have been
(or will be) collected
-its objective is to describe and summarize some of the important features of a
set of data that had been or will be collected.
-construction of tables and graphs, and computations of averages and
percentages fall within this area of statistics. It also includes measures of central
tendencies/location, variability, skewness and kurtosis.
-limits generalizations to the particular group of individuals observed.
-no conclusions are extended beyond this group and any similarity to those
outside of the group cannot be insured.

 Inferential Statistics
-concerned with the formulation of conclusions or generalizations about a
population based on an observation or a series of observations of a sample
drawn from the population.
-it includes testing hypothesis, Z-tests, t-tests, Chi-square test, correlation
analysis, regression analysis, F-test/ANOVA, time series ,etc.

Statistical Terms and Notations

A population (N) is the totality of actual or conceivable objects of a certain class

under consideration. More precisely, a population consists of numerical values
connected with these objects. Test score of student, length of life of electric bulbs,
positive replies in a questionnaire, etc.., may constitute population of measurements or
observations, such aggregates maybe finite, or infinite, real or fictitious.

A sample (n) is a finite number of objects selected from the population. If the
objects are chosen in such a way that an object has a good chance of being selected,
we say that we have a random sample. It should be noted that some objects may
have identical measurements so that one measurement is not necessarily as likely to
occur as another.
A population therefore is an aggregate of persons, events, objects, reactions to certain
stimuli that have unique qualities or characteristics of the population. The
representativeness of sample depends on how well the sampling technique has been
employed.
 Variable refers to a factor, property, attribute, characteristic, or behavior that
differentiates a group of persons, set of things, events , conditions, or approaches from
another group(s) or set(s) and which takes on two or more dimensions, categories, or
levels with descriptive or numerical values that can be measured qualitatively and/ or
quantitatively.

Types of Variables
 Qualitative variables
These are non-measurable characteristics that cannot assume a numerical
value but can be classified into two or more categories.

Classifications of qualitative variables:

Dichotomous variables - variable that may take two categories.

Example: gender is qualitative dichotomous since an individual may take
one of the two categories “male” or female”.

Trichotomous variables- variable that may take three categories.

Example: in an opinion poll, the response of an individual toward an issue
whether to go “for” it, “against” it or “undecided”.

Multinomous variables- variable that may take four or more categories.

Example: smoking habits of an individual may be classified as “always”.
“Often”, “seldom”, or “never”,

 Quantitative variables- those quantities that can be counted and can be

measured with the use of some measuring devices, or can be calculated with
the use of mathematical formula. Those data that are obtained about
quantitative variables are called quantitative data.

Classifications:

Continuous variables- These are the variables whose levels can take on
any value within a specified range. With these variables, you can make
measurements of varying degrees of precision. The size and accuracy of the
measurements that you can make along this line depends on the way that the
measurements are made.

Examples:
age, height, weight, salary, volume, total revenue, dollar deposits,
monthly income, grade point average.

Discrete variables- These are the variables whose values or levels cannot
take the form of fraction or decimals. They can only be expressed in the form
of integers.

Examples:
number of children in the family, population MA units earned, age as of
last birthday in years, wedding guests, number of households.
 When the relationship between one variable and another variable is studied in
hypothesis testing, one is called the independent variable and the other is the dependent
variable.

An independent variable refers to the factor, attribute, characteristic, property or

approach that is introduced, manipulated or treated to determine if it influences or causes a
change on the dependent variable.

A dependent variable is the condition or characteristic that appear, or change as

the researcher introduces, removes or changes the independent variable.

Stated in another way, the independent variable (x) is the antecedent, cause,
predictor, stimulus, or input that is introduced at the outset of the investigation. Whereas,
the dependent variable (y) is the consequent, effect, criterion, response, or output that is
analyzed and treated statistically during the investigation for purpose of hypothesis testing.

If another secondary independent variable is included as part of the study to

determine whether it modifies the relationship between the independent and the dependent
variables, then it is called the moderator variable (z).

On the other hand a constant refers to a property whereby the members of the
group or set do not differ from one another. It is something which does not vary from one
member to another within a particular set of defined conditions.

It must be noted that whether a characteristics is designated as a constant or a

variable depends of course on the study in question.

Examples 1: Identify the variables and constant in a study of the administrative capability
of the local government official of Region 1in relation to their personal attributes such as
age, sex education attainment, and length of service.

Constants: agency (lgu), locale (region I)

Variables: administrative capability (dependent variable)
age, sex, educational attainment, length of service(Independent
variables)

Examples 2: Identify the variables and constant in a study of the administrative capability
of women LGU officials of Region I in relation to their personal attributes.

Constants: agency (lgu), locale (region I), sex (female)

Variables: administrative capability, personal attributes (age, educational
attainment, length of service)

Since constants are characteristics that do not vary in a given population, the study
of constants is neither interesting nor informative. The major focus of any statistical study is
therefore on the variables rather than the constants.