PREFACE

“Statistics is useful”, is an understatement. Practically, statistics is used in

almost all disciplines – education, psychology, business, sociology, science and

technology, physical sciences, engineering, medicine, sports, law, agriculture and

many others. In general sense, statistics aids decision making, helps in predicting

future outcomes, aids in making inferences and helps in comparisons or

establishing relationships

Nevertheless, statistics as a course in college and even in graduate

programs is commonly perceived as difficult and is not liked by some students, just

like any other mathematics-related courses. Most, if not all statistical analyses

involve long and tedious calculations, thus appearing to be very intimidating and

even threatening. This module aims to present the topics in statistics in the

simplest possible way and emphasize the use of the Statistical Package for

Social Science (SPSS) software to avoid the wearisome calculations, especially

for inferential statistics. Thus, the focus of the discussion is on the interpretation

and analyses of results rather than the computation of statistical values. This

module likewise highlights how to write the results of the analysis in standard

format.

It therefore aims to help students realize that statistics is not only useful

but enjoyable as well.

 MODULE 1

BASIC CONCEPTS IN STATISTICS

1. To familiarize with the basic concepts, meanings, nature

and importance of statistics

2. To distinguish type of data and levels of measurement

3. To identify the type of variable given a research problem

Introduction

The term statistics may have different meanings to different people. A

psychologist for example who investigates an intervention program to help reduce
anxiety and depression, statistics are used as evidence of the effectiveness of the
program. To an appliance store manager, statistics may refer to the brand of
electric fan or refrigerator most consumers buy. To a school principal, statistics
are information regarding increase or decrease in school enrolment, faculty salary,
dropout rate and absenteeism. To a college student, statistics are his scores on
quizzes, exams and assignments. While they use it in different ways and purposes,
they are all using statistics correctly.

Statistics as a Tool in Research

Generally, statistics means numerical observation. As a tool in scientific

inquiry, statistics refers to the methods in collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of data. When you collect data, you utilize questionnaires,
interviews, tests, observations and experiments. When you present data, you
organize data in the forms of tables, graphs or charts. When you analyze data,
you extract relevant significant information from the gathered data. Lastly, when
you interpret data, you draw conclusions or inferences.
Statistics may be divided into two broad categories – descriptive and inferential
statistics.

Descriptive statistics is concerned with summary calculations. It largely

involves gathering, classification and presentation of data. Examples of
descriptive statistics are the class average of examination, average salary, range
of family income, percentage of students who obtained a grade higher than 90.

Inferential statistics involves making inferences, estimates or predictions

about a large set of data (called a population) using the information gathered from
a smaller set of data (called a sample). Aside from providing a description of a
particular data set, predictions and inferences are also made. Examples of
inferential statistics are t-test, correlation and regression analyses, analysis of
variance (ANOVA), and non- parametric tests such as chi-squares (2) . In
statistics, the descriptive measure of the population is called a parameter while a
descriptive measure of a sample is called statistic

Variables and Measurement

Variables are the characteristics or conditions that the experimenter

manipulates, controls or observes. It is the characteristic or attribute of the person
or objects, which assumes different values (numerical/quantitative) or labels
(qualitative). The process of assigning the value or label is called measurement.

Independent variable – variables that (probably) cause, influence, or

affect outcomes. It is also called treatment, manipulated, antecedent or
predictor variable.

Dependent variable – variables that depend on the independent variables.

They are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent
variable. It is also called criterion, outcome or effect variable

Anxiety Test Scores

(Independent) (Dependent Variable)
Example: Do anxious students get lower scores on the test?
Moderating variable – variables that influence the direction and/or
magnitude of the relationship between the independent and the dependent
variable

Anxiety Test Scores

(Independent) (Dependent Variable)

IQ
(Moderator)

Example: Do anxious students get lower scores on the test, whether they
have low or high IQ? (i.e. Students who are anxious have lower test
scores, only for those with low IQ, but not with high IQ).

Mediating variable – “stand between” variable. The variable that explains

the relationship between the independent and the dependent variable.

Less effort
Anxiety (Mediator) Test Scores
(Independent ) (Dependent )

Example: Does effort mediate or explain why anxious students get lower
scores on the test? (i.e. If students are anxious, they will not exert effort in
studying, and this will lead to lower scores)

Control variable – a special type of independent variable that is measured

in a study because it potentially influence the dependent variable.

Anxiety Test Scores

(Independent) (Dependent)

Gender
Type of school
 Example: Do anxious students get lower test sores when gender and type
of school are held constant. (i.e. When gender and type of school are held
constant, do anxious students get lower scores)

TYPES OF VARIABLES

Qualitative variable yields categorical or qualitative response. It refers to

the attributes or characteristics of the sample. Examples: Gender (male,
female), Likert Scale (strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree)

Quantitative variable yields numerical or continuous response

representing an amount or quantity. Examples: age, temperature.

Data gathered are either discrete or continuous. Discrete variables

assume finite or countable values. It takes integral values and usually gives
rise to counting numbers such as number of children (0,1,2,3) , number of
female students enrolled (i.e. 15) . Continuous variables cannot take on
finite values but the values are related with points on an interval. Thus, it
takes any value within a specified range of values. It usually gives rise to
measurement such as height (i.e. 5’8”), temperature (i.e. 37.8 oC)

Levels of Measurement

The level of measurement refers to the relationship among the values that
are assigned to the attributes for a variable. It is important to understand this for
two very important reasons:

1. It helps you decide how to interpret the data from that variable.

2. It helps you decide what statistical analysis is appropriate on the values

that were assigned.

a. Nominal

Nominal level is the crudest form of measurement. It consists of numbers

which indicates categories. Variables can be named, but not quantified. The
categories are mutually exclusive, that is, being in one category automatically
excludes the other. Nominal variables are coded with numbers, but the magnitude
of the number is arbitrary. Thus the numbers have no mathematical value
assigned to them. If for example one basketball player wears jersey number 23
(the center) and another player wears jersey number 18 (the guard), it does not
make sense to add these numbers.

Examples: 1. Sex: 1- male, 2 –female

2. Marital Status: 1-single , 2-married, 3-divorced
3. Faculty tenure: 1- permanent, 2- temporary
4. Dialect spoken: 1- Ilokano , 2- Tagalog, 3-Pampango, 4- Cebuano
5. Type of school graduated from :1- public, 2- private
Note: If the variable has only two values, it is referred to as Dichotomous
variable.

b. Ordinal

It is a sort of improvement of nominal level in terms of precision of

measurement. The values given to measurement can be ordered, from “bottom to
top” or “low to high” manner. Values assigned represent a rough quantitative
sense to their measurement, but the differences between scores are not
necessarily equal. The variables are in order, but not fixed. Nevertheless, we can
use statements such as “greater than” or “less than”. For instance, Student A
ranked 1st on the test while Student B ranked 2nd. While it is true that we do not
know how much better Student A is as compared to Student B, we can infer that
the score of Student A is greater than the score of Student B.

Examples:
1. Socio-economic status : 1 – low 2- average 3- high
2. Letter grades : A,B,C,D,E,F
 3 .Likert Scale (5-point scale)
Strongly Agree 5
Agree 4
Neither agree nor disagree 3
Disagree 2
Strongly Disagree 1

4. Highest educational attainment:

1- elementary, 2- high school , 3- college , 4- masteral
5. Evaluation: Low-High (Dichotomized)

c. Interval

Interval level possesses the properties of the nominal and ordinal data. It
has equal intervals providing information about how much better one value is
compared with another. Measurements are not only classified and ordered, but the
distances between each scale are equal. However, zero is arbitrary. For instance,
0oC does not mean the absence of temperature, rather the temperature where
water freezes, or an IQ of 0 does not indicate the absence of knowledge , rather
the person belongs to the low ( or very low) performer category. Moreover, aside
from determining that one value if greater or less than another, addition and
subtraction have meanings.

Examples:
1. Temperature (i.e.,oC). The distance between 10 oC - 20 oC is the same
as the distance between 50oC - 60 oC . But, it does not mean that a
temperature of 50oC is 5 times hotter than 10oC.

2. IQ scores . The IQ scores of four Students A, B , C and D are 90, 140,

80,and 130, respectively. The difference between 90 and 140 is the same
as the difference between 80 and 130 but we cannot claim that the second
student is twice as intelligent than the first.
d. Ratio

Ratio level possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal and interval
levels. In addition, this has an absolute zero point which indicates the total
absence of the property being measured. Numbers can be compared as multiples
of one another. For instance, If Carlo is 5 years old and his father is 30, then, his
father is six times older. Moreover, all mathematical procedures are appropriate
with ratio scales.

Examples: age, income, exam scores, grades of students, height, and weight.

Note: In statistical practice, ratio variables are subjected to operations that treat
them as interval and ignore their ratio properties

The table below summarizes the characteristics of the various levels of

measurement

Levels of Measurement Classify Order Equal Limits Absolute Zero

Nominal Yes No No No
Ordinal Yes Yes No No
Interval Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes
ACTIVITIES

I. Classify each of the following as either nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio

level of measurement.

___1. House numbers

___2. Type of blood

___3. Breed of swine

___4. Cell phone numbers
___5. First second and third place in a dance contest
___6. Attitude towards same sex marriage (favor, not in favor)
___7. Number of live births
___8. Distance travelled

___9. Monthly income

___10. Cellphone number
___11. Brand of electric fan

___12. Number of siblings

___13. Birth order of children in the family
___14. T-shirt sizes

___15. Socio economic status

II. Classify whether the number obtained in the following is discrete or
continuous.

___1. Distance of the school to your house

___2. Volume of a bucket of water

___3. Number of chairs in the classroom

___4. Number of graduates who passed the board exam
___5. Floor area of the classroom

___6. Scores of students in the final exam

___7. Number of electric fans sold
___8. Number of seminars and trainings attended

___9. Height of basketball players

___10. Number of school children vaccinated
___11. Number of varieties of rice

___12. Number of research published

___13. Speed of cars in kilometers per hour
___14. Blood pressure

___15. Amount of rainfall collected

III. Below are titles of research studies. Identify the independent and
dependent variables. Write your answers on the table that follows. WRITE
ONLY THE KEY VARIABLE.

1. Scholastic and non-scholastic factors affecting the academic performance of

Grade 10 students.
2. The advantages of modern technology on students’ academic performance.
3. The relationship between the personal characteristics and professional
competencies of presidents of State Universities
4. The effects of adding 2 more years to the Basic Education Curriculum (K to 12)
5. Gender and Achievement: A comparative study on the Math performance of
female and male students of the College of Education.
6. Questioning techniques and student’s class participation in an English class
7. Poor students’ academic performance and teacher shortage. A correlation
analysis
8. The influence of parents’ involvement on the academic performance of children
9. The effect of everyday graded recitation on motivation, engagement and
achievement of freshmen students.
10. A comparative investigation on the levels of intrinsic motivation of students
with high and low self-efficacy.

Item Independent variable/s Dependent variable/s

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
IV. Identify whether the underlined variable is
a. Independent c. Moderator e. Control
b. Dependent d. Mediator

___1. There is a significant relationship between students’ IQ and parent’s

highest educational qualification.
___2. The researcher investigates the influence of giving problem sets to the
motivation of students and the teacher will eliminate the influence of positive
feedback to students motivation.
___3. The researcher investigates the influence of giving positive feedback to
the motivation of students while making effort constant.
___4. The researcher investigates the influence of giving positive feedback to the
motivation of students while making effort constant.
___5. Academic performance is affected by parent’s involvement because the
more involved the parents are, the higher motivation the students have, and
in turn improves academic performance
___6. Academic performance is affected by parent’s involvement because the
more involve the parents, the higher motivation the students have, and in
turn improves academic performance
___7. Academic performance is affected by parent’s involvement because the
more involved the parents, the higher motivation the students have, and in
turn improves academic performance
___8. Students who have good class standing performed poorly on the test
because of high test anxiety.
___9. Students from public school who are males have higher academic
performance compared to students from public schools who are females
___10. Females have higher effort that males, only for students with high
motivation.