ETEP

Muence of Absolute Humidity on the Electrical

BreakdowninAir
J. Schmid

Abstract
One of the most important insulating gases in high-voltage technique, the air, is varying with climatic con-
ditions. The most important parameters are the pressure, temperature and the absolute humidity. The influ-
ence of humidity on the discharges is investigated in this report. First, the physical processes on the discharge
development are discussed in respect to the influence of water vapour in air. Experimental results of the
breakdown voltage with variable absolute humidity are explained with these processes. The experimental
investigation was done with a rod-plane gap of 20 cm to 100 ern distance and with different voltage wave
shapes. The different influence of water vapour on diflerentpredischarge phenomena can be seen in different
dependency of the breakdown voltage on the absolute humidity, for each type of predischarge dominating
before breakdown.

1 Introduction cules play an important role. This processes are de-

The air as insulating gas has still a great importance
in high-voltage technique and power distribution. In
high-voltage test technique air gaps are also used to
measure high voltages. The most important parameters
for the insulation capability of the air are the geometry
of the arrangement and the electrical field strength. The
composition of the air. given in climatic parameters, is
also of great importance. The relevant parameters are
temperature and pressure, combined in the relative air
density as well as absolute humidity ha,which has large
variations within the atmosphere of the earth.
The influence of the absolute humidity on the
electrical discharges is negligible for nearly homoge-
neous field configurations like it is in sphere gaps. But
it is important in inhomogeneous fields like in many
practical insulation configurations [I].
In ths report the influence of the absolute humidity
on the breakdown voltage of rod-plane air gaps is in-
vestigated First, the physical processes of the air parti-
cles and the development of the discharges until break-
down are discussed. In a second part the experimental
results arc shown and the influence of humidity is ex-
plained with the physical processes during the dis-
charge development.
2 Development of Discharge
To explain the development of air discharges it is
helpful to look at the discharges of rod-plane air gaps.
Here only the discharges at the rod electrode have to be
considered and it is easy to get the different types of
discharges separated. For explanation it is necessary to
look at first to the physics of the different particles of
air and their reactions which lead to discharges. For this
report those reactions are important where water mole-
scribed in the following.
2.1 Processes of Air Particles During the
Discharge Development with Respect to
Water Vapour
In an electric field electrically charged particles are
accelerated. With the energy they are gaining from the
field these particles can make different reactions in an
impact with other particles. The most important process
for electrical discharges is the ionisation by electron
impact, and with this the development of electron ava-
lanches. Slow electrons can be withdrawn from this
avalanche process by recombination or attachment to
oxygen molecules forming negative ions. Beside these
a lot of other processes influence the development of
the discharge. The water molecules are participating in
different processes and so they do influence the dis-
charge development. The three most important pro-
cesses for this influence of water vapour are:
Attachment of water molecules to negative ions:
Because of the dipole of water molecules they are
easily attached to negative oxygen ions. So they form
big heavy ions with up to five water molecules at-
tached. Energy is set free with the attachment, this
means, that at n o d temperatures nearly no oxygen
ion without attached water molecules are existing.
At higher temperature the water molecules are de-
tached again, so that at a temperature of about
2000K the oxygen ion and the free electrons are
dominating [2].
Absorption of ultra violet radiation by water mole-
cules:
Water vapour has a very high absorption rate for ul-
tra violet radiation [3]. This means, the extension of

ETEP Vol. 2, No. 5 , SepternbedOctober 1992 327

 ETEP
this radiation is reduced with increasing water va-
pour. This radiation is building free electrons by
photo ionisation, which are important to create pri-
mary electrons for electron avalanches. The absorp-
tion of the ultraviolet radiation reduces the area of
photo ionisation to a smaller distance of the radiation
source. The discharge is reduced by this process
which is described below.
Vibration relaration of nitrogen vibration:
If the elecmc field strength is in the range of the
electric field strength inside the streamer channel the
majority of the electron energy gained from the
electric field is transferred to vibration energy stored
in nitrogen molecules [4]. These nitrogen vibrations
have a long life time. Water molecules have a vibra-
tion mode with comparable energy level, the transi-
tion of energy from nitrogen to water vibration
therefore is very fast. The water vibration has a short
life time. Therefore, the relaxation time of the nitro-
gen vibration is reduced with increasing water va-
pour content in air.
2.2 Discharge Development in a Rod-Plane
Air Gap
The most important discharge phenomena can be
observed when a switching impulse voltage is applied
to a rod-plane air gap as the streamer and the leader
discharge can be observed one after the other. With
lightning impulse voltage the most important type of
predischarge is the streamer discharge. With DC volt-
age the most important discharges are the glow dis-
charge and the streamer discharge. The glow discharge,
which occurs with small gap distances and low humid-
ity is not subject of this paper and therefore not ex-
plained in details. When any of these discharges reach-
es the plane electrode, the discharge channel is heated
very fast, the final jump occurs and the breakdown can
not be prevented.
The condition for streamer onset is at least one free
primary electron inside a critical volume in front of the
rod electrode. The critical volume depends on the volt-
170r I I 1 was made of brass with a diameter of 20 mm. For the
I
-
-L
100 - I -
0
10 20 30 40 g h 3 50
FT Icn 1 1 1 ha
Fig. 1.50 9 impulse breakdown voltage (with their stm-
dard deviation) of a rod-plane air gap as a funcuon of abso-
lute humidity ( a = 90 cm, r9 = 40 "C)
328
age at the rod electrode and the geometry of the gap [ 5 ] .
Because of the attachment of water molecules to nega-
tive oxygen ions the probability of these free electrons
in the critical volume is smaller for higher absolute hu-
midity. This results in a slight increase of streamer on-
set voltage with increasing absolute humidity [6].
When the streamer develops towards the plane
electrode the absorption of ultraviolet radiation is the
most important process for the influence of water va-
pour. To get a further development of the streamer a
critical amount of electrons (108) has to be generated by
the secondary avalanches [7].Because the primary
electrons of these avalanches are mainly generated by
ultraviolet radiation coming from the streamerhead, the
number of the secondary avalanches is reduced with
increasing humidity because of the high ultraviolet ab-
sorption of the water molecules.
As mentioned above, most of the energy of the
electrons added to the streamer channel during devel-
opment of the streamer is stored in nitrogen vibrations.
The relaxation of this vibration can heat the channel so
that a leader can be initiated [4]. Because of the low
relaxation time of the water molecule vibrations the
onset of a leader is supported by increased humidity.
Inside the leader channel itself the processes with
water molecules are not important because of the high
temperature. The leader channel is therefore not influ-
enced by humidity.
3 Influence of Absolute Humidity on the
Breakdown Voltage of a Rod-Plane
Air Gap - Experimental Results
The different kinds of predischarges are influenced
by humidity in a different way because of their different
physical characteristic. This results in a predischarge
depending influence of the humidity on the breakdown
voltage. Experimental investigations of the breakdown
voltage of a rod-plane air gap show this influence of the
absolute humidity on the breakdown voltage.
The tests were carried out in a climate chamber the
size 3 m x 3 m x 4 m. It was possible to control the air
temperature between - 20 "C and + 60 "C and the nla-
tive humidity between 5 96 and 95 96.The rod elcctrode
impulses the rod had a sharp ended cone as termination.
The tests with DC voltages were done with a hemi-
spherical ended rod. All the results am the measured
values corrected to a relative air density of 1. For the
impulse test every breakdown voltage was determined
out of a probability dismbution with at least five volt-
age levels and 20 shots per level. For the DC tests the
breakdown voltage was evaluated out of ten successive
measurements with a rise of the voltage to breakdown
in about I min.
3.1 Impulse Voltages
Fig. 1 shows the breakdown voltage of a rod-plane
air gap with small distances stressed with impulse
ETEP Vol. 2. No. 5 . September/October I992
 E TEP
220 I
i
'i I I

er IM.Zn
Fq.2.50 9% impulse breakdown voltage (with their stan-
€ I
106.a
1 4 0 1
0 5 10
I
15
ha - I
20 25
I
g/m3 35

Fig.4. Mean positive DC breakdown voltage of a rod-plane air

gap as a function of absolute humidity ( D = 30 cm. t9 = 40 "C)
dard deviation)of a rod-plane air gap as a function of abso-
lute humidity ( D = 100 cm, 19 = 40 "C)

form 60/20oOps is for the investigated air gap, the

wave form with the best conditions for leader propaga-
voltages. At a distance of 20 cm the streamer predis- tion [8]. The leader has its longest channel before
dharge is the most important discharge with lightning breakdown and therefore the breakdown voltage has its
impulse voltages (1 2/50 p)as well as with switching minimum with this wave form.
impulse voltages (60/20oOps). The streamer discharge The influence of the absolute humidity has also its
is hindered with increasing water vapour contents be- minimum for the wave form 60/2OOO ps. The increase
cause of UV absorption as explained in the previous in breakdown voltage with humidity is 0.47 % per g/m3
chapter. Both curves of the breakdown voltage versus water vapour. If an impulse is applied to the gap with
absolute humidity show the same increase in break- longer front time (200/3000ps) the leader crosses a
down voltage with increasing humidity. It is 1.1 % per smaller part of the gap and the increase of breakdown
g/m3 water vapour in the air. That is a typical value for voltage with humidity is again higher. In that case
the influence of absolute humidity on the streamer 0.73 96 per gfm3.
breakdown.
With a greater distance of 100 cm and lightning
impulse voltages the same characteristic can be ob- 3.2 DC Voltage, Positive Polarity
served (Fig. 2). Here still the streamer discharge is the
most important discharge before breakdown. With With positive DC voltage at the rod electrode of the
switching impulse voltage the effect of leader dis- rod-plane configuration the streamer discharge is the
charges can be seen. They reduce the breakdown volt- most important discharge before breakdown. The in-
age and they change the influence of absolute humidi- fluence of the absolute humidity therefore can be com-
ty. Inside the hot leader channel there are no physical pand with the influence on the breakdown voltage with
processes influenced directly by water molecules. lightning impulses and switching impulses at small
Only the leader corona is influenced by humidity in the distances. The increase in breakdown voltage is again
same way the streamer discharge is influenced. This 1.1 % per g/m3 (Fig. 3). But with small distances and
means that the longer the leader channel before humidity below 10 g/m3 a glow discharge can be ob-
breakdown, the lower is the influence of the absolute served. The breakdown occurs out of the glow dis-
humidity on the breakdown voltage. The impulse wave charge and other physical reactions dealing with nega-
tive ions an important 191. These ions are influenced by
the humidity by attaching water molecules to them. The
320, I I I I glow discharge becomes less stable with increasing
water vapour. The breakdown voltage in this case is
4 decreasing with increasing humidity. The deviation of
the measurements are also much higher than for the
I L L
'.2ao
U h
5p-f
50 cm

I
breakdown out of the streamer discharge (Fig. 4).

/I
3 3 DC Voltage, Negative Polarity
260
I I

I
Fig. 5 shows the breakdown voltage of a rod-plane
air gap versus the absolute humidity for negative DC
voltages. It shows no influence of the humidity on t h i s
kind of discharge. In this case the primary electrons of
the avalanches are created in a small distance from the
streamer head and so in a small distance from the ultra

ETEP Vol. 2. No. 5 , SeptembedOctober 1992 329

ETEP
-280 I 4 Conclusions
I I

A kV/ I
Absolute humidity is influencing the predischarges
of an air gap and with this it is influencing the break-
down voltage of the gap. The influence depends on the

L
-240
T 1065H
0 5 10 15
ha - 20 25

Fig. 5. Mean negative DC breakdown voltage of a rod-plane

air gap as a function of absolute humidity
g/m3
violet radiation source. Therefore, the high absorption
of ultra violet radiation by water vapour can not influ-
ence this kind of discharge.
3.4 Comparison of the Humidity Influence on the
Streamer Discharge with Different Voltage
Wave Forms
If the breakdown is controlled by streamer dis-
charge, all experiments show the same increase in
breakdown voltage with increasing humidity. Fig. 6
shows a comparison between this results. Results of a
rod-rod configuration with DC voltages and 50 cm gap
distance are added to this comparison, Here the break-
down occurs also out of positive streamer discharges
[6]. To compare the values for different voltage wave
forms and different distances, the breakdown voltage is
divided by the breakdown voltage at 11 g/m3 absolute
humidity. This comparison shows a good agreement for
the different experiments. As long as the breakdown
occurs out of the streamer predischarges the voltage
wave form and the distance of the gap have no influence
on the humidity dependence of the breakdown voltage.
But if a leader channel crosses part of the gap, the
influence of the water vapour is reduced and the in-
crease of the breakdown voltage with increasing abso-
lute humidity is lowered. The influence of the humidity
is restricted to the leader corona in front of the leader
channel.
1.3 I I I I I
!
0 DC voltages. 50 cm rodrod
8” androd-planegap
.o x Lightning rrnpulsc voltages.
2 0 ~ 1 ~ 1a Od O ~ m d - p l a a e ~
+0 ,
I
I 0 swirciung impulse vo~lagcs.
20crnmt-p1aoegap
35
kind of predischarge. Essentially there are three physi-
cal processes which are influenced by water vapour.
With these processes the different behaviour of the
breakdown at different voltage wave forms can be ex-
plained.
The attachment of water molecules to negative ions
reduces the probability to find a free electron at the
right position in the right time to start the streamer
discharge. Therefore, the streamer onset voltage is
increasing with increasing humidity.
The high absorption of W radiation by water mole-
cules is reducing the length of the elecuon ava-
lanches in front of the streamer head. A higher field
is necessary for the propagation of the streamer. I k s
results in increasing breakdown voltage with in-
creasing humidty.
The relaxation time of nitrogen vibrations, excited by
slow electrons, is reduced by increasing water va-
pour contents. This leads to a faster heating of the
streamer channel. Therefore, the leader inception is
supported with higher humidity.
As long as the streamer discharge is the most im-
portant discharge before breakdown, the breakdown
voltage is increasing with increasing absolute humidity
by the same characteristic independent of voltage wave
form and gap distance. The increase in breakdown
voltage is 1.1 % per g/m3 water vapour in the air.
Is a leader channel formed before breakdown, the
increase of the breakdown voltage is lowered. Only the
leader corona is influenced by absolute humidity.
References
[ l ] IEC-hbl. 60-1 (1989): High Voltage Test Techniques
- P. 1: General Definitions and Test Requirements.
BerlidGemany: vde-verlag. 1989
[ 2 ] Allen. N. L: The Effect of Humidity on Positive Corona
Discharges in Air. 14th Conf. on Phenomena in Ionized
Gases, BudapestNungary 1985, Proc.
[ 3 ] Menger, P. H.; Cook G. R.: On the Continuous Ab-
sorption, Photoionitation and Fluorescence of H,O,
NH,, CH,, CzH2, C2H4. and qH,in thc 600 to 1OOO A
Region. J. Chem. Phys. 41 (1964) pp. 642-648
[4] Gallimberti, I.: The Mechanism of Long Spark Fonna-
tion. J. de Phys., Coll. C (1979) pp. C7/193-C7NO
[5] Allen. N. L; Berger, G.; Dring. D.; Hahn, R.: Effects of
I
Humidity on Corona Inception in a Diverging Electric
Field. E E ROC. A-128 (1981) pp. 565-570
[6) Allibone, T.E.; Dring, D.: Influence of Humidity on the
Breakdown of Sphere and Rod Gaps under Impulse
Voltage of Short and Long Wave Fronts. IEE Proc. 119
(1972) pp. 1417- 1422
[7] Dawson. G. A.; Winn. W. P.: A Model of Streamer
Propagation. Z. f. Phys. 183 (1%5) pp. 159- 171
181 Feser. K.;Schmid, J. :Influence of Atmospheric Con-
ditions on the Impulse Breakdown of Rod-Plane Gaps.
5th Int. Sympos. on High-Voltage Tech. (ISH),Braun-
schweig/Germany 1987, pap. no. 11.01

330 E E P Vol. 2. No.5 . Septernber/October 1992


[9] &mstein, W.: Die Stromfadenentladung und der
Ubergmg in das Glimmen. Arch. f. Elektrotech. 45
( 1%5) pp. 209 - 224
[ 101 Feser. K.; Schmid J.: Influence of High Absolute Hu-
midity on the DC Breakdown Voltage of Rod-RodGaps.
IX.Int. Conf. on Gas Discharge and their Appl.. Ven-
icdtaly 1988, Proc. pp. 455-458
Manuscript received on November 18, 1991
Acknowledgements
The author wants to thank the German Research Fund (DFG)
for financial support of this work and Prof. Kurt Feser (Uni- neer. (Emil Haefely & Cie AG, Dept. DP, P.O.B.. CH4028
versity of Stuttgart) for essential tips and help.
ETEP Vol. 2. No. 5 . SeptembedOctober 1992
ETEP
The Author
Joachim Schmid (1954), VDE, studied
Electrical Engineering at the Univer-
sity of StungadGermany, where he
received his Dipl.-Ing. degree in 1985.
Between 1985 and 1990 he was with
the power transmission and high volt-
age institute of the University of
Stuttgart. In 1991 he received his Dr.-
Ing. degree from this University. Since
1991 he is with Emil Haefely & Cie in
BasellSwitzerland as developing engi-
BaseYSwitzeriand,T +4161B 15 5277, Fax +4161/3 11 21 87)
33 1
REP-Abstracts
Omekanda, A.; Broche, Ch.; Bdnnd, R.
Computation of Magnetic Field in a
Switched Reluctance Motor Using a
Quadratic Hybrid BIEM-FEM Method
ETEP Vol. 2 (1992) No. 5. P. 303-307; 9 Fig.; 5 Ref.
The Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM)is a simple and robust
electrical machine which is finding application over a wide
speed and power range. The design optimization and reliability
assurance of its behaviour require accurate prediction of the
magnetic field distribution in its active regions. Numerical
methods must be used to compute the magnetic field for several
combinations of rotor positions and excitation current intensi-
ties. In that case, it is necessary to develop numerical tech-
niques giving a better degree of precision to meet requirements
of the electromagnetic quantities calculation.
In this paper, a numerical hybrid method coupling Boundary
Integral Equation Method (BIEM) and Finite Element Method
( E M ) is presented. The development of this two-dimensional
hybrid method is founded upon the nodal approximation of the
magnetic vector potential. This nodal approximation exploits
one- and two-dimensional finite elements of Lagrange’s fami-
ly. The quadratic hybrid method coupling BIEM and E M
permits to take advantages of each of two numerical methods.
The BIEM-FEM method is used to calculate the magnetic flux
distribution, magnetization curves, and torque in a 7.5 kW
S R M prototype. It provides an accurate analysis of the mag-
netostatic field and gives precise values of the electromagnetic
quantities.
Levi, E.
Method for Magnetizing Curve Identification
in Vector Controlled Induction Machines
F I E P Vol. 2 (1992) No. 5, P. 309-3 14: 7 Fig.: I Tab.; 17 Ref.
If an adaptive induction machine flux model is to be used for
rotor flux space vector estimation in a vector controlled drive,
the magnetizing curve of the machine has to be known. A
desirable feature of the magnetizing curve identification al-
gorithm is that the procedure should constitute a separate
routine which can be executed during commissioning of the
drive. An experimental procedure, which utilizes c m e n t reg-
ulated PWM inverter aimed for continuous operation of a
vector controlled induction machine, is developed for this
purpose. It relies on indirect vector control technique and
makes use of a PC implemented indirect vector controller.
Appropriate processing of data, obtained during measm-
ments, enables identification of the mahetizing curve. To il-
lustrate the accuracy of the algorithm. results of identification
are verified by an existing method aimed for rotor time con-
stant tuning in indirect vector controller.
Habedank, U.; Knobloch, H.
Procedure for the Optimization
of SF, Circuit-Breakers
FIEP Vol. 2 (1992) No. 5. P. 315-320 6 Fig.; 8 Ref.
The paper deals with the dimensioning of SF6 circuit-breakers
based on a computer program and short-circuit breaking tests.
The procedure leads to an optimization of the design of the
circuit-breaker taking into account the parameters gas pres-
sure, contact motion. dimensions of the active parts and
short-circuit breaking current. Thus, the most advantageous
breaker design no longer has to be determined only by em-
pirical testing.
Cao, Y.
A 10-kW-Quasi-Resonant-Converter
Using IGBT as Battery Charger
ET&P Vol. 2 (1992) No. 5 . P. 321 -325: 9 Fig.;2 Tab.; 7 Ref.
The application of resonant converters in the switched-mode
power supply (SMPS) is very popular due to its high effi-
ciency and compact construction. But because of the limited
switching ability of the available power transistor in case of
relatively high frequencies, their application is most of all
limited to SMPS with smaller power. For the middle power
SMPS over I kW the realization is most complicated. By us-
ing the new power semiconductor switches IGBT, it is possi-
ble to build a battery charger according to the quasi-resonant
converter principle with simple driver circuits. The output
power amounts up to 10 kW (200 V/50 A).
Schmid, J.
Influence of Absolute Humidity on the
Electrical Breakdown in Air
€T&P Vol. 2 (1992) No. 5, P. 327-331; 6 Fig.; 10 Ref.
One of the most important insulating gases in high-voltage
technique, the air,is varying with climatic conditions. The most
important parameters are the pressure. temperature and the ab-
solute humidity. The influence of humidity on the discharges is
investigated in this report. First, the physical processes on the
discharge development are discussed in respect to the influence
of water vapour in air. Experimental results of the breakdown
voltage with variable absolute humidity are explained with
these processes. The experimental investigation was done with
a rod-plane gap of 20 cm to 100 cm distance and with different
voltage wave shapes. The different influence of water vapouron
different predischarge phenomena can be seen in different de-
pendency of the breakdown voltage on the absolute humidity,
for each type of predischarge dominating before breakdown.
ETEP Vol. 2, No. 5 , September/October 1W-

Gagliardi, F.; De Martinis, U.: Faotanni, M.:
Maraniello, hl.: Lauria, D.
Influence of Loads Representation in
Load-Flow Studies for AC/DC Industrial
Electrical Systems
€TEP Vol. 2 (1992) No. 5. P. 273-278: 2 Fig.: 4 Tab.; 1 1 Ref.
The paper deals with loads representation when A C E in-
dusmal electrical systems are considered and load-flow stud-
ies have to performed on. For such systems studies the im-
portance of a proper load representation is pointed out; some
numerical applications are then presented in order to give an
idea of the advantages that a proper loads representation may
have for an AC/DC industrial load-flow study.
ETEP-Abstracts
Janisch. Th.: Buchgraber, G.
Three-Dimensional Calculation of Linear
Magnetic Fields of not Axisymmetrical
Winding Arrangements in Transformers
ETEP Vol. 2 ( 1992) No. 5, P. 291 -294; 5 Fig.; 3 Ref.
Whenever asymmetrical winding arrangements of transform-
ers are to investigate, the use of three-dimensional calculation
methods is essential. In this paper an alternative method to the
classical Finite Element formulation is used, based on re-
duced and total scalar potentials. The basic equations of this
method are presented in a short form. Applied on the example
of a helical winding arrangement, the results and the influ-
ence of winding parameters are discussed.

Gagliardi, F.; De Martinis, U.; Fusco, G.; Lauria, D.

Interaction Between Non-Linear Loads and

Synchronous Generators
ETEP Vol. 2 (1992) No. 5. P. 279-283; 4 Fig.: 2 Tab.: 8 Ref.

In this paper the problem of the interaction between synchro-

nous generator and non-linear load is considered. The prob-
lem taken into account is the determination of voltage and
current waveforms as well as the calculation methodologies
related to it. The following paper ends with a relative numer- Funk, G.
ical application.
Standard Data Transmission Protocols
in Process Control Applications
ETEP Vol. 2 (1992) No. 5. P. 295-302; 9 Fig.; 3 Tab.: 4 Ref.

The paper describes a standard data transmission protocol that

is widely used in telecontrol systems and in field-bus systems
for process control 'applications. The described standard is
based on an asynchronous data transmission method that is
Blajszczak, G . used for character transmission in office automation systems.
The described code guarantees Hamming distance 4 as pro-
Non-Active Power Compensation Using tection against undetectable message errors. Furthermore. the
Time-Window Method article describes extensions of the standard code that achieve
Hamming distances 6 and 8. The increased data integrity levels
ET€P Vol. 2 (1992) NO. 5. P. 285-290; 9 Fig.: I2 Ref of the described data transmission protocols arc achieved by
defining product codes with single parity check codes and
BCH codes and by defining special sync characters.
The paper deals with simultaneous compensation of all com-
ponents of non-active power: reactive power, higher harmon-
ics and an asymmetry in a three-phase network. A new control
method which allows to eliminate any non-active components
with considerably reduced delay time is proposed. In this
paper a new configuration of a compensator power circuit is
also proposed. The compensation ability of the new system
was verified experimentally.

ETEP Vol. 2, No. 5. Septrmber/October I992

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