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Electromagnetic Theory
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Electrical Engineering
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Syllabus
Syllabus for Electromagnetic Theory
Coulomb's Law, Electric Field Intensity, Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law, Divergence, Electric Field
and Potential due to Point, Line, Plane and Spherical Charge Distributions, Effect of Dielectric
Medium, Capacitance of Simple Configurations, Biot‐Savart’s Law, Ampere’s Law, Curl, Faraday’s
Law, Lorentz Force, Inductance, Magnetomotive Force, Reluctance, Magnetic Circuits, Self and
Mutual Inductance of Simple Configurations.
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Analysis of GATE Papers
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Year Percentage of Marks Overall Percentage
2015 4.00
2014
2013
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3.60
4.00
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2012 2.00
2011 2.00
2.627%
2010 0.00
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2009 0.00
2008 4.00
2007 6.00
2006 0.67
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Contents
Contents
Chapters Page No.

#1. Electromagnetic Field 1 – 46
 Introduction 1
 Operators 2–7
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 Material and Physical Constants 7–8
 Electromagnetic (EM Field) 8–9
 Electric Field Intensity 9 – 12
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 Electric Dipole 12 – 17
 Divergence of Current Density and Relaxation 18
 Boundary Conditions 19 – 21




The Magnetic Vector Potential
Faraday’s Law
Maxwell’s Equation’s
Magnetic Field
ra 21 – 25
25 – 27
27 – 28
28 – 32
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 Solved Examples 32 – 38
 Assignment 1 39 – 41
 Assignment 2 41 – 42
 Answer Keys & Explanations 43 – 46
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Module Test 47 – 50
 Test Questions 47 – 48
 Answer Keys & Explanations 49 – 50
Reference Books 51
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“Picture yourself vividly as winning and that

alone will contribute immeasurably to success."
…Harry Fosdick
1
Electromagnetic
CHAPTER
Field
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Elements of Vector Calculus
2. Operators, Curl, Divergence
4. Gauss's Law, Electric Potential

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3. Electromagnetic Coulombs’ law, Electric Field Intensity, Electric Dipole, Electric Flux Density
5. Divergence of Current Density and Relaxation

6. Boundary Conditions
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7. Biot-Savart’s Law, Ampere Circuit Law, Continuity Equation
8. Magnetic Vector Potential, Energy Density of Electric & Magnetic Fields, Stored Energy in
Inductance
9. Faraday’s Law, Motional EMF, Induced EMF Approach
As
10. Maxwell’s Equations
Introduction
Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), −∞ < x < ∞, −∞ < y < ∞, −∞ < z < ∞
Cylindrical coordinates (ρ , ϕ, z), 0 ≤ ρ < ∞, 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π, −∞ < z < ∞
Spherical coordinates (r, θ, ϕ ) , 0 ≤ r < ∞, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π
Other valid alternative range of θ and ϕ are-----
G
(i) 0 ≤ θ < 2π, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π

(ii) −π ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π
(iii) − 2 ≤ θ ≤ π⁄2 , 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π
π
(iv) 0 < θ ≤ π, −π ≤ ϕ < π

C
Vector Calculus Formula
SL. No Cartesian Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates Spherical Coordinates

(a) Differential Displacement dl = dρaρ + ρdϕaϕ +dzaz dl = drar + rdθaθ + r sin
dl = dx ax + dy ay + dz az θdϕaϕ
(b) Differential Area dS = ρ dϕ dz aρ ds = r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ ar
dS = dy dz ax = d ρ dz aϕ = r sin θ dr dϕ aθ
= dx dz ay = ρdρd ϕ az = r dr dθ aϕ
= dx dy az
(c) Differential Volume dv = ρ dρ dϕ dz dv = r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ dr
dv = dx dy dz
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Electromagnetic Field
Operators
1) ∇ V – Gradient, of a Scalar V
2) ∇ V – Divergence, of a Vector V
3) ∇ × V – Curl, of a Vector V
4) ∇2 V – Laplacian, of a Scalar V
DEL Operator:
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = ax + ay + a (Cartesian)
s
∂x ∂y ∂z z
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
= aρ + aϕ + a (Cylindrical)
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z z
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∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
= ar + aθ + a (Spherical)
∂r r ∂θ rsi n θ ∂ϕ ϕ
Gradient of a Scalar field
∇V =
∂V
∂x
ax +
∂V
∂y
ay +
∂V
∂z z
a For Cartisian Coordinates
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V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of maximum space rate of
increase of V.
pi
∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
= aρ + aϕ + a For Spherical Coordinates
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z z
∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
= ar + aθ + a For Cylindrical Coordinates
∂r r ∂θ rsi n θ ∂ϕ ϕ
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The following are the fundamental properties of the gradient of a scalar field V
1. The magnitude of ∇V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit distance.
2. ∇V points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V.
3. ∇V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that passes through that point.
4. If A = ∇V, V is said to be the scalar potential of A.
5. The projection of ∇V in the direction of a unit vector a is ∇V. a and is called the directional
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derivative of V along a. This is the rate of change of V in direction of a.
Example: Find the Gradient of the following scalar fields:

(a) V = e−z sin 2x cosh y
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(b) U = ρ2 z cos 2ϕ
(c) W = 10r sin2θ cos ϕ
Solution:
∂V ∂V ∂V
(a) ∇V = a + a + az
∂x x ∂y y ∂z
−z
= 2e cos 2x cosh y ax + e−z sin 2x sinh y ay − e−z sin 2x cosh y az
∂U 1 ∂U ∂U
(b) ∇U = a
∂ρ ρ
+ ρ ∂ϕ aϕ + ∂z az
= 2ρz cos 2ϕ aρ − 2ρz sin 2ϕ aϕ + ρ2 cos 2 ϕ az
∂W 1 ∂W 1 ∂W
(c) ∇W = ar + aθ + aϕ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
= 10 sin2 θ cos ϕ ar + 10 sin 2θ cos ϕ aθ − 10 sin θ sinϕ aϕ
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Divergence of a Vector
Statement: Divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume
shrinks about P.
Hence,
∮ A . ds
DivA = ∇. A = lim S … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
∆v→0 ∆v
Where, ∆v is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in which P is located. Physically, we may
regard the divergence of the vector field A at a given point as a measure of how much the field
s
diverges or emanates from that point.
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
∇. A = + Cartisian System
∂x ∂y ∂z
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1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ ∂A z P
= (ρAρ ) + + Cylindrical System
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ
= 2 (r Ar ) + (Aθ sin θ) + Sphearical System
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
From equation (1),
∮ A . dS = ∫ ∇ . A dv
S V
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This is called divergence theorem which states that the total outward flux of the vector field A
pi
through a closed surface S is same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.
Example: Determine the divergence of these vector field

As
(a) P = x 2 yzax + xzaz

(b) Q = ρ sin ϕ aρ + ρ2 zaϕ + z cos ϕ az
1
(c) T = r2 cos θ ar + r sin θ cos ϕ aθ + cos θ aϕ
Solution:
∂ ∂ ∂
(a) ∇. P = ∂x Px + ∂y Py + ∂z Pz
∂ 2 ∂ ∂
= (x yz) + (0) + (xz)
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∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2xyz + x
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
(b) ∇ . Q = ρ ∂ρ (ρQρ ) + ρ ∂ϕ Qϕ + ∂z Qz
C
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 2 ∂
= (ρ sin ϕ) + (ρ z) + (z cos ϕ)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
= 2 sin ϕ + cos ϕ
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
(c) ∇. T = (r 2 Tr ) + (Tθ sin θ) + (Tϕ )
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
= 2
(cos θ) + (r sin 2 θ cos ϕ) + (cos θ)
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
1
=0+ 2r sin θ cos θ cos ϕ + 0
r sin θ
= 2 cos θ cos ϕ
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Curl of a Vector
Curl of a Vector field provides the maximum value of the circulation of the field per unit area and
indicates the direction along which this maximum value occurs.
That is,
∮ A . dl
Curl A = ∇ × A = lim ( L ) an … … … … … … … . . (2)
ΔS→0 ∆S max
ax ay az
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×A = | |
s
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az
aρ ρaϕ az
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1 ∂ ∂ ∂
= | |
ρ ∂ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
Aρ ρA ϕ Az
aρ raθ r sin θ aϕ
= 2
1
||
∂
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ
∂ ∂
∂ϕ |
A r rAθ r sin θ Aϕ
From equation (2) we may expect that
|
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pi
∮ A dl = ∫(∇ × A) . ds
L
S
This is called stoke’s theorem, which states that the circulation of a vector field A around a (closed)
As
path L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L, Provided
A and Δ × A are continuous no s.
Example: Determine the curl of each of the vector fields.

(a) P = x 2 yz ax + xzaz
(b) Q = ρ sin ϕaρ + ρ2 zaϕ + z cos ϕaz
1
(c) T = r2 cos θ ar + r sinθ cos ϕaθ + cos ϕ aϕ
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Solution:
∂P ∂Py ∂Px ∂Pz ∂Py ∂Px
(a) ∇ × P = ( z − ) ax + ( − ) ay + ( − )a
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y z
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= (0 − 0)ax + (x 2 y − z)ay + (0 − x 2 z)az

= (x 2 y − z)ay − x 2 zaz
1 ∂Qz ∂Qϕ ∂Qρ ∂Qz 1 ∂ ∂Qρ

(b) ∇ × Q = [ − ] aρ + [ − ] aϕ + [ (ρQϕ ) − ]a
ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ∂z ∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ∂ϕ z
−z 1
= ( sin ϕ − ρ2 ) aρ + (0 − 0)aϕ + (3ρ2 z − ρ cos ϕ)az
ρ ρ
1
= − (z sin ϕ + ρ3 )aρ + (3ρz − cos ϕ)az
ρ
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1 ∂ ∂
(c) ∇ × T = [ (Tϕ sin θ) − T ]a
r sin θ ∂θ ∂ϕ θ r
1 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
+ [ Tr − (rTϕ )] aθ + [ (rTθ ) − Tr ] aϕ
r sin θ ∂ϕ ∂r r ∂r ∂θ
1 ∂ ∂
= [ (cos θ sin θ) − (r sin θ cos ϕ)] ar
r sin θ ∂θ ∂ϕ
1 1 ∂ (cos θ) ∂
+ [ − (r cos θ)] aθ
r sin θ ∂ϕ r 2 ∂r
1 ∂ 2 ∂ (cos θ)
s
+ [ (r sin θ cos ϕ) − ] aϕ
r ∂r ∂θ r 2
1 1
= (cos 2θ + r sin θ sin ϕ)ar + (0 − cos θ)aθ
nt
r sin θ r
1 sin θ
+ (2r sin θ cos ϕ + 2 ) aϕ
r r
cos 2θ cos θ 1
=( + sin ϕ) ar − aθ + (2 cos ϕ + 3 ) sin θ aϕ
r sin θ r r
Laplacian
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(a) Laplacian of a scalar field V, is the divergence of the gradient of V and is written as ∇2 V.
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
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∇2 V = 2 + 2 + 2 → For Cartisian Coordinates
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇2 V = (ρ ) + 2 2 + 2 → For Cylindrical Coordinates
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂2 V
As
= 2 (r 2 ) + 2 (sin θ ) + 2 → For Spherical Coordinates

r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ2
If ∇2 V = 0, V is said to be harmonic in the region.
A vector field is solenoid if ∇.A = 0; it is irrotational or conservative if ∇ × A = 0
∇. (∇ × A) = 0
∇ × (∇V) = 0
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(b) Laplacian of Vector A ̅

2⃗
∇ A = ⋯ is always a vector quantity
⃗ = (∇2 Ax )âx + (∇2 Ay )ây + (∇2 Az )âz
∇2 A
∇2 Ax → Scalar quantity
C
∇2 Ay → Scalar quantity
∇2 Az → Scalar quantity
−p
∇2 V = ϵ ........Poission’s E.q.
∇2 V = 0 ........Laplace E.q.
∂E⃗ ∂2 E
∇2 E = μσ + μE 2 . . . . . . . wave E. q.
∂t ∂t
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Example: The potential (scalar) distribution in free space is given as V = 10y 4 + 20x 3 .
If ε0 : permittivity of free space what is the charge density ρ at the point (2,0)?
ρ
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Poission’s Equation ∇2 V = −
ε
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 −ρ
( 2 + 2 + 2 ) (10 y 4 + 20x 3 ) =
∂x ∂y ∂z ε0
∵ ε = εr ε0 [ε = ε0 as εr = 1]
−ρ
20 × 3 × 2x + 10 × 4 × 3y 2 = ε
0
−ρ
s
At pt(2, 10) ⇒ 20 × 3 × 2 × 2 = ρ = −240ε0
ε0
nt
Example: Find the Laplacian of the following scalar fields
(a) V = e−z sin 2x cosh y
(b) U = ρ2 z cos 2ϕ
(c) W = 10r sin2 θ cos ϕ
the second derivative.

∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
(a) ∇2 V = 2 + 2 + 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
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Solution: The Laplacian in the Cartesian system can be found by taking the first derivative and later
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∂ ∂ ∂
= (2e−z cos 2x cosh y) + (e−z sin 2x sinh y) + (−e−z sin 2x cosh y)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −4e−z sin 2x cosh y + e−z sin 2x cosh y + e−z sin 2x cosh y
= −2e−z sin 2x cosh y
As
1 ∂ ∂U 1 ∂2 U ∂2 U
(b) ∇2 U = (ρ ) + 2 2 + 2
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ 1
= (2ρ2 z cos 2ϕ) − 2 4ρ2 z cos 2ϕ + 0
ρ ∂ρ ρ
= 4z cos 2ϕ − 4z cos 2ϕ
=0
1 ∂ ∂W 1 ∂ ∂W 1 ∂2 W
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(c) ∇2 W = 2 (r 2 )+ 2 (sin θ )+ 2
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin2 θ ∂ϕ2
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 10r sin2 θ cos ϕ
= 2 (10 r 2 sin2 θ cos ϕ) + 2 (10r sin 2θ sin θ cos ϕ) −
r ∂r r sinθ ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ
2
20 sin θ cos ϕ 20r cos 2θ sin θ cos ϕ 10r sin 2θ cos θ cos ϕ 10 cos ϕ
C
= + + −
r r 2 sin θ r 2 sin θ r
10 cos ϕ
= (2 sin2 θ + 2 cos 2θ + 2 cos2 θ − 1)
r
10 cos ϕ
= (1 + 2 cos 2θ)
r
Stoke’s Theorem
⃗ integrated over any closed curve C is always equal to
Statement: Closed line integral of any vector A
⃗ integrated over the surface area ‘s’ which is enclosed by the
the surface integral of curl of vector A
closed curve ‘c’.
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∮ ⃗A . dL
⃗ = ∫ ∫(∇ × ⃗A) dS⃗
S
The theorem is valid irrespective of
s
(i) Shape of closed curve ‘C’
(ii) Type of vector ‘A’
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(iii) Type of co-ordinate system
Divergence Theorem
S
V ra
pi
⃗ dS⃗ = ∭ ⃗V. A
∯A ⃗ dv
S V
Statement: Closed surface integral of any vector A ⃗ integrated over any closed surface area. S is
As
always equal to the volume integral of the divergence of vector A ⃗ integrated over the volume V
which is enclosed by the closed surface are ‘S’ the theorem holds good, irrespective
(i) Shape of closed surface
(ii) Type of coordinate system
(iii) Type of vector ⃗A
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Material & Physical Constants

(a) Material Constants
Material Conductivity (σ ) S/m Relative Permittivity (εr)
Air 0 1.0006
C
Aluminum 3.186 × 107 1.0

Bakelite 10−14 5
Brass 2.564 × 107 1
Carbon 3 × 104 −
Copper 5.8 × 107 1
Glass 10−13 6
Graphite 105 −
Mica 10−15 6
Paper − 3
Paraffin 10−15 2.1
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Plexiglas − 3.4
Polystyrene 10−16 2.7
PVC − 2.7
Porcelain − 5
Quartz 10−17 5
Rubber 10−13 5
Rutile − 100
Soil(Clay) 5 × 10−3 14
2 × 10−3
s
(Sandy) 10
Urban ground 2 × 10−4 4
Vaseline − 2.2
nt
Terflon 10−15 2.1
Water (Distilled) 10−4 80
(Fresh) 10−2 to 10−3 80
(Sea) 4 to 5 80
Wood
Transformer oil
Ebonite
Epoxy
−
−
−
−
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2 to 3
2.6
4
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(b) Physical Constants
Permittivity of free space, ∊0 = 8.854×10-12 F/m = (1/36 π) 10-9 F/m
As
Permeability of free space, μ0 = 4π×10-7 H/m

Impedance of free space, η0 = 120 π Ohms = 377 Ohms
Velocity of free space, c = 3 ×108 m/sec = 3 ×1010 cm/sec
Charge of an Electron, q = 1.602 × 10-19 C
Mass of electron, m = 9.107 × 10 -31 kg
Boltzman’s constant, k = 1.38×10-23 J/0K
Planck’s constant, h = 1.054× 10-34 J-s
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Base of natural logarithm, e = 2.718
Electromagnetic (EM Field)

 In general, electromagnetic field is regarded as interplay between time varying electric and
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magnetic fields. The study of electromagnetic can be accomplished with study of electrostatics,
magneto statics and time varying electric and magnetic fields.
 Electrostatics deals with field related to stationary charge(s). The charge can be positive or
negative. The unit of charge is called a coulomb. The charge of an electron is
e = −1.6019 × 10−19 Coulombs q = |e|
 Charge may be distributed in space or may be concentrated in a small volume at a point.
 A charge that occupies a volume in space may be considered to be a point charge for analysis
purposes if this volume is small compared to the surrounding dimensions.
 A charge density defines charge distribution on a line (or) over a surface (or) throughout a
volume.
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Coulomb’s Law
Statement: “The force between any two point charges Q1 and Q2 is proportional to the product of the
two charges, inversely proportional to square of the distance between the two charges, and directed
along the line connecting the two charges”.
The Mathematical expression of Coulomb’s law is
Q1 Q2
F= ̂
R
4π ε R2
Where (1/4π ε) is proportionality factor
R is the distance between the two charges.
s
̂ is the unit vector pointing form Q1 to Q2 (or) Q2 to Q1.
R
The proportionality factor depends on the material in which the charges are located. ‘∊’ is a material
nt
constant and is called the permittivity of the material and its units are “Farad/meter”.
Force is measured in “Newton”.

ε = ε0 εr , where εr is relative permittivity and ε0 is permittivity of free space.
Electric Field Intensity

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Electric Field Intensity is defined as the force per unit charge, when placed in an electric field and its
unit is Newton/Coulomb (or) Volt/meter.
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The electric field can be viewed as starting at a positive charge and ending at a negative charge. In
the electric field E of a charge (say Q1), if we introduce another charge (say Q2), there will be a force
acting on this charge Q2 .
i.e., F = Q2 E
As
Q r â r
Q
⃗E = â . . . . . . . . . . . . due to pt. chrage
4πε0 R2 r
δ dl
⃗E = ∫ L â . . . . . . . . . . . . (Line Charge)
4πε0 R2 r
C
ps ds
G
⃗ = ∫∫
E â . . . . . . . . . . . . (Surface Charge)
4πεR2 r
S
ρv dv
⃗E = ∫ ∫ ∫ â . . . . . . . . . . . . (Volume Charge)
4πε0 R2 r
C
General Form of Coulomb’s Law
⃗ = r − ⃗⃗r ′
R
R = |R⃗ | = |r − r⃗⃗′ |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
R r − ⃗⃗r ′
̂=
R =
|R⃗ | |r − ⃗⃗r ′ |
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Electrical field
y
̂R
Q
r ⃗R = r − ⃗⃗r ′
Q
⃗⃗r ′
O x
Q Q
⃗E = × â R = ⃗R
4πε0 R 2 4πε0 R3
s
Q(r − r⃗⃗′ )
⃗ =
E 3
4πε0 |r − r⃗⃗′ |
nt
Equipotential surface
An equipotential surface has its every point at equal potential.
Properties:
 Tangential to such surface is zero electric field.

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 The movement of charge over such a surface would require no work.
 Electric field is always perpendicular to an equipotential surface for static fields, a conductor
surface is always an equipotential surface.
pi
Electric Field Intensity of a Finite Line Charge
Consider a line charge with uniform charge density ρL extending from A to B along the z – axis as
shown in
As
For a finite line charge

ρL
E= [−(sin α2 − sin α1 )ar + (cos α2 − cosα1 )az ]
4πε0 ρ
Where ρL is line charge density and r is the perpendicular distance from the line to point of interest.
+π −π
As a special case, for an infinite line charge α1 = and α2 =
2 2
ρL
And E= a
G
2πε0 ρ r
z
r
α2 P (x, y, z)
C
α1
B
A
Y
0
x
The E Field Due to a Line Charge
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For an infinite sheet of charge,

ρs
E= a
2ε0 n
Where ρs is surface charge density of sheet and an is a unit vector normal to sheet.
Example: Point charges 1 mC and −2 mC are located at (3, 2, −1) and (−1, −1, 4), respectively.
Calculate the electric force on a 10 nC charge located at (0, 3, 1) and the electric field
intensity at that point.
Solution:
s
QQk QQk (r − rk )
F= ∑ a R = ∑
4πε0 R2 4πε0 |r − rk |3
k=1,2 k=1,2
nt
Q 10−3 [(0, 3, 1) − (3, 2, −1)] 2 × 10−3 [(0, 3, 1) − (−1, −1, 4)]
= { − }
4πε0 |(0, 3, 1) − (3, 2, −1)|3 |(0, 3, 1) − (−1, −1, 4)|3
10−3 × 10 × 10−9 (−3, 1, 2) 2(1, 4, −3)
= −9 [ − ]
10 (9 + 1 + 4) 3/2 (1 + 16 + 9)3/2
4π × 36π
= 9 × 10−2 [
(−3, 1, 2) (−2, −8, 6)
14√14
+
26√26
F = −6.507 ax − 3.817 ay + 7.506az mN
ra]
pi
At that point,
F
E=
Q
10−3
= (−6.507 − 3.817, 7.506) ×
As
10 × 10−9
E = −650 × 7ax − 381 × 7ay + 750 × 6az kV/m
Example: The finite sheet 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 on the z = 0 plane has a charge density

ρs = xy(x 2 + y 2 + 25)3⁄2 n C/m2 . Find
(a) The total charge on the sheet
(b) The electric field at (0, 0, 5)
G
(c) The force experienced by a −1 mC charge located at (0, 0, 5)

Solution:
1 1
(a) Q = ∫S ρS dS = ∫0 ∫0 xy(x 2 + y 2 + 25)3/2 dx dy nC
C
Since x dx = 1/2 d(x 2 ), we now integrate with respect to x 2 (or change variable:
x 2 = u so that x dx = du⁄2.
1 1
1
Q = ∫ y ∫(x 2 + y 2 + 25)3⁄2 d(x 2 )dy nC
2
0 0
1
1 2 1
= ∫ y (x 2 + y 2 + 25)5⁄2 |0 dy
2 5
0
1
1 1
= ∫ [(y 2 + 26)5⁄2 − (y 2 + 25)5⁄2 ]d(y 2 )
5 2
0
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1 2 2 1
= × [(y + 26)7⁄2 − (y 2 + 25)7/2 ]|0
10 7
1 7
= [(27)7⁄2 + (25)2 − 2(26)7⁄2 ]
35
Q = 33.15 nC
ρS dS aR ρS dS (r − r ′ )
(b) E = ∫ = ∫
4πε0 r 2 4πε0 |r − r ′ |3
S S
Where r − r ′ = (0, 0, 5) − (x, y, 0) = (−x, −y, 5). Hence,
s
1 1
10−9 xy(x 2 + y 2 + 25)3⁄2 (−xax − yay + 5az )dx dy
E = ∫∫
10−9
nt
0 0 4π × 36π (x 2 + y 2 + 25)3⁄2
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 9 [− ∫ x 2 dx ∫ y dy ax − ∫ x dx ∫ y 2 dy ay + 5 ∫ x dx ∫ y dy az ]
0 0 0 0 0 0
−1 −1 5
= 9( ,
6 6 4
, )
= (−1.5, −1.5,11.25) V/m ra
pi
(c) F = qE = (1.5, 1.5, −11.25) mN
Electric Dipole
Two equal and opposite electric charges, separated by a very short distance is called electric dipole
As
and is shown below.
P
+Q
θ
R
d
R>>d
G
Electric Dipole
C
 The electric dipole moment, p = Q d

 The dipole moment is directed from –Q to + Q
 The electric field intensity of a dipole varies as 1/R3 , where as the electric field intensity of a
point charge varies as 1/R2
 The electric field due to the dipole is given by
p
E= (2 cos θ ar + sin θ aθ )
4πε0 r 3
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Electric Flux Density (D)

D = ε0 E
 This vector has the same direction as E, but it is independent of ‘∊’ and therefore of material
properties.
 The unit of ‘D’ is Coulomb/meter2.
 Electric Flux Ψ in terms of D is defined as
Ψ = ∫ D. ds
S
s
Gauss’s Law
nt
 Gauss’s law states that the total electric flux Ψ through any closed surface is equal to the total
charge enclosed by that surface. Thus
Ψ = Qenc
 Ψ = Qenc
i. e. , Ψ = ∮ dΨ = ∮ D ∙ ds
S
Total charge enclosed Q = ∫ ρv dv

ra
pi
v
or
Q = ∮ D ∙ dS = ∫ ρv dv
As
S V
By applying divergence theorem,
∮ D ∙ dS = ∫ ∇ ∙ D dv
v
So, ρv = ∇ ∙ D
Which is one of the four Maxwell’s equation and it states that the volume charge density is the same
as the divergence of the electric flux density.
G
 When, at any point if charge density is zero, then divergence of electric flux density and
divergence of electric field intensity is zero.
 Curl of static electric field intensity is zero. Mathematically, ∇ × E = 0
 Thus, electrostatic field is Irrotational (curl free) and Non-Solenoidal (non zero divergence).
C
 Gauss’s law is an alternate form of Coulomb‘s law.

 Gauss’s law may be used either to calculate the equivalent charges from known electric fields or
electric fields due to known charges.
Example: Find the Total flux in a cylinder of radius r and length L placed in a uniform electric field E
parallel to the axis of cylinder.
dA
B
E
E
dA⃗ dA
A L C
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Solution:
The total flux ϕE is the sum of flux coming out of surface A, B and C
ϕE = ∫ E dA cos θ + ∫ E dA cos θ + ∫ E dA cos θ

A B C
θA = 0° θB = 90° θC = 180°
dAA = πr 2 dAB = 2πrl dAC = πr 2
ϕE = E. A + 0 − E. A = 0
As ϕE = 0, charge enclosed Qenclosed = 0 and hence D and E are 0 at all point inside the
s
plane of uniformly charged circular ring.
Example: Find the electric flux inside and outside a symmetrically charged sphere of radius ‘A’
nt
R
ra 0 r
pi
Solution: By Guss’s Law
1
∫ E. dA = Q
ε0 enclosed
As
surface
1
∫ E dA = E (4πR2 ) = Q
ε0
1 Q
E=
4πε0 R2
Where Q is the charge in the sphere of radius A and enclosed by sphere of radius R.
Suppose there is a point charge Q at the origin O. Then the electric field at the distance R
G
will be
1 Q
E=
4πε0 R2
E.g.: Find the field for a long st. wire of charge.
C
Gaussian
Surface h
E
E
λh λh
∫ EdA = , E(2πrh) =
ε0 ε0
λ
E= × r, Where, λ = Line Change / Unit Length
2πε0
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Example: If A = ρ sin ϕ μp + ρ2 μp , and L is the contour of fig. given below, the circulation
y
∮A. dL 2
c
1 L
C d b a
−2 −1 1 2 x
s
Solution:
nt
∮ A. dL = ( ∫ + ∫ + ∫ + ∫ ) A. dL
C ab bc cd da
Along ab, dϕ = 0, ϕ = 0
b
A. dL = 0 ∫ A. dL = 0
a
Along bc, dρ = 0 A.dL = ρ3 dϕ
c π
∫ A. dL = ∫ ρ3 dϕ = 23 π = 8π
ra
pi
b 0
Along cd, dϕ = 0, ϕ = π, A.dL = 0
d
∫ A. dL = 0
As
C
Along da, dρ = 0, A.dL = ρ3dϕ
a 0
∫ A. dL = ρ3 ∫ dϕ = (1)3 (−π) = −π
d 𝜋
a
∫ A. dL = 0 + 8π + 0 − π = 7π
d
G
800 sin θ
Example: Let J = r2+4
× Ur A/m2 the total current flowing in a portion of spherical surface having
radius r = 0.8 bounded by 0.1 π < θ < 0.3π, 0 < ϕ < 2π will be
Solution:
C
I = ∫ ∫ J. n d s
S
2π 3π
800 sin θ
∫ ∫ × (0.8)2 sin θ dθ dϕ = 154.8 A
(0.8)2 + 4
0 0.1π
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Example: In a certain region where the relative permitivity is 2.4, D = 2ux − 4uy + 5uz nc⁄m2 .
Polarization = ?
Solution: D = ε0 E + P ⇒ where D = ε0 εr E ε0 E = D/εr
D D
p = D − = (εr − 1)
εr εr
2.4 − 1
p = (2ux − 4uy + 5uz )
2.4
p = 1.2ux − 2.3uy + 2.9uz nc⁄m2
s
Electric Potential
The scalar electric potential is defined using fundamental ideas of force and work related to the
nt
electric field. When a charge is allowed to move due to force in the electric field, work is said to be
done as expressed below.
Work, W = (Force) (Displacement)
dW = −F. dI
= (QE) (Displacement) = QE. dl
ra
The total work done in moving a point charge Q from A to B is,
B
W = −Q ∫ E. dl
pi
A
Where negative sign indicates that the work is being done by an external agent.
Work done per unit charge is potential difference. Potential difference between two points is
difference of absolute potentials at the two points.
As
Absolute Potential
The potential at any point is the work per unit charge required to bring a unit charge form infinity to
the point.
In simple, it is potential difference between any point and a reference point at infinity.
Due to a point charge, Q
Absolute potential at a point r = a is Va = Q/4π ε a
G
Absolute potential at a point r = b is Vb = Q / 4π ε b

Potential difference between ‘a’ and ‘b’ is Vab = Va – Vb
Q 1 1
= ( − )
4πε a b
C
The potential, only depends on the distance between points ‘a’ and ‘b’ and the point charge,
regardless of path between ‘a’ and ‘b’.
In moving a charge along a closed path in electrostatic field, total work done is zero. Thus,
∮ E ∙ dl = 0
L
By applying stoke’s theorem
∮ E ∙ dl = ∫(∇ × E). ds = 0
L S
∇×E =0
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 Any surface on which the potential is same throughout is known an equipotential surface.
 The direction of E is everywhere normal to the equipotential surface.
 No work is done in moving a charge from one point to other point along equipotential surface.
The lines of constant potential are always perpendicular to the electric field intensity. Electric scalar
potential is scalar.
Electric field intensity and electric potential are related as, E = − ∇ V. The negative sign shows that
the direction of E is opposite to the direction in which V increases; E is directed from higher to lower
level of V.
s
An electric flux line is an imaginary path or line drawn in such a way that its direction at any point is
the direction of the electric field at that point.
nt
Example: Two point charges −4 μC and 5 μC are located at (2, −1, 3) and (0, 4, −2), respectively.
Find the potential at (1, 0, 1), assuming zero potential at infinity.
Solution: Let,
Q1 = −4 μC, Q2 = 5 μC
V(r) =
Q1
4πε0 |r − r1 |
If V(∞) = 0, C0 = 0,
+
Q2
ra
4πε0 |r − r2 |
+ C0
|r − r1 | = |(1, 0, 1) – (2, − 1, 3)| = |(−1, 1, −2)| = √6

pi
|r − r2 | = |(1, 0, 1) – (0, 4, −2,)| = |(1, −4, 3)| = √26
Hence,
10−6 −4 5
V(1, 0, 1) = −9 [ + ]
10
As
4π × 36 π √6 √26
= 9 × 103 (−1.633 + 0.9806)
= − 5.872 kV
In electrostatics, charges are considered to be stationary. This certainly does not mean
that charges cannot move. A conductor is a material that allows free movement of charge
within its volume. In other words, if a charge is introduced into a conductor, it can move
freely until something prevents it from moving. This something may be an electric field
G
or the surface of the conductor. The movement of charges is merely a mechanism to

reach the steady state. After charges have reached their final state, the conductor has no
effect on the charges.
 Conductors in electrostatic field are said to be perfect conductors. A perfect conductor
C
(σ = ∞) can not contain an electrostatic field within it. E = 0, ρv = 0, Vab = 0 inside a

conductor.
 Unlike conductors, dielectrics are materials in which charges are not free to move.
 A perfect dielectric is a material which has bound charges but no free charges.
 A material is linear if a particular property like permittivity does not change when the
fields are changed.
 A homogeneous material is a material whose physical properties do not vary from
point to point in space.
 An isotropic material is one whose properties are independent of direction in space.
 A linear, homogeneous, isotropic material is called simple material.
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Divergence of Current Density and Relaxation

Charges in conductors under static conditions are distributed on the surface of the conductor in
such a way that the potential energy in the system is minimum.
If charges are placed in the interior of a conductor, they will move to the surface. This motion of
charges constitutes a current. Since the current ceases, once the charges are static on the surface,
the current is a transient current.
Example: A block of silicon made in the form of a sphere of radius 100 mm is given. The
conductivity of silicon is 4 × 10-4 S/m, its relative permittivity is 12 and both are constant.
s
Suppose that by some means a volume charge density ρv = 10-6 C/m3 is placed in the
interior of the sphere at t = 0; calculate
nt
(a) The current produced by the charge as they move to the surface
(b) The time constant of the charge decay in the silicon
(c) The divergence of the current density during the transient
Solution: At time t = 0, the charges start moving toward the surface. The charge density must
ra
satisfy the continuity equation at all times, ∇. J = −
∂𝛅𝐯
∂t
In addition, the current in the conducting material must satisfy Ohm’s law, J = σE and
Gauss’s law ∇. E =
ρv
ℰ
pi
σρv ∂ρv
∴ ∆. σE = =−
ε ∂t
∂δv σ
⇒ + ρv = 0
∂t ε
As
This is a homogenous linear differential equation. By separately variables,

∂ρv −σ σt
= ∂t and integrating ln ρv = − + ln ρvo
ρv ε ε
−t/τ
ρv = ρ0 e where τ = ε/σ
This equation shows that the introduction of charge at some interior point of material
results in a decay of volume charge density 𝛒𝐯 .
At a radius ‘R’, the total current crossing the surface defined by the sphere of radius ‘R’ is
G
d(QR ) 4πR3 d −t
( )
I R, t = − =− [ρv (t)] = 15.8 R3 exp [ ]
dt 3 dt 2.65 × 10−7
The current depends on the location and increases with the radius. Therefore, it is not
constant in space or time.
C
The time constant of the charge decay is ε/σ. This time constant depends on material
alone and is called the relaxation time.
A long time constant (poor conductors) means charges take longer to ‘relax’ or to reach
the surface.
A short time constant (good conductor) means the charges quickly reach their static state
(at the surface). In the present case,
τ = ε/σ = 2.65 × 10−7 sec
the divergence of the current density is
− ∂ρv −∂ −t
∇.J = = − [ρ0 e ϵ ] = 3.77 exp (−t⁄ )
∂t ∂t ( ⁄σ) 2.65 × 10−7
The divergence of the current density is clearly not zero, but decays with time.
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Boundary Conditions
If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the condition that the field must
satisfy at the interface separating the media are called “Boundary Conditions”.
(a) Dielectric – Dielectric Boundary Conditions: The tangential component Et of field undergoes no
change on the boundary and it is said to be continuous across the boundary,
E1t = E2t
D1t D2t
⇒ =
ε1 ε2
Hence Dt undergoes some change across the boundary and said to be discontinuous.
s
For normal component, D1n − D2n = ρS
Where ρS is the free charge density placed at the boundary. If ρS = 0 then
nt
D1n = D2n
ε1 E1n = ε2 E2n
So the normal component of E is discontinuous across the interface.
tanθ1 εr1
Law of refraction, =
tan θ2 εr2
ra
Where θ1 and θ2 are angles which E1 and E2 makes with the normal at the interface.
(b) Conductor – Dielectric Boundary Condition: No electric field, E may not exist inside conductor
that is
pi
E = 0, ρV = 0
Et = 0 = Dt
Dn = ρS
ε2 En = ρS
As
Thus, an electric field must be external to the conductor and must be normal to the surface.
(c) Conductor – Free Space Boundary Condition:
Dt = εo Et = 0
Dn = εo En = ρS
Biot–Savart’s Law
G
The Biot – Savart’s Law is used to compute the magnetic field generated by a steady current, i.e., a
continuous flow of charges, for example through a wire, which is constant in time and in which
charge is neither building up nor depleting at any point. The equation is as follows:
μ0 Idl × ̂r μ0 Idl × r
B=∫ or (equivalently) B = ∫ (in SI units)
C
4π r 2 4π r 3
dl
α
r
I
P
dB (Inside)
Magnetic Field dB at P Due to Current Element I dl
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Where,
I is the current,
dl is a vector, whose magnitude is the length of the differential element of the wire, and whose
direction is the direction of conventional current,
B is the net magnetic field,
μ0 is the magnetic constant,
̂r is the displacement unit vector in the direction pointing from the wire element towards the point
at which the field is being computed,
r = rr̂ is the full displacement vector from the wire element to the point at which the field is being
s
computed, the symbols in boldface denote vector quantities.
Magnetic field B, at point P due to a straight line conductor,
nt
μo I
B= (cos α2 − cos α1 )aϕ
4πρ
Where I is current of conductor and ρ is perpendicular distance.
B
I
α2
ra
pi
A
α1
ρ
P
As
Field at P Due to a Straight Filamentary Conductor
When the conductor is semi infinite, α1 = 90 and α2 = 0

μo I
B= a
4πρ ϕ
For a infinite conductor α1 = 180 and α2 = 0
μo I
G
B= a
2πρ ϕ
Ampere's Circuit Law

C
In classical electromagnetism, Ampère's circuit law, discovered by André-Marie Ampère in 1826,

relates the integrated magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the
loop.
It states that the line integral of B around a closed path is the same as the net current Ienc enclosed
by the path multiplied by μ permeability.
In SI units (the version in cgs units is in a later section), the "integral form" of the original Ampère's
circuital law is:
∮ B. dl = μ0 Ienc
C
By applying stoke’s Theorem to the right side of equation,
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∮ B. dl = ∫(∇ × B). ds = μ0 Ienc

C S
But Ienc = ∫ J. ds
S
∇ × B = μo J
Where
 ∮C is the closed line integral around the closed curve C.
s
 B is the magnetic field in tesla.
 ". " is the vector dot product.
 dl is an infinitesimal element (differential) of the curve C (i.e., a vector with magnitude equal to
nt
the length of the infinitesimal line element, and direction given by the tangent to the curve C, see
below),
 ∬ denotes an integral over the surface S enclosed by the curve C (see below). The double
integral sign is meant simply to denote that the integral is two-dimensional in nature.



ra
μ0 is the magnetic constant also called the absolute permeability of free space.
Jf is the free current density through the surface S enclosed by the curve C
dS is the vector area of an infinitesimal element of surface S (that is, a vector with magnitude
equal to the area of the infinitesimal surface element, and direction normal to surface S. The
pi
direction of the normal must correspond with the orientation of C by the right hand rule, see
below for further discussion),
 Ienc is the net free current that penetrates through the surface S.
 ∇ × H = J ≠ 0, that is a magnetostatic field is not conservative.
As
 This is one of the four Maxwell’s equation.
An isolated magnetic charge does not exist.

Thus the total flux through a closed surface in a magnetic field must be zero; that is,
∮ B. ds = 0
By applying divergence theorem,
G
∮ B. ds = ∫ ∇. B dv = 0
S V
or ∇. B = 0
C
This is the fourth Maxwell’s equation.
The Magnetic Vector Potential (A)

The magnetic vector potential is defined based on the divergence free condition of ‘B’, the magnetic
flux density.
The definition of ‘A’ is based entirely on the mathematical properties of the vector ‘B’, not on its
physical characteristics.
∴‘A’ is viewed as an auxiliary function rather than fundamental field quantity. Since the magnetic
vector potential is a vector function, both its curl and divergence must be specified.
The magnetic vector potential does not have a simple physical meaning in the sense that it is not a
measurable physical quantity like B or H.
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Because the magnetic vector potential relates to the magnetic flux density through ‘A’, it is at right
angles to the magnetic flux density ‘B’.
The magnetic vector potential is always in the direction of the current (and perpendicular to B). It is
a sort of current distributed in space. It is sometimes even called a “fuzzy current” since it is spread
around the current, as shown in below figure
A
I
s
A
nt
∇ . B = 0, ∴ B = ∇ × A
∇. A = 0 and is called the coulomb guage for static fields.
Ampere’s law is ∇ × H = J
∴ ∇ × B = μJ
Since, B = ∇ × A, ∇ × ∇ × A = μ J
∇(∇. A). ∇2 A = μ J
Taking ∇. A = 0
ra
pi
−∇2 A = μ J
i.e., ∇2 A = − μ J
The above equation is a vector Poisson’s equation.
As
Energy Density of Electric and Magnetic Fields

Electric and magnetic fields store energy. In a vacuum, the (volumetric) energy density (in SI units)
is given by
ε0 1 2
U = E2 + B
2 2μ0
The electric (Potential) energy in an electrostatic field is given by
G
1 1
WE = ∫ D. E dv = ∫ εE2 dv
2 2
The energy in an magnetostatic field in given by
1 1
C
WM = ∫ B. H dv = ∫ μH 2 dv
2 2
Capacitance of capacitor (Parallel Plate) is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on one
of the plate to the potential difference between them.
Q
C=
V
Q
q 1 Q2 1 2 1
Wcharging = ∫ dq = = CV = Wstored = QV
C 2 C 2 2
0
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Capacitance of Simple Systems

Type Capacitance Resistance Comment
Parallel-Plate Capacitor εA/d d A: Area
σA d: Distance
Coaxial Cable / 2πεl a1 a1 : Inner Radius
ln ⁄a1
Cylindrical Capacitor ln(a2 /a1 ) a2 : Outer Radius
2πσl
l : Length
Concentric Spheres 4πεa a
1 2 1 1 a1 : Inner Radius
a2 − a1 a−b a2 : Outer Radius
4πσ
s
Sphere 4πεa 1 a : Radius
4πσa
Circular Disc 8εa a : Radius
nt
Example: The point charges −1 nC, 4 nC, and 3 nC are located at (0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), and (1, 0, 0),
respectively. Find the energy in the system
Solution: W = W1 + W2 + W3
= 0 + Q2 V21 + Q3 (V31 + V32 )
= Q2
=
1
Q1
(Q1 Q2 + Q1 Q3 +
Q2 Q3
)
ra
+
Q3
[
Q1
+
Q2
4πε0 |(0, 0, 1) − (0, 0, 0)| 4πε0 |(1, 0, 0) − (0, 0, 0)| |(1, 0, 0) − (0, 0, 1)|
]
pi
4πε0 √2
1 12 12
= −9 (−4 − 3 + ) 10−18 = 9 ( − 7) nJ = 13.37 nJ
10 √2 √2
4π 36π
As
Alternatively,
3
1 1
W = ∑ Qk Vk = (Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3 )
2 2
k=1
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q3 Q3 Q1 Q2
= [ + ]+ [ + ] + [ + ]
2 4πε0 (1) 4πε0 (1) 2 4πε0 (1) 4πε0 (√2) 2 4πε0 (1) 4πε0 (√2)
1 Q2 Q3 12
= (Q1 Q2 + Q1 Q3 + ) = 9 ( − 7) nJ = 13.37 nJ
G
4πε0 √2 √2
As obtained in the first solution.
Stored Energy in Inductance

C
The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work required
to establish the current through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field. This is given by
1
Estored = LI2
2
The quantitative definition of the self inductance of a wire loop in SI units (weber per ampere known
as henries) is
Nϕ
L =
I
Where ϕ denotes the magnetic flux through the area spanned by the loop, and N is the number of
wire turns. The flux linkage thus is
Nϕ = LI
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Inductance of a Solenoid
A solenoid is a long, thin coil, i.e., a coil whose length is much greater than the diameter. Under these
conditions, and without any magnetic material used, the magnetic flux density B within the coil is
practically constant and is given by
B = μ0 NI/ l
Where μ0 is the magnetic constant, N the number of turns, I the current and l the length of the coil.
Ignoring end effects the total magnetic flux through the coil is obtained by multiplying the flux
density B by the cross-section area A and the number of turns N
ϕ = μ0 N2 IA/l
s
From which it follows that the inductance of a solenoid is given by
L = μ0 N2 A/l
nt
Inductance of Simple Systems
Coaxial Cable, High Frequency l a1 a1 : Outer radius
ln μ
2π a a : Inner radius
Toroidal Core (Circular cross-

section)
L = μ0 μr ra
N2 r 2
D
l : Length
L = Inductance (H)
μ0 = Permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7 H/m
μr = Relative permeability of core material
pi
N = Number of turns
r = Radius of coil winding (m)
D = Overall diameter of toroid (m)
As
The Continuity Equation

Consider figure below which shows an isolated volume, charged with a charge density ρv. No charge
leaves or enters the volume and, therefore, the charge is conserved. This is a trivial example of
conversation of charge.
G
ρv
Now, consider figure below where we connect the volume through wire and allow the charge to flow
through the wire to some other body (not shown)
C
ds
ρv
The rate of decrease of charge in volume v is the current out of the volume. Because charges flow
there is a current I in the wire. At the same time, the charge that flows out of the volume over a time
dt (i.e., the charge that flows through the wire) is dQ. The time rate of decrease of charge in the
volume ‘v’ is = dQ/dt.
∴ The rate of decrease of the charge in volume ‘v’ must equal the current out of the volume.
I = −dQ/dt
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This is the basic definition of current. The current is considered to be positive because it flows
through the surface of the volume ‘v’ in the direction of ds.
The total charge in volume ‘v’ is Q =∫v ρv dv
dρv
∴ I = − d⁄dt ∫ ρv dv = ∫ dv
v v dt
The current I flowing out of the volume ‘v’ in terms of the current density J that flows through the
surface enclosing the volume ‘v’ is
I = ∮ J. ds
s
S
∴ ∮ J. ds = ∫ − dρv ⁄dt dv
nt
v
The surface ‘s’ is a closed surface (encloses a volume). Thus, we can apply the divergence theorem
to the LHS of the above equation to convert the closed surface integral to a volume integral.
∫ ∇ ∙ J dv = ∫ (− dρv ⁄dt) dv
v v
ra
Since both integrals are taken over the same volume, we get
∇. J = − dρv ⁄dt
This is the general form of the continuity equation.
pi
This expression holds at any point in space and is not limited to conductors.
In the particular case of steady currents, the charge density ρ v does not vary with time. The rate of
change of charge with time is zero and the charge decreases from volume ‘v’ must be replenished
constantly to maintain a steady current.
As
∇. J = 0, If ρv = Constant
The above equation means that a steady current must flow in closed circuits, it cannot end in a point
because the divergence at that point would not be zero, invalidating the requirement of steady
current. This also means that the total current entering any volume must equal the total leaving this
volume.
The steady current density is conservative, since
∮ E . dI = 0 i. e. , ∮ J⁄σ . dI = 0
G
∴∇ ×J=0
The steady current density is solenoidal,
Since, ∮ J . ds = 0 i. e. , ∇ . J = 0
C
∴ The current density is an irrotational, solenoidal field.
Faraday’s Law
Faraday found that the electromotive force (EMF) produced around a closed path is proportional to
the rate of change of the magnetic flux through any surface bounded by that path.
In practice, this means that an electrical current will be induced in any closed circuit when the
magnetic flux through a surface bounded by the conductor changes. This applies whether the field
itself changes in strength or the conductor is moved through it.
Electromagnetic induction underlies the operation of generators, all electric motors, transformers,
induction motors, synchronous motors, solenoids, and most other electrical machines.
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Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that:

dΨ
Vemf = − ,
dt
Thus
Vemf is the electromotive force (emf) in Volts
ΨB is the magnetic flux in webers
Thus a static magnetic field produces no current flow, but a time varying field, produces an induced
voltage in a closed circuit and causes a flow of current.
For the common but special case of a coil of wire, composed of N loops with the same area,
s
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that
dΨ
Vemf = −N
dt
nt
Where
Vemf is the electromotive force (emf) in Volts
N is the number of turns of wire
ΨB is the magnetic flux in Webers through a single loop
An emf - produced field is non-conservative
Motional EMF
ra
 When a conductor moves through a magnetic field an emf is produced in the conductor.
pi
 The charges in the conductor are carried along with the moving conductor and thus experience a
magnetic force acting upon them which causes them to move inside the conductor.
 As the conduction charges pile up at the end of conductor creating an electric field in the
As
conductor.
 The conduction electrons will stop piling up when the electric force on the interior conduction
charges is equal to the magnetic force on those same charges so that the net force on the
conduction charges is zero.
B-Field Force
Equilibrium
+ Conductor
+ + Electric Force on
+ FB Conduction Charge
G
v = Velocity of
−
Conductor
L E q− v
Fr v
C
− Built up of FM Magnetic Force on

− − Conduction Charge
− Conduction Electrons
Motion in a Perpendicular Field
At Equilibrium, when the net force is zero.

FE = FM
qE = vB sin(θ)q
E = vB sin(90o )
E = vB
 The charges that pile up create a voltage or emf across the length of the rod that is constant.
V
E = , Vemf = EL = vBL
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Induced EMF Approach

As the rod moves, it sweeps out area A. The change in magnetic flux can be found using Faraday's
Law,
L Area
A=Lx
x
d d
s
Vemf = − ϕM = − ∫ Bcos(θ′ )dA
dt dt
Bd
− ∫ cos(180°)dA = Bd
nt
d dx
= dt A = B Lx = BL = BLv
dt dt dt
The results are the same, a conductor moving in a perpendicular magnetic field produces an emf
across its length
Vemf = vLB
ra
 If the ends of the conductor are connected to an external circuit them the emf can act like a
battery. The end where the positive charges would build up would act like the positive pole of a
battery. Alternately, the flow of current is in the same direction as the force that magnetic field
pi
exerts on positive conduction charges due to the conductors motion.
Maxwell’s Equations
As
Static Time - Varying

Integral Form Differential Form Differential Form Integral - Form
∇ × H = Jc ∇ × H = Jc + JD ∂D
∮ H. dl = ∫ J. ds ∮ H. dl = ∫ (JC + ) . ds
∂t
L S L S
−∂
∮ E. dl = 0 ∇×E = 0 ∇ × E = − ∂B⁄∂t ∮ E. dl = ∫ B. ds
∂t
G
L L S
∮ D. dS = ∫ ρv dv ∇. D = ρv ∇. D = ρv ∮ D. ds = ∫ ρv dv
V S V
C
∮ B. dS = 0
∇. B = 0 ∇. B = 0 ∮ B. ds = 0
S
∇ × H = Jc + JD is modified Ampere’s law
∇ × E = − ∂B⁄∂t is Faraday’s law
∇ × E = 0 conservative nature of electrostatic field
∇. D = ρv is Gauss’s law for electric field
∇. B = 0 is Gauss’s law for magnetic field (Non-existence of magnetic monopole)
D = εE Electric flux density
B = μH Magnetic flux density
JC = σE Conduction current density, (this relation is referred to as Ohm’s law)
JD = ∂D⁄∂t Displacement current density
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σ is conductivity expressed in Siemens/ meter

μ is permeability expressed in Henry / meter
ε is permittivity expressed in Farad / meter
 For a fields to “Qualify” as an electro magnetic field, it must satisfy all four Maxwell’s equations.
 The ratio of conduction current density of displacement current density is referred to as loss
tangent, i.e., loss tangent = (Jc / JD) = (σ / ωε).
 If (σ / ωε) > > 1, the medium is referred to as high loss medium.
 If (σ / ωε) < < 1, the medium is referred to as low loss medium.
σ
s
 If = 0, Loseless medium
ωε
 The frequency at which (Jc/ JD) is equal to one is referred to as Transition Frequency, fq
nt
i.e., When f = fq, Loss Tangent is one.
fq = σ/2πε is called Transition Frequency.
From continuity of current equation ∇. JC = − ∂ρv ⁄∂t
And Gauss’s law, ∇. D = ρv
And Ohms law, JC = σ E,
We can find,
ρv = ρV0 e−(σ⁄ε)t ra
ρv = ρV0 e−t⁄τ Where τ = ε/σ and is called relaxation time constant.
pi
The above relaxation indicates that at an interior point of any conductor if we place a charge, it
decreases to (1/e) times of initial charge in one relaxation time constant.
 When operating frequency ‘f’, in a medium with σ, μ, ε is greater than fq, then that medium is
As
regarded as a Dielectric.
f >> fq Dielectric
 When operating frequency ‘f’, in a medium with σ, μ, ε is less than fq, then that medium is
regarded as a Conductor.
f << fq Conductor
 f = fq describes the transition point of medium behavior.
G
Magnetic Field
The magnetic field at a point is defined as being equal to the force acting on a unit magnetic pole
placed at that point. [Unit of magnetic field is ampere per meter (A/m)]
C
Magnetomotive Force (mmf): Magnetomotive force is the flux producing ability of an electric current
in a magnetic circuit. [It is something similar to electromotive force in an electric circuit].
[Unit of magnetomotive force is ampere (A)] - Note: Although some books use the term
ampere-turns, it is strictly not correct as turns is not a dimension]
Flex path
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mmf ℑ = Σ I
Consider a coil having N turns as shown. It will link the flux path with each turn, so that total current
linking with the flux would be
Σ I = N.I
Thus from Ampere’s Law, the mmf produced by a coil of N turns would be N I, and N I = H.I
Field Produced by a Long Straight Conductor: If a circular path of radius r is considered around the
conductor carrying a current I, then the field Hr along this path would be constant by symmetry.
∴ By Ampere’s Law, 1.I = Hr .2π r
s
I
or Hr = at a radial distance r from the conductor.
2πr
nt
I
Field Produced Inside a Toroid

ra r
Consider a toroid (similar to a ring) wound uniformly with N turns. If the mean radius of the
magnetic path of the toroid is a, then the magnetic path length would be 2π.a, and the total mmf
pi
NI
produced would be N I. Thus from Ampere’s Law magnetic field H = inside the toroid.
2π a
[Variation of the magnetic field inside the cross section of the toroid is usually not necessary to be
considered and is assumed uniform]
As
a I
Toroid N turn
G
Reluctance of a Magnetic Path: A magnetic material presents a Reluctance S to the flow of magnetic
flux when an mmf is applied to the magnetic circuit.
[This is similar to the resistance shown by an electric circuit when an emf is applied]
C
Thus mmf = Reluctance × flux or ℑ = S. ϕ

For a uniform field, ℑ = N I = H.l, and ϕ = B. A = μ H. A
∴ H.l = S . μ H. A
l
So that the magnetic reluctance S = , where l = length and A = cross-section
μA
[Unit of magnetic reluctance is henry −1 (H −1 )]
1 μA
Magnetic Permeance Λ is the inverse of the magnetic reluctance. Thus Λ = =
S l
[Unit of magnetic permeance is henry (H)]
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Self Inductance: While the reluctance is a property of the magnetic circuit, the corresponding
quantity in the electrical circuit is the inductance.
Ndϕ di Nϕ
Induced emf e + = L , Nϕ = Li, L =
dt dt i
The self inductance L of a winding is the flux linkage produced in the same winding due to unit
current flowing through it. For a coil of N turns, if the flux in the magnetic circuit is ϕ, the flux
linkage with the coil would be N. ϕ.
N2 N2 μA
also since NI = Sϕ, L = =
S l
s
Thus the inductance of a coil of N turn can be determined from the dimensions of the magnetic
circuit.
nt
Mutual Inductance: When two coils are present in the vicinity of each other’s magnetic circuit,
mutual coupling can take place. One coil produces a flux which links with the second coil, and when
a current in the first coil varies, an induced emf occurs in the second coil. Induced emf in coil 2 due
to current in coil 1
e2 = N2
dϕ12
dt
= M12
di1
dt ra
, N2 ϕ12 = M12 i1 , M12 =
N2 ϕ12
i1
The mutual inductance M12 , of coil 2 due to a current in coil 1, is the flux linkage in the coil 2 due to
unit current flowing in coil 1. Also since N1 I1 = Sϕ1 and a fraction k12 of the primary flux would link
pi
with the secondary, ϕ12 = k12 × ϕ1
k12 N1 N2 k12 N1 N2 μ A
∴ M12 = =
S l
k12 is know as the coefficient of coupling between the coils.
As
k12 = k 21 so that M12 = M21 . For good coupling, k12 is very nearly equal to unity.
Analysis of Electromagnetic Circuit

Electromagnetic circuit can be analyzed in a manner similar to the analysis of resistive circuit.
Consider the following two winding transformer would in a three limb core.
ly
G
I1
N1
ll Am Al
I2
C
N2
Ay
Cross section areas of the core, and the effective length of magnetic path are indicated. It is assumed
that the cross – section does not change at the corners. m. m. f. s ℑ1 and ℑ2 are produced in the two
windings and equal to N1 I1 and N2 I2 .
l1
relactances of each outer limb Sl = ,
μo μr Al
ly
relactances of each part of top and bottom yokes Sy = ,
μo μr Ay
ll
relactancesof middle limb Sm = , [length of middle limb same as outer]
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if the fluxes flowing in the path are ϕl (outer limbs, yokes) and ϕm (centre limb), then an equivalent
circuit similar to the electrical equivalent circuit may be drawn as follows.
Sy Sy
Sy Sy
ϕl ℑ1 ϕl
I1
ℑ1 = N1 I1 ϕm
Sl Sm Sl ⇒ Sl Sm Sl
ℑ2 = N2 I2
s
ℑ2
Sy Sy
nt
Sy Sy
The fluxes can be calculated using laws similar to Ohm’s law and Kirchoff’s law as follows.
ϕm = ϕl + ϕl Similar to Kirchoff’s current law
ℑ1 + ℑ2 = Sm ϕm + (2Sy + Sl )ϕl Similar to Kirchoff’s voltage law and Ohm’s law
ra
Only one loop was considered as both outer limbs are identical and must therefore have the same
flux. If the limbs were different, then there would have been one additional flux term and one
additional equation. The only unknowns are ϕm and ϕl which can be calculated. In the case of three
phase transformers, the winding current would have different phase angles, so that the
pi
corresponding mmfs too would have different phase angles. The analysis of this would be similar to
the analysis of three phase problem, but no equivalent being there for inductance and capacitances
in the corresponding equations. The above analysis are valid only in the linear region of the
As
magnetization characteristic where the permeability can be assumed to be constant. However, when
saturation occurs, the analysis is more complicated.
Analysis in the Presence of a Non- Linear Magnetization Characteristic: Only a simple circuit having a
non – linear magnetic characteristic and a series air gap will be considered to illustrate the method
of analysis. It is assumed that there is no fringing of flux around that air gap so that the flux density
will be the same in both the air gap as well as the magnetic core. Bm = Ba . The characteristic of the
G
magnetic core is alo known. The air has a linear characteristic with permeability μo
C
Let the cross section the core (and air gap) be A, the length of the magnetic path be lm in the
magnetic material and la in the air gap. Let the number of turn in the coil be N and the current I the
winding be I. Then from Ampere’s law
NI = Hm lm + Ha la
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Ba Bm
for the air gap, Ha = =
μo μo
Bm
∴ NI = Hm lm + l , or Bm = −a Hm + b
μo a
Since this equation has been written in terms of the parameters of the magnetic material,
intersection of this straight line with the magnetization characteristic would give the operating
position.
B
s
Bm
Bm = −a Hm + b
nt
H
Hm
Solved Examples
Example 1
Given that D̅ = r 2 a̅r + 2sinθa
ra
̅̅̅θ in Spherical Coordinate System, where D is the electric flux
pi
density, find the charge density ρ?
Solution:
Given:
As
1
ρv = 4 (r + cos θ)
r
⃗⃗ = Dr a⃗r + Dθ a⃗ θ + Dϕ a⃗ϕ
Electric Flux Density, D
In Spherical Co-ordinate System,
Where Dr = r 2 , Dθ = 2 sin(θ) , Dϕ = 0
The relation between D ⃗⃗ and volume charge density ρ, is given by
∇ . ⃗D
⃗ = ρv … … … … … … … … … … (1)
G
Which is point form of Gauss law

∇ . ⃗D
⃗ in Spherical Co-ordinates is given by
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Dϕ
∇ . ⃗D
⃗ = ( r Dr ) + (D θ sin θ) +
C
r 2 ∂r r sinθ ∂θ r sinθ ∂ϕ
1 ∂ 1 ∂
∴ ρv = 2 (r 2 r 2 ) + (2 sin2 θ) + 0
r ∂r r sinθ ∂θ
1 1
= 2 4r 3 + 2 × 2 sinθ cos θ
r r sinθ
4
= 4r + cos θ
r
1
∴ ρv = 4 (r + cos θ)
r
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Example 2
⃗ r, where C is the helical path described by, x = cos t,
Evaluate the integral, ∫C 𝑟⃗⃗ . d
y = sin t, z = t, joining the points given by t = 0 and t = π/2
Solution:
Let I = ∫ r . dr
c
Where C is the helical path described by x = cos (t), y = sin (t), z = t joining the
point P at t = 0 and the point, Q at t = π/2.
s
Position vector, r in Cartesian co-ordinates is given by
r = x a⃗x + y ⃗ay + z a⃗z and dr = dx a⃗x + dy a⃗y + dz a⃗z
nt
1 Q
∴ I = ∫(x dx + y dy + z dz) = [x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ]P
2
c
With t = 0, P(x, y, z) = (1, 0, 0)
With t = π/2, Q(x, y, z)=(0,1,π/2)
Example 3
1 π/2 1
ra π2
I = [x 2 |10 + y 2 |10 + z 2 |0 ] = [−1 + 1 + ] =
2 2 4
π2
8
pi
Three electrostatic point charges are located in the xy-plane as given below
+Q at (−a/2, 0), +Q at (a/2, 0) and −2Q at (0, a√3/2)
Calculate the co-ordinates of the point, P, on the y-axis, where the potential due to these
charges is zero. Also, calculate the magnitude of the electric field strength at p. At the
As
point, P, what is the angle between the equi-potential passing through p and the y-axis?
Solution:
a a √3
Three point charges + Q at A (− , 0) , +Q at B ( , 0) and − 2Q at C (0, a)
2 2 2
are located in the xy-plane as shown in figure below.
y
G
P(0, y)
C
√3
–2Q C OC = a
2
+Q +Q
x
A O B
a a
(− , 0) ( , 0)
2 2
z
(i) Let P(0, y) be the point on y-axis, where the potential, V = V1 + V2 + V3 due to these
charges is zero.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
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Q a2
V1 = , AP = √ + y 2 … … … … … … … . . . (2)
4πε0 (AP) 4
Q a2
V2 = , BP = √ + y 2 = AP … … … … . . … (3)
4πε0 (BP) 4
−2Q √3
V3 = , CP = (y − OC) = (y − a) … … . (4)
4πε0 (CP) 2
From equations (2), (3) and (4)
s
Q 1 1 2
V = [ + − ] … … … … … … … … . (5)
4πε0 AP BP CP
1 1 2 2 2
nt
V = 0 if + = or = or AP = CP
AP BP CP AP CP
a2 √3 a2 3
√ + y2 = y − a or + y 2 = y 2 + a2 − y√3a
4 2 4 4
3
y√3a = a2 −
4
a2
4
or y√3a =
a2
4
ra
or y =
a
2√3
∴ Coordinates of the point P on y-axis are (0, 2√3)
⃗:
a
pi
(ii) To find E
Find equation (5), V at(0,y) is given by
2Q 1 1 Q 1 1
V = [ − ]= −
As
4πε0 AP CP 2πε0 2 √3
√a 2 y− 2 a
[ 4 +y ]
⃗ at P(0, y) is given by
E
⃗ = −grad(V) = −∇V
E
∂ ∂ ∂
⇒ − [ V a⃗x + V a⃗y + V a⃗z ]
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂
V = 0, V = 0
G
∂x ∂z
−3/2 −2
∂ Q 1 a2 √3
V= [(− ) ( + y 2 ) 2y + (y − a) ]
∂y 2πε0 2 4 2
C
−3/2 −2
Q a2 √3
⃗E = − [−y ( + y 2 ) + (y − a) ] a⃗y
2πε0 4 2
a
At P(x, y) = P (0, )
2√3
3 −2
−
Q a a2 a2 2 a
√3
⃗E = − [− ( + ) +( − a) ] a⃗y
2πε0 2√3 4 12 2√3 2
Q 3 3Q
=− [ 2 ] a⃗ y = − a⃗
2πε0 2a 4πε0 a2 y
3Q
∴ E = Ey =
4πε0 a2
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(iii) The direction of ⃗E at P is the direction of the normal to the equipotential surface
(V = 0) at that point, in the direction of the decreasing values of V.
From equation (6) it follows that the direction of ⃗E is in the –ve y-direction.
∴ The angle between the equipotential surface and the y-axis is zero.
Example 4
Given an irrotational vector field
⃗ = (k1 xy + k 2 z 3 )⃗ax + (3x 2 − k 3 z)⃗ay + (3xz 2 − y)a⃗z
F
s
Find ∇. ⃗F at(1,1, −2)
Solution:
⃗ = Fx a⃗x + Fy a⃗y + Fz a⃗ z ,
nt
Given: Irrotational vector field, F
Where Fx = (k1 x y + k 2 z 3 ), Fy = (3 x 2 − k 3 z), Fz = (3 x z 2 − y)
In Cartesian coordinates, Div (F ⃗ ) = ∇. ⃗F is given by
∂ ∂ ∂
∇. ⃗F = (Fx ) + (Fy ) + (Fz )
∂
∂x
∂x
Fx = k 1 y ,
∂y
∂
∂y
Fy = 0,
∂z
∂
ra
F = 6xz
∂z z
At the point (x, y, z). ∇ . ⃗F = k1 y + 6 x z
pi
At (1, 1, −2), ∇ . ⃗F = (k1 − 12)
Example 5
Given E = 10e−j(4x−kt) ŷ V/m in free space.
As
(A) Write all the four maxwell’s equations in free space

(B) Find ∇ × E
(C) Find H
Solution: Maxwell’s equations are Electro magnetic equations relating the field variables, which are
⃗ , H
vectors: E ⃗⃗ , B
⃗ and D⃗⃗
Point or Differential Form Integral Form
G
∂ ∂
∇x H⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗ + J
D ∮H ⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ (
⃗⃗ . dl D + J ) . (ds) (i)
∂t s ∂t
∂ ∂
∇x E⃗ =− ⃗
B ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮E ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dl = ∫ − ⃗B . ds (ii)
∂t s ∂t
C
∇ . ⃗D
⃗ = ρ ∮D. d s = ∫ρdV (iii)
s v
∇ . ⃗B = 0 ∮B. d s = 0 (iv)
s
Contained in the above is the equation osf continuity,
∂ ∂
∇. J = − ρ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ − ρ dv
∮ J . ds
∂t ∂t
Characteristics of the medium in which the fields exist given rise to the following
Constitutive relation:
⃗⃗ = ϵ ⃗E,
D ⃗ = μH
B ⃗⃗ , J = σ ⃗E
For a homogenous, isotropic and source free (no impressed voltages or currents) medium
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In free space medium i.e., perfect dielectric containing no charges, and no conduction
currents
1 10−9 F
Put σ = 0, J = 0, ρ = 0, ε = ε0 = × , μ = μ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m
36π m
In the above equations.
(a) The given field, ⃗E = 10 e−j(4x−kt) a 𝑦̂ V/m ……………………………………………..(1)

represents a uniform plane wave travelling in the x-direction with velocity v = k/4
and having components, Ex = 0, Ez = 0, Ey = 10e−j(4x−kt)
s
a⃗x ⃗ay a⃗z a x̂ a ŷ a ẑ
∂ ∂ ∂| ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × ⃗E = || | = || ∂x ∂y ∂z ||
nt
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ex Ey Ez 0 Ey 0
∂
= a⃗x (0) − a⃗ y (0) + a⃗z E
∂x y
o
∴ ∇ × ⃗E = −j 40 e−j(4x−kt) = 40 e−j(4x−kt+90 )aẑ
(b) For uniform plane wave
H
E
=η
ra
pi
As ⃗E = Ey a⃗ y , H
⃗⃗ can have only z-component so that wave travels in the x-direction.
Ey
∴ = η = η0 = (120π)Ω for free space
Hz
Ey 10 −j(4x−kt)
As
Hz = = e , from equation (2)

120π 120π
1 −j(4x−kt) A
⃗H
⃗ = Hz a⃗z = e a ẑ
12π m
∴ ⃗H
⃗ = 26.5 ej(kt−4x) aẑ mA/m
Example 6
A system of three electric charges lying in a straight line is in equilibrium. Two of the
charges are positive with magnitudes Q and 2Q, and are 50 cm apart. Determine the sign,
G
magnitude and position of the third charge.

Solution:
Let Q3 be the third charge located at a distance, x from the first charge, Q
C
1 2 3
Q 2Q Q3
50 cm
x
2Q Q3
V1 = +
4πε50 4πεx
Q Q3
V2 = +
4πε50 4πε(X − 50)
Q 2Q
V3 = +
4πεx 4πε x − 50)
(
P. E of the field = Q V1 + 2Q V2 + 3Q V3 = 0, for equilibrium
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2Q Q3 Q Q3
Q[ + ] + 2Q [ + ]
4πε50 4πεx 4πε50 4πε x − 50)
(
Q 2Q
+Q3 [ + ]=0
4πεx 4πε(x − 50)
2Q Q3 2Q 2Q3 1 2
+ + + + Q3 [ + ]=0
50 x 50 x − 50 x (x − 50)
4Q 1 2 1 2
+ Q3 [ + + + ]=0
50 x x − 50 x x − 50
4Q 2 4 6x − 100
= −Q3 [ + ] = −Q3 [ ]
s
50 x x − 50 x(x − 50)
4Q 2
= −Q3 , Q3 = − Q
50 25
nt
x 2 − 50 x = 6x − 100
x 2 − 56 x + 100 = 0
56 ± √562 − 400 56 ± 52.3
x = = = 54.15, 1.85
2 2
∴ x = 54.15 cm
ra
∴ Q3 should be a negative charge with magnitude 0.08 Q and located at x = 54.15 cm from
Q and 4.15 cm from 2Q.
pi
Example 7
Consider a circular cylinder of radius 1 meter and length 0.75 meters in free space
(intrinsic impedance η = 120 π ohms) with its oriented along the z – direction. Let ȧ x , ȧ y
and ȧ z denote the unit vectors in the x, y and z directions respectively. An EM wave is
As
propagating in the positive z-direction with its electric field E = cos [2π f(t − z/c )] ȧ x
volts/m, where f = 100 MHz and c is the velocity of light 3 × 108 m/s). Determine (i) the
pointing vector P, and (ii) the net power flux intering the cylinder.
Solution:
Given ⃗E = Ex a⃗ x
With Ex = 1 cos[2π f(t − z/c)]
G
|Ex | = 1 V/m
(i) As E⃗ is having only a⃗x component with |Ex | = 1, the corresponding magnetic field
should have only y component so that the EM Wave travels in +ve z-direction.
z
C
0.75m
y
1m
x
z
⃗⃗ = |Hy | cos [2πf (t − )] ay
H ̂
c
|Ey | and |Hy | are related by
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|Ex |
= η0 = (120π)Ω
|Hy |
1 z ŷA
∴ ⃗H
⃗ = cos [2πf (t − )] a
120π c m
The pointing vector, P⃗ is given by
1 z
⃗P = E⃗ ×H⃗⃗ = cos2 [2πf (t − )] aẑ W/m2
120π c
(ii) Power enters from the bottom plane area = (π) m2 of the cylinder and leaves from
the top plane area of the cylinder.
s
Power flow through the curved surface is zero.
∴ Net average power flux entering the cylinder
nt
T
1 1 z
P= π ∫ cos2 (2πf (t − )) dt, where T = 1/f sec
T 120π c
t=0
1 T 1
= = W
120 T 2 240
ra
pi
As
G
C
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Assignment 1
1. Maxwell’s divergence equation for the 5. An infinite plane at Z = 10 m carries a
electric field is uniformly distributed charge of density
ρ ρ 2 nC/m2 . The electric field intensity at
(A) ∇.E = (C) ∇×E =
εo εo the origin is
ρ ρ (A) 0.2 az n V/m (C) −2 az n V/m
(B) ∇.E = (D) ∇.E =
2πεo εo (B) 2 az n V/m (D) −36π az V/m
2. The critical angle in degrees, for an 6. If an isolated conducting sphere in air
s
electromagnetic wave passing from 1
has radius = its capacitance will
quartz (μ= μ0 , ε = 4ε0 ) into air is 4πεo
nt
(A) 15 (C) 45 be
(B) 30 (D) 90 (A) Zero (C) 4 πF
(B) 1 F (D) 0 F
3. A single layer air-cored coil having ‘n’
turns has an inductance ‘L’. If a new coil
is formed by having 2n turns while
retaining the coil length and diameter at
the same value as before, the
ra 7. Which one of the following statements
DOES NOT pertain to the equation
∇. B = 0?
(A) There are no sinks and sources for
pi
inductance of the new coil will be magnetic fields.
L (C) 4L (B) Magnetic field is perpendicular to
(A)
2 L the electric field.
(B) 2L (D)
4 (C) Single magnetic pole cannot exist.
As
(D) B is solenoidal
4. A parallel plate capacitor of plate area A
and plate separation ‘t’ has a capacity C. 8. The displacement flux density at a point
If a metallic plate P of area A and of on the surface of a perfect conductor is
negligible thickness is introduced in the ⃗⃗ = 2(âx − √3âz ) C/m2 and is pointing
D
t
capacitor at a distance 2
from either of away form the surface. The surface
the two plates, as shown in the given charge density at that point (C/m2 ) well
G
figure, then the capacity of the capacitor be

will come (A) 2 (C) 4
P (B) −2 (D) −4
C
9. The torque in (N – m) acting on a

A circular current loop of radius 1mm in
the xy-plane, connected at the origin
and with current 0.1 A flowing in the
sense of increasing ϕ in a magnetic field
t/2 t/2
̂ =10−5 (2âx − 2ây + âz ) Wb/m2 is:
B
C (C) 2C
(A) (A) (−2π) × 10−12 (2âx − 2ây + âz )
2
(B) C (D) 4C (B) 2π × 10−12 π(âx + ây)
(C) 10−12 π
(D) −10−12 π
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10. The given figure shown the surface 13. Two coils have self-inductances of 0.09
charge distribution of q Coulombs/m2 . H and 0.01 H and a mutual inductance
What is the force on a unit charge of 0.015H. The coefficient of coupling
placed at the centre of circle? between the coils is
(A) 0.06 (C) 1.0
R (B) 0.5 (D) 0.05
q
14. In a hundred-turn coil, if the flux
through each turn is (t 3 − 2t)m Wb, the
s
q2 magnitude of the induced EMF in the
(A) Zero (C) N
4πR coil at a time of 4s is
nt
q q2 (A) 46 mV (C) 4.6 V
(B) N (D) N
4πR2 4πR2 (B) 56 mV (D) 5.6 V
11. Match List I(Laws) with List II 15. A positive charge of Q coulomb is
(Applications) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the
lists:
List – I
To find the
ra located at point A(0, 0, 3) and a
negative charge of magnitude Q
coulomb is located at point B(0, 0 –3).
The electric field intensity at point C(4,
pi
0, 0) is in the
A. Ampere’s law (A) Negative x –direction
B. Biosavarat’s law (B) Negative z-direction
C. Coulomb’s law (C) Positive x-direction
As
D. Gauss’s law (D) Positive z-direction

List – II
1. Force on a charge 16. The force between two point charges of
2. Force due to a current carrying 1 nC each with a 1mm separation in air
conductor is
3. Electric flux density at a point. (A) 9 ×10−3 N (C) 9 ×10−9 N
4. Magnetic flux density at a point (B) 9 ×10−6 N (D) 9 ×10−12 N
G
Codes
A B C D 17. A 3 μF capacitor is charged by a
(A) 3 2 1 4 constant current of 2 μA for 6 seconds.
(B) 4 2 1 3 The voltage across the capacitor at the
C
(C) 4 1 2 3 end of charging will be

(D) 3 1 2 4
(A) 3 V (C) 6 V
(B) 4 V (D) 9 V
12. A solid cylindrical conductor of radius
‘R’ has a uniform current density. The
18. A coil of resistance of 5 Ω and
magnetic field ‘H’ inside the conductor
inductance 0.4 H is connected to a 50 V
at a distance ‘r’ from the axis of the
conductor is d.c supply. The energy stored in the
I Ir field is
(A) (C) (A) 10 Joules (C) 40 Joules
2πr 2πR2
I Ir (B) 20 Joules (D) 80 Joules
(B) (D)
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19. The circulation of ⃗H

⃗ around the closed 5. A coaxial transmission line has inner
contour C, shown in the figure is and outer radius ‘a’&‘b’ respectively.
2I I If Hϕ = (A⁄P) sin⁄ωtcos (βz). The
3I
conductors are perfect and the
dielectric has εr = 1, εo = 2.25, σ = 0.
C
The line extends from z = 0 to z = d. If
z = 0 is a perfect conductor, what will
be Vab (t)at z = d
(A) (– wμ0 β/A) ln(a − b) cos(ωt) cos(βd)
s
(A) 0 (C) 4I
(B) (– wμ0 A/ β) ln(a/b) sin(ωt) cos(βd)
(B) 2I (D) 6I (C) (– wμ0 A/ β) ln(ab) sin(ωt) sin(βd)
nt
(D) (– wμ0 A/ β) ln(b/a) sin(βd) cos(ωt)
Assignment 2
1. Two media 1 and 2 are separated by x-y 6. A 100 MHz uniform plane wave is
plane. Medium 1(z > 0, εr 1 = 4) has normally incident from air into a
material measurement yield a SWR of 5
electric field 3ax̂ + 5aŷ + 2âz v/m.
What will be the electric field in
medium 2 (z < 0, εr = 16).
(A) 3ax̂ + 5aŷ + 0.5aẑ
ra and the appearance of an electric field
minimum at 4λ in front of the interface.
The impedance of material is
(A) 100−j300 Ω (C) 113.36+j260.09 Ω
pi
(B) 3ax̂ + 5aŷ − 0.5aẑ
(B) 125−j275 Ω (D) 105−j260.25 Ω
(C) −2ax̂ + 5aŷ + 0.5aẑ
(D) 2ax̂ + 5aŷ + 0.5aẑ 7. The cross section of a waveguide is
shown in the figure. It has a dielectric
As
2. A lossy material has μ = 5μ0 , ε = 2ε0 , discontinuity. If the guide operates at

The phase constant is 10 rad/m at 8 GHz in dominant mode. Then SWR is
5 MHz. The loss tangent is Y
(A) 2913 (C) 2468 2.5
(B) 1823 (D) 1374
3. Which one of the following is another 5 X

G
form of Faraday’s law

∂PV ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∂A
(A) ∇ − J = − (C) ∇. ⃗A = −μE ∂t
∂t
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∂A Z
(B) ⃗E = − ∂t (D) None of these μ0 2.25 ε0 μ 0 ε0
C
(A) 1.564 (C) −3.911

(B) 2.468 (D) 4.389
4. If v = 10xyz − z + 5x V find the E field
on V = 100 volt surface at the point 8. An electrostatic field is said to be
x = 2, y=3 conservative when
(A) −50.76ax̂ − 30.51aŷ − 59aẑv/m (A) The divergence of the field is equal
(B) −27.726ax̂ − 30.51aŷ − 59aẑv/m to zero
(C) −50.76ax̂ − 22.61aŷ − 59aẑv/m (B) The curl of the field is equal to zero
(D) −27.32ax̂ − 30.51aŷ − 11.22aẑv/m ∂B
(C) The curl of the field is equal to − ∂t
(D) The laplacian of the field is equal to
∂2 E
με
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9. Two long parallel wires in free space 12. The electric field strength at a far – off
are separated by a distance R and carry point, P, due to a point charge, +q,
currents of equal magnitude but located at the origin, O, is
opposite in direction. At any general 100 mV/meter. The point charge is now
point, the Z – component of enclosed by a perfectly conducting
Z hollow metal sphere with its centre at
the origin, 0. The electric field strength
I I
at the point, P,
(A) Remains unchanged in its
s
Y magnitude and direction
d1 d2 (B) Remains unchanged in its
P
nt
magnitude but reverse in direction
R (C) Would be that due to a dipole
X
formed by the charge, +q, at 0 and
(A) The magnetic vector potential is
μ0 I – q induced
ln(d2 2 /d1 2 )
4π
(B) The magnetic induction is
μ0 I
2π
(d2 /d1 )
(C) The magnetic induction is zero
ra 13.
(D) Would be zero
Which of the following field equations

indicate that the free magnetic charges
pi
(D) The magnetic vector potential is do not exist
1 (C) ∇ . H = 0
μ0 I
(d2 2 /d1 2 ) (A) H= ∇ × A
μ
4π
I dI×R
(B) H = ∮ (D) ∇ × H = J
4πR2
As
10. On either side of a charge – free

interface between two media 14. The incoming solar radiation at a place
(A) The normal components of the on the surface of the earth is
electric field are equal 1.2 kW/m2 . The amplitude of the
(B) The tangential components of the electric field corresponding to this
electric field are equal incident power is nearly equal to
(C) The normal components of the (A) 80 mV/m (C) 30 V/m
G
electric flux density are equal (B) 2.5 V/m (D) 950 V/m
(D) The tangential components of the
electric flux density are equal 15. Given ⃗V = x cos2 y î + x 2 ez ĵ + z sin2 y k̂
and S the surface of a unit cube with one
C
11. Vector potential is a vector corner at the origin and edges parallel to
(A) Whose curl is equal to the magnetic the coordinate axes, the value of the
flux density integral ∫ ∫ ⃗V. n̂ ds is ________
s
(B) Whose curl is equal to the electric
field intensity 16. For a uniformly charged sphere of
(C) Whose divergence is equal to the radius R and charged density ρ, the
electric potential ratio of magnitude of electric fields at
(D) Which is equal to the vector distances R/2 and 2R from the centre,
product E x H i.e.,
E(r=R /2)
is __________
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Answers Keys & Explanations
Assignment 1 9. [Ans. B]
1. [Ans. A] T = m × B = IA az × B
Maxwell’s divergence equation, = IA az × (2 ax − 2 ay + az )10−5
ρ = IA 10−5 (2ay + 2ax )
∇∙E =
εo
= 0.1 × π(10−3 )2 10−5 (2 ax + 2ay )
= 2π × 10−12 (ax + ay )Wb/m2
2. [Ans. B]
s
1 10. [Ans. A]
θ = sin−1 √ = sin−1 0.5 , θ = 30o
4 The E field vanishes everywhere inside
nt
the sphere.
3. [Ans. C]
Inductance of solenoid, 11. [Ans. B]
μo N2 A Ampere’s law – Magnetic flux density at a
L=
l
So L ∝ N2
When turns are double, inductance will be
4 times.
ra point. Biosavart’s law – Force due to a
current carrying conductor. Coulomb’s
law – Force on a charge. Gauss’s law –
Electric flux density at a point
pi
4. [Ans. B] 12. [Ans. C]
The new system has two capacitor in Iπr 2 Ir
H 2π r = ⇒H =
series, let the value of one capacitor is ‘C’. πR 2 2πR2
As
εA ′ εA 2ε A
C = ,C = = = 2C
t t/2 t 13. [Ans. B]
New capacitance = 2C in series with 2C = C M = K √L1 L2
M 0.015
5. [Ans. D] ⇒K= = = 0.5
√L1 L2 √0.09 × 0.01
ρs
E =
2ε0
14. [Ans. C]
2 × 10−9
G
= = −36π az V/m Ndϕ

2 × 8.854 × 10−12 EMF = − = 100 × (3 t 2 − 2) × 10−3
dt
[magnitude EMF] at t = 4 sec
6. [Ans. B]
EMF = 100 × (48 − 2) × 10−3
1
C
C = 4πε0 R = 4πε0 × =1F ⇒ 100 × 46 × 10−3 = 4.6 V

4πε0
15. [Ans. B]
7. [Ans. B]
z
∇∙B = 0
A
It does not pertain that magnetic field is +Q
perpendicular to the electric field.
C
8. [Ans. C] x
45° 45°
Surface Charge Density = |D|
E2 E1
= 2√1 + 3 = 4 C/m2
−Q
B
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E1 = Field due to A at point C 4. [Ans. A]

E2 = Field due to B at point C V = 10xyz − z + 5x ⃗E = −∇v
both are equal in magnitude and make 100 = 10xyz − z + 5x
angle of 90°, their resultant lie in –z ⇒ −(10yz + 5)ax̅ − 10xzây + (1 − 10xy)aẑ
direction. 5x − 10
z=
1 − 210xy
16. [Ans. A] At point P(2,3, z), z = 1.52
q2 ⃗ = −50.76 ax̂ − 30.51 aŷ − 59 aẑ V/m
E
F = 9 × 109 ×
r2
s
10−18 5. [Ans. D]
= 9 × 109 × = 9 × 10−3 N
10−6 For a < P < b & 0 < z < d
d b
μ0 A
nt
17. [Ans. B] ϕ= ∫ ∫ sin(ωt) cos(β) dp dz
0 a P
q It 2 × 10−6 × 6 μ0 A b
V = = = = 4V = ln ( )
C C 3 × 10−6 β a
−wμ0 A
= ln(b⁄a) sin(βd) cos(ωt)
18.
19.
[Ans. B]
1
2
[Ans. C]
1
2
50 2
E = LI2 = × 0.4 × ( ) = 20 J
5 ra 6. [Ans. C]
β
At minimum
( + π)
2β
= 4λ
pi
2π
By Ampere’c circuit law ∮ H. dl = Ienc Β= ⇒  = 6π
λ
⇒ 3I + 2I − I = 4I S−1 5−1 4
|Γ | = = = = 0.67
S+1 5+1 6
η2 − η0
As
Assignment 2 |Γ| = 67ej0.6π [∵ Γ = |Γ|ej ]

1. [Ans. A] η2 + η0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 1 + 0.67ej0.6π
E1t = 3ax̂ + 5aŷ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
E2t η2 = η0 ( )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ t − 0.67ej0.6π
D 1n = 4 to (2az ) ̂ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
D2n
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 0.67ej108° = −20 + j0.6365
E2n = 0.5aẑ, E2 = E2t + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ E2n
1 − 20 + j 6365
η2 = 377 [ ]
1 + 20j0.6365
2. [Ans. B] ≃ 377[0.3007 + j0.6899]
G
σ
Loss Tangent =x η2 = 113.36 + j260.09 Ω
ωε
7. [Ans. A]
με σ 2 Since a > b the dominant mode is TE10
β = ω√ [√1 + ( ) + 1 ]
2 ωε
C
C 3  108
In face space fc = = = 3 GHz
2a 2 0.05
2π × 5 × 106 5 × 2 η0 377
⇒ 10 = √ [√1 + x 2 + 1] ⇒ η1 = = = 406.7 Ω
3 × 108 2 2 3 2
√1 − ( )
σ √1 − (fc ) 7
⇒x= = 1823 f0
ωε c
In dielectric medium fc = ≅ 2 GHz
2a√ϵr
3. [Ans. B] η0 377
∂B⃗ η= = = 251.33 Ω
⃗ =−
∇×E √ϵr √2.25
∂t 251.33
η2 = = 259.23 Ω
−∂ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∂A 2 2
⃗ =
∇×E [∂ × ⃗A], ⃗E = − √1 − ( )
∂t ∂t 8
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η2 − η1 μI
Reflection Coefficient Γ = ⇒ [ln [L + √L2 + d12 ] − ln d1 ]
η2 + η1 2π
259.23 − 406.7 μI
⇒ = −0.22 = [ln[2L] − ln d1 ] , L >> d1
259.23 + 406.7 2π
1 + |Γ| 1 + 0.22 Vector magnetic potential A2 due to long
S = = = 1.564
1 + |Γ| 1 − 0.22 wire RS:
μI
8. [Ans. B] A2 = − [ln[2L] − ln d2 ]
2π
An electrostatic field with electric field, ⃗E Due to both wires,
μI
is said to be conservative, if the closed A = A1 + A2 = [ln d2 − ln d1 ]
s
2π
line integral of the field is zero. i.e., μI d2 μI d22
⃗ . ⃗dl = 0………..(1) = ln [ ] = ln [ 2 ]
∮E 2π d1 2π d1
nt
Applying stoke’s theorem, equation (1)
becomes 10. [Ans. B, C]
∇×E ⃗ = 0, i.e., the curl of the field, E
⃗ is This question is regarding the boundary
equal to zero. conditions at the interface between two
⃗E is given by
∂2 E
⃗
⃗⃗
∂B
Note that ∇ × ⃗E = − ∂t for time varying
fields. Also note that laplacian of the field
∇2 ⃗E = με ∂t2 , which is the wave equation

ra media (1) and (2)
For a charge free interface between two
media with dielectric constant ε1 and ε2
(i) The tangential components of the
electric field are equal. i.e.,
pi
Etan1 = Etan2
of an electromagnetic wave.
or E is continuos at the boundary
(ii) The normal components of electric
9. [Ans. A]
As
flux density D are equal. i.e.,

The magnetic vector potential A, at point
DN1 = DN2 or DN is continuous at the
‘P’ in the xy plane (z=o) is derived below
boundary.
(see Fig.)
Dtan1 ε1 EN2
Taking an elemental current element I ⃗dz, It may be noted that = =
Dtan2 ε2 EN1
Vector magnetic potential A1 due to the
long wire PQ: 11. [Ans. A]
Q z M
Vector magnetic potential, ⃗A is a vector
G
I I
whose curl is equal to the magnetic flux
⃗
density, B
z
R ∇ × ⃗A = ⃗B = μ H
⃗⃗
C
o y
Note that the unit of ⃗A is web/meter.
d1 d2
P
12. [Ans. D]
E = 100 μ V/m is replaced by a 100 mV/m
x R
P
Note that the data either 100 μV/m has no
N
L
effect on the field strength required at the
μI dz point ‘P’.
A1 = ∫ , R = √d12 + z 2
4π R Therefore for the present question also
−L
L L the electric fields strength at ‘P’ would be
μI dz μI zero.
= ∫ = ln [√z 2 + d12 ]
2π √d12 + z 2 2π 0
0
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13. [Ans. C] 1 − cos 2y

⇒ ∫ sin2 y dy ∫ dx = ∫ dy ∫ dx
Gauss’s law for magnetic fields states that 2
the electric flux flowing through the 1 sin 2y 1 −1
= [ ] [y − ] [x]
closed surface is equal to zero, as free 2 2 0 0
magnetic charge do not exit and magnetic 1 sin(2) 1 sin(2)
= [1 − ] (−1) = − [1 − ]
flux lines are closed. 2 2 2 2
∴ ∮ ⃗B. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
s
⃗ =0
ds = 0 or ∇. B I3 through OTSM = − ∬ Vy dx dz,
As ⃗B = μH ⃗⃗ , ∇. μH
⃗⃗ = 0 y = 0, x = 0 to − 1, z = 0 to 1
−1
In homogeneous medias μ is independent x3
s
= −[x e dx dz] = − [ ] [ex ]10
2 2
of position. 3 0
∴ ∇ . ⃗⃗H = 0 1 1
= − [− ] [e1 − 1] = [e1 − 1]
nt
3 3
14. [Ans. D] I4 through PQRN = −I3
Power density, P = 1.2 kW/m2, on the I5 through OTQP = ∬ xcos2 y dy dz ,
surface of the earth where x = 0, y = 0 to − 1, z = 0 to 1
η = η0 = (120π)Ω
The relation between E and P is given by
E2
2η
=P
The amplitude, E of the electric field is
ra 2
⇒ ∬ cos y dy dz = ∫
=0
I6 through MSRN = − ∬ xcos2 y dy dz ,
x = −1, y = 0 to − 1, z = 0 to 1
1
1 + cos 2y
dy ∫ dz
1
pi
2
given by 0 0
1 sin 2y 1 1 1 sin(2)
E = √2η0 P = [y + ] [z]0 = [1 + ] [1]
2 2 0 2 2
= √2 × 120π × 1.2 × 103 V/m
1 sin(2)
As
= 951 V/m ≈ 950 V/m = [1 + ]

2 2
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 + I5 + I6
15. [Ans. *] 1 sin(2) 1 sin(2)
Given ⃗V = x cos2 y î + x 2 ez ĵ + z sin2 y k̂ = − [1 − ] + [1 + ]
2 2 2 2
⃗V = x cos2 y ⃗ax + x 2 e2 ⃗ay + z sin2 y ⃗az 1
= sin(2)
= Vx ⃗ax + Vy ⃗ay + Vz ⃗az 2
Vx = cos2 y, Vy = x 2 e2 and Vz = z sin2 y
16. [Ans. *]
G
z S R Given the sphere of radius R with uniform

Q surface charge density ρ C/m2 . Magnitude
T of the electric field at 2R from the centre
C
N of the sphere can be obtained by using

M
Gauss’s law: ∮ D ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = Charge Enclosed
⃗ . ds
O
P y D (at r = 2R) × 4π(2R)2 = ρ4πR2
x ρ
D(at r = 2R) =
4
⃗ . n̂ dS
The given integral : I = ∬s V D(at r = 2R) 1 ρ
∴ E(at r = 2R) = =
I1 through OMNP = ∬ Vz dx dy, ε ε4
R R
z = 0, x = 0 to − 1, y = 0 to 1 But D (at r = ) = 0 or E (at r = ) = 0
2 2
= 0 , as Vz = 0 at z = 0 Because no charge is enclosed within the
I2 through TQRS = ∬ Vz dx dy, imaginary spherical surface of radius R/2
z = 1, x = 0 to − 1, y = 0 to 1 E(r = R/2)
=∬ sin2 y dy ∫ dx ∴ =0
E(r = 2R)
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have fun in what they are doing.”
…. Dale Carnegie
Module Test
1. If divergence is represented by D and 5. If J = (zy ax + xz ay + z 3 az ) cos 104 t
curl is represented by C, which of the A/m2, then volume charge density
following is true? ρv is, ( given ρv (x, y, 0, t)= 0)
(A) ρv = −0.3z 2 sin 104 t mc/m3
s
(B) ρv = 0.6z 2 sin 104 t c/m3
(C) ρv = 0.3z 2 sin 104 t mc/m3
nt
(D) ρv = 0.5z 2 sin 104 t mc/m3
Statement for Linked Answer Q.No. 6 & 7

A conducting bar can slide freely over
(A) D = 0 , C = 0
(B) D ≠ 0 , C = 0
(C) D = 0 , C ≠ 0
(D) D ≠ 0 , C ≠ 0 ra two conducting rails a shown in figure.
O
P
y
pi
2. ∇ × ⃗E = 0 implies that
B V
(A) E = 0
(B) E is a conservation field , and
hence irrotational vector
As
6 cm
(C) E is a static and doesn’t change x Q
with time 6. If the bar is stationed at y = 8 cm and
(D) E is a constant vector B = 4 cos 106 t az mWb/m2, the
induced voltage in the bar is,
3. A parallel plate capacitor has plate
(A) −19.2 sin 106 t V
area of 5 cm2 and a separation of (B) 19.2 sin 106 t V
3 mm and a voltage of 50 sin 103 t V
(C) 19.2 cos 106 t V
G
applied to its plates. Assuming

(D) −19.2 cos 106 t V
ε = 2 ε0 , the displacement current is,
(A) 147.4 cos103 t nA 7. If the bar slides at a velocity v = 20 ay
(B) 150 cos 10 t A
C
m/s and B = 4 az m Wb/m2, the

(C) 180 cos 103 A induced voltage in the bar is,
(D) 155 cos 10−3 mA (A) 4.8 mV (C) 48 mV
(B) −4.8 mV (D) −48 mV
4. Which of the following expression is
not Maxwells’s equation for time 8. Which law was given by Maxwell for
varying fields? the correction of the inconsistency of
(A) ∇ × H = JC + JD (C) ∇.E= −
∂B continuity equation for the time
∂t
varying field
(B) ∇.D = ρv (D) ∮ B. ds = 0 δD (C) Faraday’s law
(A) Ampere’s law δt
(B) Gauss’s law J (D) None of these
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Module Test
9. Maxwell’s Wave equation is 13. What is the force experienced per unit
−δB length by a conductor carrying 5 A
(A) ∇ × E =
δt current in positive Z direction and
−δB δD placed in a magnetic field
(B) ∇ × E = ,∇ × H =
δt δt ⃗ = (3a⃗x + 4a⃗ y )?
B
2
δ E
(C) ∇. D = 0, ∇2 E = μ0 ε0 2 (A) 15a⃗x + 20a⃗ y N/m
δt
δ2
E δ2 B (B) −20a⃗x + 15a⃗y N/m
(D) ∇2 E = μ0 ε0 2 , ∇2 B = μ0 ε0 2 (C) 20a⃗x + 15a⃗ y N/m
δt δt
s
(D) −20a⃗x − 20a⃗y N/m
10. In the source free wave equation
⃗
∂2 E ⃗
∂E 14. Plane z = 10 m carries surface charge
nt
⃗ − μ0 ε0 μ ε
∇2 E − μ0 μσ =0
∂t 2 ∂t density 20 nc/m2 . What is the electric
The term responsible for the field at the origin?
attenuation of the wave is (A) −10âz V/m (C) 72 π âz V/m
⃗
∂E
(A) μ0 μσ
∂t
(B) μ0 ε0 μ ε 2
⃗
(C) ∇2 E
∂t
⃗
∂2 E
ra 15.
(B) −18 π âz V/m (D) −360 π âz V/m
What is the value of total electric flux

coming out of a closed surface?
(A) Zero
pi
⃗
∂E ⃗
∂2 E (B) Equal to volume charge density
(D) μ0 μ σ and μ0 ε0 μ0 ε 2 (C) Equal to the total charge enclosed
∂t ∂t
by the surface
As
11. A potential field is given by V = 3x 2 y − yz. (D) Equal to the surface charge
Which of the following in NOT true? density
(A) At the point (1, 0, −1), V and the
electric field E vanish 16. Two extensive homogenous isotropic
(B) x 2 y = 1 is an equipotential plane in dielectrics meet on a plane z = 0. For
the xy – plane z ≥ 0, εr1 = 4 and for z ≤ 0, εr2 = 2. A
(C) The equipotential surface V = −8 uniform electric field exists at z ≥ 0 as
G
passes through the point P (2, −1, 4) E1 = 5âx − 2ây + 3â z kW/m. What is
(D) A unit normal to the equipotential the value of E2 in the region z ≤ 0?
surface V = − 8 at P is
(−0.83x̂ + 0.55 ŷ + 0.07 ẑ) 17. Which one of the following is the
C
poisson’s equation for a linear and

12. If a vector field B is solenoidal, which of isotropic but inhomogeneous medium?
these is true? (A) ∇2 E = −ρ/ε (C) ⃗∇. ∇
⃗ (εV) = −ρ
⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗ . dl (B) ⃗∇. (ε∇
⃗ V) = −ρv (D) ∇2 V = −ρ/ε
(A) ∮ B ⃗ =0
(C) ∇ × B
L
18. ⃗ = 0 is based on
Equation ∇.B
(B) ∮ B ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗ . ds (D) ∇. ⃗B ≠ 0 (A) Gauss’s Law
S
(B) Lenz’s Law
(C) Ampere’s Law
(D) Continuity Equation
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Module Test
Answer Keys & Explanations
1. [Ans. D] 8. [Ans. A]
Both curl and divergence is not zero. δD⁄δt is called displacement current &
behaves the same way as physical
2. [Ans. B] current & hence the continuity equation
∇ × E = 0 implies that E is a must also include this current.
conservative field and hence it is
irrotational vector. 9. [Ans. D]
s
3. [Ans. A]
10. [Ans. A]
V
nt
− D = εE = ε ⃗
∂E
d The term μ0 μ σ
∂D ε ∂V ∂t
Jd = = involves the parameter σ i.e.,
∂t d ∂t
εA ∂V εA dV conductivity of the lossy medium that
Id = Jd . A = ( )= correspond to losses in EM wave
=2×
d dt
10−9 5 × 10−4
×
36 π 3 × 10−3
d dt
× 103
× 50 cos 103 t A
= 147.4 cos 103 t nA
ra 11.
propagation.
[Ans. A]
V = 3x 2 y − yz
pi
∂V ∂V ∂V
E = −∇V = − [ â + â + â ]
4. [Ans. A] ∂x x ∂y y ∂z z
E = −[6xyâx + (3x2 − z)ây − yây ]
5. [Ans. A]
So, E at (+1, 0 − 1) = [0 + 3ây − 0]
As
2
− ∂ρv
4
∇. J = (0 + 0 + 3z ) cos 10 t = = −3ây ≠ 0
∂t
⇒ ρv = ∫ ∇. Jdt = ∫ 3z 2 cos 104 t dt
12. [Ans. B]
−3z 2 According to Gauss law for magnetic
= sin 104 t + C0
104 field ∇.B ⃗ = 0 i.e., no existence of
ρv /z = 0 ⇒ C0 =0 monopoles.
So, ρv = −0.3 z 2 sin 104 t mc/m3
G
∮B ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0 (∵ Divergence theorem)

⃗ ds
s
6. [Ans. B] ∴ Divergence of ⃗B = 0 i. e. , ⃗B is solenoidal.

∂B
Vemf = − ∫ . ds 13. [Ans. B]
∂t
C
0.08 0.06 Force on current carrying conductor

⇒ ∫ ∫ 4(10−3 ) (106 ) sin 106 t dx dy due to magnetic field
y=0 x=0 ⃗B = 3âx + 4ây
= 19.2 sin 106 t V ⃗ = l(la⃗z × ⃗B)
F
Force per unit length
7. [Ans. B] ⃗ 1 = l(âz × ⃗B)
F
Vemf = ∫(v × B). dl = 5[âz × (3â x + 4ây )]
0 = 5[3â y − 4âx ]
= ∫(vay × Baz ). dx ax = −vBl ⃗F1 = −20âx + 15â y N/m
x=l
= −20 (4 × 10−3 ) (0.06) = −4.8 mV
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Module Test
14. [Ans. D]
ρs
E= (−âz )
2 ε0
20 × 10−9 × 4π × 9 × 109
= (−âz )
2×1
= −360π âz V/m
15. [Ans. C]
Net flux coming out from a closed
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = Qenclosed total
s
⃗ . ds
surface i.e., ∮ D
charge enclosed within the surface this
is Gauss’s law for electric field.
nt
16. [Ans. C]
From the boundary condition
Dn1 = Dn2 (Charge-free)
∴ ε0 εr1 Ez1 = ε0 εr2 Ez2
∴ 4 × 3 = 2 × Ez2
∴ Ez2 = 6âz ra
pi
17. [Ans. B]
⃗ .D
We known that ∇ ⃗ = ρv
⃗
But D = εE
⃗ . (εE
∴ ∇ ⃗ ) = ρv
As
but ⃗E = −∇V
V-potential (Scalar)
∇. (−ε∇V) = −ρv
Medium is inhomogeneous i.e., ε is
function of dimensions x, y, z so we
cannot take it out side.
G
18. [Ans. A]
Magnetic monopoles are not physically
⃗ =0
possible as per Gauss’s Law i.e., ∇.B
C
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Reference Books
Reference Books
1. Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems

By E.C. Jordan and K.G. Balsain
2. Engg Electromagnetic –
By William Hayt
s
3. Antenna And Wave Propagation
nt
By KD Prasad
4. Microwave devices & circuits
5.
By Lio
Schaum series for problems

ra
pi
6. Principles of Elctromagnetics
By Matthew N.O. Sadiku
As
G
C
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Syllabus for Electromagnetic Theory

Chapters Page No.

“Picture yourself vividly as winning and that

4. Gauss's Law, Electric Potential

5. Divergence of Current Density and Relaxation

10. Maxwell’s Equations

(i) 0 ≤ θ < 2π, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π

(iv) 0 < θ ≤ π, −π ≤ ϕ < π

Vector Calculus Formula

SL. No Cartesian Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates Spherical Coordinates

Gradient of a Scalar field

derivative of V along a. This is the rate of change of V in direction of a.

Example: Find the Gradient of the following scalar fields:

Example: Determine the divergence of these vector field

(a) P = x 2 yzax + xzaz

Example: Determine the curl of each of the vector fields.

= (0 − 0)ax + (x 2 y − z)ay + (0 − x 2 z)az

1 ∂Qz ∂Qϕ ∂Qρ ∂Qz 1 ∂ ∂Qρ

= 2 (r 2 ) + 2 (sin θ ) + 2 → For Spherical Coordinates

(b) Laplacian of Vector A ̅

the second derivative.

Material & Physical Constants

Aluminum 3.186 × 107 1.0

Permeability of free space, μ0 = 4π×10-7 H/m

Base of natural logarithm, e = 2.718

Electromagnetic (EM Field)

Force is measured in “Newton”.

Electric Field Intensity

General Form of Coulomb’s Law

 Tangential to such surface is zero electric field.

For a finite line charge

For an infinite sheet of charge,

Example: The finite sheet 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 on the z = 0 plane has a charge density

(c) The force experienced by a −1 mC charge located at (0, 0, 5)

and is shown below.

 The electric dipole moment, p = Q d

Electric Flux Density (D)

Total charge enclosed Q = ∫ ρv dv

 Gauss’s law is an alternate form of Coulomb‘s law.

ϕE = ∫ E dA cos θ + ∫ E dA cos θ + ∫ E dA cos θ

Absolute potential at a point r = b is Vb = Q / 4π ε b

|r − r1 | = |(1, 0, 1) – (2, − 1, 3)| = |(−1, 1, −2)| = √6

or the surface of the conductor. The movement of charges is merely a mechanism to

(σ = ∞) can not contain an electrostatic field within it. E = 0, ρv = 0, Vab = 0 inside a

Divergence of Current Density and Relaxation

This is a homogenous linear differential equation. By separately variables,

Field at P Due to a Straight Filamentary Conductor

When the conductor is semi infinite, α1 = 90 and α2 = 0

Ampere's Circuit Law

In classical electromagnetism, Ampère's circuit law, discovered by André-Marie Ampère in 1826,

∮ B. dl = ∫(∇ × B). ds = μ0 Ienc

 This is one of the four Maxwell’s equation.

An isolated magnetic charge does not exist.

This is the fourth Maxwell’s equation.

The Magnetic Vector Potential (A)

Energy Density of Electric and Magnetic Fields

Capacitance of Simple Systems

Stored Energy in Inductance

Toroidal Core (Circular cross-

The Continuity Equation