Statistics

 
Def.: "set of mathematical procedures for organizing, summarizing, and interpreting information"
 
What's it good for?
 To pass the exam
 For your research project/thesis
 To assess the quality of scientific studies
 If you want to work in research
 Our brain is a true statistics machine
o Apart from a few "programmed" needs/reflexes, everything we think and
perceive is shaped by statistical processes.
o Brain learned over many "samples" to interpret visual input statistical
relationships.
Statistics: What is it good for?
 Understanding statistical principles can therefore help us understand human thinking, to
formalize it and analyze it objectively.
 This can also show us how "statistically errors" can lead to distorted representations of
reality and potential misjudgments.
 Statistics are used to predict important outcomes and make decisions about things in
every day life
o Weather
o Political elections
o How likely you are to wreck your car
 
♡ SOME BASIC TERMS ♡
 
Population: Entire group of individuals is called the population.
 
Sample: A smaller group selected from the population.
 
*sometimes not able to test the entire population, so instead calculate from sample to come to
conclusions about population.
 
Variable: A characteristic or condition that can change or take on different values.
 
Data (pl.): The measurements obtained in a research study are called the data.
 
 
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
 
They are methods for organizing and summarizing data.
A descriptive value for a population is called a parameter and a descriptive value for a sample is
called a statistic.
 
Example:
 
244/404 students filled out the survey. (sample of the population, so it’s a statistic)
3% were in UTC+8. (statistic)
 
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
 
They are methods for using sample data to make a general conclusions (inferences) about
populations.
 
PSYC 204 students who answered time zone survey -> whole PSYC 204 class
 
Sampling error
 
The discrepancy between a sample statistic and its population parameter is called sampling error.

 
Comparison between descriptive and inferential statistics
Descriptive:
 Summarize data
 Organize data
 Simplify data
Examples
 Tables
 Graphs
 Averages
 
 
Learning check
 
Answer (D)
 
Types od variables
 
Discrete variables
 Has separate, indivisible categories
 No values can exist between two neighbouring categories
o Example: Students could only score 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 or 3 points. It's discrete
because it's a finite number of scores with no possible values in between those
scores.
Continuous variable
 Has infinite number of possible values between any two observed values
 Is divisible into infinite number of fractional parts
 
Real Limits of Continuous Variables
 Because continuous variables can be subdivided again and again, we need limits.
 Real limits are the boundaries of each interval representing scores measured on a
continuous number line.
o The real limit separating two adjacent scores is exactly halfway between the two
scores.
o Each score has two limits:
 The upper real limit marks the top of the interval.
 The lower real limit marks the bottom of the interval.
 
Measuring variables and scales
  Measurement assigns individuals or events to categories
o Categories can be names such as introvert/ extrovert or employed/unemployed
o They can be numerical value such as 68 inches or 175 pounds
 The categories used to measure a variable make up a scale of measurement
 Relationships between the categories determine different types of scales
 
 
 A nominal scale is an unordered set of categories identified only by name. Nominal
measurements only permit you to determine whether two individuals are the same or
different.

 An ordinal scale is an ordered set of categories. Ordinal measurements tell you the
direction of difference between two individuals.
 
 An interval scale is an ordered series of equal-sized categories. Interval measurements
identify the direction and magnitude of a difference. The zero point is located arbitrarily
on an interval scale.
The ZERO doesn’t mean NONE of the quantity – What is an example of this?
 Example: pH, SAT score, credit score.
 
 A ratio scale is an interval scale where a value of zero indicates none of the variable.
Ratio measurements identify the direction and magnitude of differences and allow ratio
comparisons of measurements.
 *All ratio scales are interval scales.
 
 

 
 
Learning check 2
 
Answer is C
 
Research methods
 
 Descriptive research (individual variables)
 One (or more) variables measured per individual.
 Statistics describe the observed variable
 May use categorical and/or numerical variables
 Not concerned with relationships between variables.
 
Example: Fluffiness of cats
 
 Correlational method
 One group of participants
 Measurement of two variables for each participant
 The goal is to describe type and magnitude of the relationship
 Patterns in the data reveal relationships
o Nonexperimental method of study
 Can demonstrate the existence of a relationship between two variables
 Does not provide an explanation for the relationship
 Most importantly, does NOT demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship
between the two variables.
 Ex. salaries of recent graduates in spain vs france.
 
 Experimental method
 Goal is to demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables.
 Manipulation: level of one variable is determined by the experimenter
 Control rules out influence of other variables.
 
Methods of control
 Random assignment of subjects
 Matching of subjects
 Holding the level of some potentially influential variables constant
Control condition
 Individuals do not receive the experimental treatment
  They either receive no treatment or they receive a neutral,
placebo treatment
 Purpose: to provide a baseline for comparison with the experimental condition
Experimental condition
 Individuals do receive the experimental treatment
 Experimental comparison between groups.
 
Important terminology
 Independent variable (IV): the variable that is manipulated by the researcher.
 Dependent variable (DV): the one that is observed to assess the effect of treatment.
 
 
 Other types of research studies, know as non-experimental or quasi- experimental, are
similar to experiments because they also compare groups of scores.
o *Quasi-independent variables are those who are uninfluenced by one another.
 These studies do not use a manipulated variable to differentiate the groups. Instead, the
variable that differentiates the groups is usually a pre-existing participant variable (such
as male/female) or a time variable (such as before/after).
 Because these studies do not use the manipulation and control of true experiments, they
cannot demonstrate cause and effect relationships. As a result, they are similar to
correlational research because they simply demonstrate and describe relationships.
 
Learning check 3
 
Answer is D.
 
Learning Check 4
 
Answer is D. type of research method - experimental comparison of groups.
 
Statistical Notation
 Statistics uses operation and notations you have already learned (Appendix A has a
mathematical review)
 The individual measurements or scores obtained for a research participant will be
identified by the letter X (or X and Y if there are multiple scores for each individual)
 The number of scores in a data set will be identified by N for a population or n for a
sample.
 
 Summing a set of values is a common operation in statistics and has its own notation. The
Greek letter sigma, will be used to stand for "the sum of." For example, identifies the sum
of the X scores.
 
  
 
Learning check 5

Answer is B.
 
On Mindtap,
 
Which of the following lists the correct order for calculating ∑( X –  1)2?
 
This is correct: d. subtract 1 from every term, square the result of each subtraction, and then add
up the squares.