TIBET:

WATER TOWER OF ASIA

COURSE: RD410 TIBET: A REGIONAL ANALYSIS

CLASS: M.A, SEM-2
CSRD, JNU

SUBMITTED TO: DR SANJEEV SHARMA

SUBMITTED BY: CHANDRAMANI CHOUBEY

REG. NO -28491
ABSTRACT:
In order to appreciate the concept of “water tower of Asia”, we need to explore the
different horizons related to it. Here I mainly focused on defining “water tower, its
utility in terms of sustaining millions of lives, changing environment and its impact
on water tower, atmospheric phenomena which impact water tower and in turn get
affected by water tower. Analysis of Climate change and its impact on Tibetan
plateau’s water tower. The socio-economic-political aspects of the south and south-
east Asian region which are affected by water tower of Asia

INTRODUCTION:
In the word of Michael Buckley “Tibet will take your breath away. Initially, it’s
not the views, it’s the altitude. Arriving in Tibet is like entering a different world—
you need to adapt to the rarefied air at 13,000ft”. Altitude is what defines Tibet.
The original boundaries of Tibet—with the Himalayan range to the south, the
Karakoram Range to the west, the Kunlun range to the north, and the Hengduan
range in the east. And within this icy wonderland are tens of thousands of glaciers.
As we know that Mountains and plateau often have greater precipitation and water
storage capacity in terms of glaciers, ice, and snow as well as large proportions of
lakes and wetlands.

The Tibetan plateau known as ‘The Water Tower of Asia’ is a source of mighty
rivers of Asia like Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong,
Yangtze, and Yellow. Its gigantic glaciers acting as major water-keeper for the
entire region .Tibet may be termed as icebox of Asia. In this Tibet plateau region
the source of water are lakes, rivers, wetlands, permafrost, glaciers, snowpack,
groundwater, and springs which feed the rivers that flow into India, Bangladesh,
China, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Vietnam. It is the largest
river runoff from any single location in the world.

At the lower areas of the mighty rivers flowing from Tibet lie the largest deltas in
the world. These deltas regions are most densely populated region of the world.
One way or another, nearly 2 billion people rely on Tibet’s rivers for their water
for drinking, fisheries, agriculture, and industry. Water of the Tibetan plateau also
known for is pureness. But now the situation has changed. We need to consider the
impact of climate change so that early measures could be taken.
Seventy per cent of the world’s fresh water is frozen in glaciers. Tibetan plateau
has the largest concentration of glaciers outside the polar caps. This huge water
mass on Tibetan Plateau plays an important role in the regulation of cryosphere,
hydrosphere, biosphere, snowpack, frozen land, and plateau vegetation. Thousands
of lakes and glaciers are scattered across this vast region in the continent of Asia,
and it also has an impact on the Asian monsoon. This water tower also interacts
with Land, Ocean and Atmosphere which has profound impact on the global
natural and climatic environment.

The recent trends of atmospheric water vapor, precipitation, and surface

temperature indicate that the atmospheric supply to this water tower presents an
increasing trend under recent global warming condition. Now we also try to
understand where these mighty water mass come from and also the supply to these
water resources is experiencing any changes due to global warming. This third pole
of the world is also the largest fresh water source for human consumption. So
keeping all this in the mind we need to study extensively about this water tower of
Asia.

UNDERSTANDING WATER TOWER OF ASIA:

There is humongous water mass concentration on the earth in the form of oceans
and two poles, but here we put Tibetan plateau as water tower of Asia this is
mainly due to its water related services in terms of both quality and quantity across
space and time for large population of the Asian continent. In order to understand
the concept of Asian water tower at an altitude of around 4000 m, we try to analyze
the function, productivity, and processes of water flow. Water of this landmass
stored as glaciers, ice, and snow temporally and permanently.

The complexity in the Tibetan plateau’s wetlands, lakes, and river network systems
helps in the storage of water for fairly long periods of time. Melting glaciers, ice,
and snow constantly replenish freshwaters in early spring and summer. That’s why
this Tibetan plateau region which is a combination of hilly and flat plateau areas
covered with alpine vegetation, bush, and grassland, which are paradises for many
endemic wildlife of the region.

Wetlands on the Tibetan plateau play and important role in regulation of

hydrological cycle and maintenance of the water tower. More than 50 percent of
total natural wetlands of China are present in this region. Salt Marsh, Peat land and
Freshwater Marshes are main dominating wetlands of the region. The Wetlands of
this high land play an important role in regulating the flow of rivers by absorbing
the excess water during the summer and releasing it in the winter when the runoff
is short.

RIVERS ORIGINATING FROM THE WATER TOWER:

The Tibetan plateau’s glaciers, ice, and snow, which represent major natural
reservoirs of frozen water, feed the wetlands and Asia’s great rivers. The Yellow
and Yangtze Rivers flow to the coastal areas of China; the Mekong, Irrawaddy and
Salween flow to Southeast Asia, and the Indus and Brahmaputra are major South
Asian river systems.

The water tower which is natural reservoirs of frozen water and wetlands serves as
a buffer to local climate variation. It compensates for the deficit of rainfall and
snowmelt during dry and drought years and stores water from cloudy skies to
reduce melting during wet years. Thus stream flows and discharge are stabilized,
which is very important for local agriculture and livelihoods.

Principal rivers of Tibetan plateau basic statistics

RIVER RIVER BASIN

Mean Glacial Area Population Population Water
2
discharge melt in (km ) (*1000) density per
3
(m /s) river person
flow (m3/year)
(%)
Indus 3850 44.8 1,263,000 178,484 165 830
Ganges 15,000 9.1 1,075,000 407,466 401 2500
Brahmaputra 19,824 12.3 940,000 118,543 182 2500
Irrawaddy 13,565 Small 413,710 33,097 80 18,614
Salween 1,494 8.8 271,914 5,982 22 23,796
Mekong 15,948 6.6 805,604 57,198 71 8934
Yangtze 35,000 18.5 1,970,000 368,549 214 2265
Yellow 1,365 1.3 944,970 147,415 156 361
Total 1,316,733
Source: adapted from Xu Jianchu (2008) based on IUCN/IWMI, 2002

The above table helps in the understanding about different river system, their
discharge, and glacial melt in the river flow, area that covered by these rivers,
Population density along the river basin and accordingly water availability per
capita. Ganges has highest population density whereas Salween has lowest. But
contribution of glacial melt is highest in Indus and lowest in Irrawaddy.

Glaciers, snow packs, and lakes serve as a water-storage pool and all the rivers
connecting to the plateau function as water pipelines that transport water away.
Tibetan plateau provide a proportion of 20-50% of total discharge in the humid
areas, while in arid areas, the contribution of the mountains, particularly from
melting glaciers, to total discharge amounts to from 50-90% with extremes of over
95%.

Rivers originating from this water tower are not only carrying huge amount of
water but also bring fish and nutrient rich sediment or silt. This transportation of
silt prevents the sinking of mega deltas of Asia and also counters rising sea levels.
Thus save millions of lives in low lying deltaic region.

The Tibetan water tower benefit four critical ecological zones and great river basin
of Asia which are - east coastal areas of China; dry lands of northwest China;
mainland Southeast Asia; and Himalayan areas of South Asia. The water tower and
its river basins serve some of the world’s poorest regions like Bangladesh, densely
populated, and rapidly growing economies like China and India.

MAJOR DELTAS OF THE WORLD:

The rivers flowing from the Tibetan plateau form the largest deltas in the world.
Five mega deltas are as follows: The Yangtse which is an intensive rice growing
and inland fishing region close to Shanghai, The Mekong also a major rice
producer and aquaculture center for Vietnam, The Irrawaddy a major rice producer
for Burma, The Ganges-Brahmaputra the agricultural heartlands of India and
Bangladesh, and The Indus a major agricultural zone for Pakistan. These mega
deltas act as rice bowls for nearby megacities. One way or another, nearly 2 billion
people rely on Tibet’s rivers for their water—for drinking, fisheries, agriculture,
and industry.

GLACIERS, SNOW, AND ICE AND THE WATER TOWER:

Glaciers are slow water-release mechanisms, keeping the rivers alive during dry
spells and allowing for storage of water. When annual Indian monsoon rains hit
Tibet, they are converted into snow, which settles on glaciers and thus makes
monsoon rain usable over long periods as a melt water source that enters the rivers.
The snowpack acts as storage for monsoon rainwater that would otherwise
dissipate. In the highlands, a substantial proportion of the annual precipitation falls
as snow. Snowfall builds up from year to year to form glaciers that provide long-
term reservoirs of water stored as ice and function as regulators for stream and
river runoff from mountain watersheds. Most commonly glaciers are thought to
delay runoff by preventing precipitation from running off directly.

Storage and release of water from glaciers are important for ecosystems, food
production, and industrial development irrigation, sea-level fluctuations, glacial
dynamics, sediment transport, and formation of landforms. Around 50% of China’s
total glaciers lie in the Tibet autonomous region (TAR), out of which 21% lies in
Brahmaputra river basin.

Climate controls river flow and glacial mass balance in the Asian water tower, and
these vary considerably from west to east. The monsoon from the Bay of Bengal,
further developed in the Indian subcontinent, produces heavy precipitation; and
this is predominantly in the southeast of the Tibetan Plateau. The monsoon
weakens from east to west of the highlands, penetrating northwards along the
Brahmaputra River into the southeast Tibetan Plateau, rarely penetrating as far as
the Karakoram.

Water from both permanent snow and ice and seasonal snow packs is released by
melting, giving a distinct seasonal rhythm to annual stream flow regimes. Glaciers
undergo winter accumulation and summer ablation in the west, but predominantly
synchronous summer accumulation and summer melt in the east. The main melting
occurs in high summer but, when this coincides with the monsoon, it may not be as
critical for water supply as when the melting occurs in the shoulder seasons: spring
and autumn. When the monsoon is weak, delayed, or fails, melt water from snow
and ice.

CLIMATOLOGICAL CONDITIONS UPON WATER TOWER:

Climatological parameters like temperature and precipitation changes with
elevation in the highlands and over shorter distances than they do with latitude and
longitude. More than 80% of the average total annual precipitation on the Tibetan
plateau is concentrated in elevations between 3500-5000masl.

Precipitation distribution with elevation on the highland Tibetan Plateau

Elevation (masl) Annual rainfall Per cent (%)

108m3
Above 5000 485.9 5.72
4500-5000 3,790 44.6
4000-4500 543 6.39
3500-4000 2480 29.2
3000-3500 294 3.47
Below 3000 905 10.65
Total 8,497.9 100
Source: Lu et al. 2004

Precipitation in highland Asia shows an east-west and north-south variation on the

macro scale. The east-west variation is based on the dominance of different
weather systems. In the western Tibetan Plateau air masses connected to the
westerly leads to bring moisture during winter leading to a winter peak in rainfall.

The eastern part of this Tibetan plateau is influenced by the southwest monsoon,
which brings maximum precipitation during summer. Since here monsoon rainfall
is mainly orographic in nature, which create distinct variations in rainfall with
elevation and distinct differences between the southern part and the rain shadow
areas of the Tibetan Plateau behind the main mountain range. So we can say that
the climatic effects are also driven by local topographic characteristics.

The impacts of climate change, therefore, are expected to intensify in mountain

areas, and they are considered to be unique areas for detection of climate change
and related impacts. If climate change mainly involves vertical shifts in

precipitation and thermal conditions, ruggedness, elevation, and orientation will

also modify the significance of regional climate changes.

WETLANDS AND TIBETAN PLATEAU WATER TOWER:

Wetlands are an important feature of the Asian water tower and provide water
resources, maintain hydrological cycles, and serve as carbon sinks. It is pertinent to
understand wetland ecological dynamics and their hydrological processes and
carbon cycling of this region. But melting glaciers increase water levels and
expand the wetland in the short term, which eventually cause the loss of wetlands
and small lakes in the long term. Some small lakes will eventually disappear as a
result of high rates of evaporation and a decrease in rainfall, particularly on the
western Tibetan Plateau.

There is increasing global and regional concern about the vulnerability of high
altitude wetlands to climate change and human activities. Wetlands act as buffers
for floods, groundwater recharge, and river flow. High- altitude wetlands have,
therefore, become important elements in conservation and water management at
national, regional, and international levels.

High-altitude wetland in China (over 3000masl)

Wetland Area (km2) High Alt

Type Tibet Qinghai Xinjiang Gansu Sichuan Yunnan Wetland
Fresh 5,693 248675 380.50 90 64.42 3420 8748.87
(w) lake
Salt(w) 19,424,37 874629 1807.81 29977.84
lake
Swampy 16814 19014 250 4.10 36082.10
lands
Inland 2399 2399
marshes
River 11 1012.46 1040 2063.46
wetland
Marshes 5404 275.05 4100 3415.19 13194.24
Total 49745.37 31259.50 2462.73 5480 3479.61 38.30 92465.51
Source: Ramsar Convention Implementing Office State Forestry Administration,
China, 2005

LAND-USE AND LAND-COVER CHANGE: THE IMPACT ON WATER

Land-use changes around water tower leads to changes in ecosystem service of
water tower like food and water for masses. That could also affect fauna and flora;
contribute to local, regional, and global climate changes.
Shift in land use pattern could potentially degrade soil, water, and land. Large
forest areas have been converted into croplands, particularly in Ganges, Yangtze,
Mekong, Indus, Brahmaputra and Yellow river basins. Here we can see it through
the table.

Land-use in 8 key river basins

River Forest Grassland Wetland Cropland Irrigated Dry Loss of
& bush cropland land original
forest
cover
Indus 0.4 46.4 4.2 30.0 24.1 63.1 90.1
Ganges 4.2 13.4 17.7 72.4 22.7 58.0 84.5
Brahmaputra 18.5 44.7 20.7 29.4 3.7 0.0 73.3
Irrawaddy 56.2 9.7 6.3 30.5 3.4 4.4 60.9
Salween 43.4 48.3 9.5 5.5 0.4 0.1 72.3
Mekong 41.5 17.2 8.7 37.8 2.9 0.8 69.2
Yangtze 6.3 28.2 3.0 47.6 7.1 2.0 84.9
Yellow River 1.5 60.0 1.1 29.5 7.2 79.4 78.0
Source: IUCN, IWMI, Ramsar convention Bureau and WRI 2002

Land use and land cover have contributed greatly to wetland loss in this region.so
we can say that with both land use and climate warming reducing the fresh water
storage capacity of water tower of Asia. Populations of the highland areas are more
likely to intensify land use which will need more water and lead to soil erosion and
water degradation. So in this context it becomes very important question that-how
to manage “the water tower of Asia”.

EFFECT OF BLACK SOOT ON TIBWTAN WATER TOWER:

Meltdown of Tibetan Plateau glaciers will have far greater repercussions in terms
of human impact. There is no doubt that greatly elevated carbon dioxide emissions
from both China and India are leading causes of warming on the Tibetan Plateau.
But for glacial meltdown, another significant factor may be the rain of black soot.

Black carbon from cities in both India and China travels on air currents and gets
trapped on the Tibetan Plateau. Black carbon is a tiny particle that is generated by
the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, or agricultural waste due to a
shortage of oxygen. The dark-colored pollutant absorbs heat from the sun both
while floating in an air column or once settled on the ground—or the ice.

Black carbon is different from greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide that is emitted
from coal-fired plants and methane. Black carbon is actually not a gas, these are
tiny particles and its damaging power comes from its absorption of heat. White
glaciers reflect the sun’s heat, while the dirty glaciers caused by black carbon
depositions will do the exact opposite that is they will absorb the sun’s rays, and
thereby accelerating glacial meltdown.

IMAPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON FRESH WATER:

The anticipated climate change is likely to alter precipitation patterns, glacial

storage, and river runoff with respect to timing, volume, and variability from
highland plateau and upland water sheds, therefore it will influence runoff
characteristics in the lowland plains as well.

Climate change presents very serious risks to freshwater resources. The rise in
temperature has been much faster than the global average in the highlands. Besides
glacial retreat, impacts of climate change include disappearance of small wetlands;
and this includes lakes which are part of the Asian water tower.

Glacial melt provides fresh water vital for the ecosystem and society, particularly
in arid areas of west China and during critical periods from the dry season to
monsoon. The supply of fresh water, or melt water from snow and ice, in large
river basins is projected to increase over the following decades as perennial snow
and ice decrease. Decreasing snow packs, and earlier snowmelt, and that will
certainly reduce the flow of water in the rivers originating from the highlands,
particularly in the dry season.

ATMOSPHERIC PERSPECTIVE OF WATER TOWER:

Here we show the maintenance of water content in the atmosphere over the Tibetan
Plateau, the atmospheric circulations and transports of water vapor to this part of
the world, and the trend of the water vapor supply.

It is vital to understand the atmospheric roles in maintaining of these waters over

the Tibetan Plateau, the atmospheric circulations and transports of water vapor to
this part of the world, and the trend of the water vapor supply during recent global
warming.
The questions are then what the characterization of the atmosphere water vapor
over the Tibetan Plateau is, where this water vapor comes from, and what a special
role the plateau’s geographic feature plays in this ocean-land atmospheric
interaction.

On the eastern side of Tibetan plateau, the moisture slopes extend across the
Pacific and up to North American Rockies. On its south side, the moisture slopes
up from southern hemispheric oceans, crosses the Equator enter into the northern
hemisphere, and climbs up on the Tibetan Plateau.

These provide a more complete idea of the Tibetan water tower in terms of the
atmosphere above it as a pool of concentrated water vapor which play the role of
water-supply tank at the surface. The upper atmosphere channels in and out
moisture, which affect the entire world’s water environment.

Clearly, the unique geological feature of the plateau is responsible for this global
moist distribution. In the summer half of a year (May–October), the Tibetan
Plateau acts as a strong ‘‘dynamic pump’’ continuously attracts moist air from the
Low latitude oceans. This moisture is concentrated at low-levels and transported
by lower branch of atmospheric flows.

However, when reaching the plateau, a portion of these flows rises along the south
side of the plateau, and causes frequent convections and precipitations. Water is
transported back via surface rivers and upper-level returning flows. The other
portion of water vapors is blocked by the plateau and then deflected to the east side
of it and caught by the prevailing westerly wind. This westerly wind transports
abundant moisture to the eastern China and Asia.

The Tibetan Plateau is not only a place favorable for moisture convergence, it also
renders the ideal condition for moist air to condense and develop into plateau
convective clouds due to its elevated land surface and strong radiation heating.
Precipitation in the Tibetan Plateau is mainly due to these convective cloud
systems.

SOCIO-ECONIMIC AND POLITICAL IMPLICATION OF WATER

TOWER:
The increase in population and booming of economy, particularly in lowland areas
or downstream, exert heavy pressure on the highland or upstream river basins for
land, water, and other resources. These pressures will foster the construction of
dams for irrigation and hydropower generation and conversion of land for cash
crop plantation, which in turn will have an impact on the availability of water in
the lowlands with the potential to raise political tensions between the highlands
and lowlands.

Water and food security are major concerns for downstream nations. By far the
greatest water usage in Asia is for irrigation for crops, including rice, cotton, and
rubber. Most of the world’s rice is grown and consumed in Asia. India and China
produce and consume up to half of the world’s rice supplies. The world’s highest
per capita consumption of rice is in Burma, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos,
Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. The principal allocation of water to agriculture
emphasizes a vital relationship between water and food security in the world’s
most densely populated region.

Water Withdrawal in Southern Asia

Countries % Agriculture % Industry % Domestic
China 65 23 12
India 90 2 7
Nepal 98 0 2
Pakistan 94 1 5
Bangladesh 88 2 10
World 71 18 12
Source: World Development Indicator: Freshwater, World Bank 2013
Through this table we can see the complete picture. Water tower of Asia is really
the life line for millions.
CONCLUSION:
Outside of the arctic and Antarctic, the Tibetan plateau has the largest store of ice
on earth, leading to its designation as the “Third Pole. The Tibetan Plateau has
always been referred to as the ‘‘roof of the world. The challenges of trans
boundary water management and the region’s looming water crisis represents the
main ground reality of the region.

The present and future conditions of the Tibetan water tower concern not only a
sustainable socio-economic development, but also the survivability reality for close
to 40% of the world’s population [UNEP, 2007]. Therefore, changes in this water
tower have long been the focus of scientists worldwide.

Du to global warming, rapid melting of glaciers in many large mountains in the

Tibetan Plateau region is occurring, that would be really disastrous for humankind.
Glaciers are living entities are too inspiring but become dangerous if we get too
close. They creak and groan, and crackle and rumble and sometimes they roar.
These days glaciers have lots to complain about. But are we listening?

References:
1. Jianchu, Xu (2008), The Highlands: A Shared Water Tower in a Changing
Climate and Changing Asia, ICRAF Working Paper No.64.
2. Xiangde Xu, Chungu Lu, Xiaohui Shi, and Shouting Gao (2008), World
water tower: An atmospheric perspective, Geophysical Research Letters,
Vol. 35.
3. Department of Information and International Relations, Central Tibetan
Administration Dharamsala, Tibet: The Third Pole, Importance of
Environmental Stewardship, Environment and Development Desk (2012).
4. Buckley, Michael (2014), Meltdown in Tibet China’s Reckless Destruction
of Ecosystems from the Highlands of Tibet to the Deltas of Asia, Palgrave
Macmillan.
5. Albert, Eleanor (2016), Water Clouds on the Tibetan Plateau, Council on
Foreign Relations.

THANK YOU.