Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Annotated Bibliography 12
Review of Airflow
Measurement Techniques
Review of Airflow
Measurement Techniques
Jennifer McWilliams
2003
This report is part of the work of the IEA Energy Conservation in Buildings & Community Systems Programme
- Annex V Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre
This work was supported by the Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Building
Technologies Program, U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC03-76SF00098
Document AIC-BIB 12
ISBN 2-9600355-3-4
Belgium, France, Greece, the Netherlands, Norway, and the United States of America.
Preface
International Energy Agency
The International Energy Agency (IEA) was established in 1974 within the framework of the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to implement an International
Energy Programme. A basic aim of the IEA is to foster co-operation among the twenty-four IEA
Participating Countries to increase energy security through energy conservation, development of
alternative energy sources and energy research development and demonstration (RD&D).
To date the following have been initiated by the Executive Committee (completed projects are
identified by *):
The Participants in this task are Belgium, France, Greece, the Netherlands, Norway and the United
States of America.
Disclaimer
AIVC has compiled this publication with care. However, AIVC does not warrant that the information
in this publication is free of errors. No responsibility or liability can be accepted for any claims arising
through the use of the information contained within this publication. The user assumes the entire risk
of the use of any information in this publication.
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................................. 2
1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................... 3
Abstract
Airflow measurement techniques are necessary to determine the most basic of indoor air quality
questions: “Is there enough fresh air to provide a healthy environment for the occupants of the
building?” This paper outlines airflow measurement techniques, but it does not make
recommendations for techniques that should be used. The airflows that will be discussed are those
within a room or zone, those between rooms or zones, such as through doorways (open or closed) or
passive vents, those between the building and outdoors, and those through mechanical air distribution
systems. Techniques that are highlighted include particle streak velocimetry, hot wire anemometry,
fan pressurization (measuring flow at a given pressure), tracer gas, acoustic methods for leak size
determination, the Delta Q test to determine duct leakage flows, and flow hood measurements.
Because tracer gas techniques are widely used to measure airflow, this topic is broken down into
sections as follows: decay, pulse injection, constant injection, constant concentration, passive
sampling, and single and multiple gas measurements for multiple zones. Selected papers are annotated,
and a bibliography is included for each topic with full abstracts.
1 Introduction
Ventilation rates and air movements in buildings need to be quantified and documented to answer the
most basic indoor air quality (IAQ) question: “Is the proper amount of outdoor air reaching the
occupants of the building to maintain acceptable indoor air quality?” This issue is of increasing
concern as buildings become tighter and we rely more on mechanical ventilation systems to maintain
acceptable indoor air quality. Another reason to quantify and document building airflows is that too
much ventilation constitutes a needless heating and cooling energy load and insufficient distribution
system flows can reduce equipment capacity and efficiency. For example, it is estimated that one
eighth of all energy used in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
countries is consumed in residential and service sector buildings, to meet the ventilation and air
infiltration load (Orme, 1997).
The threat of global warming, and the developing world's dependence on fossil fuel make energy
conservation opportunities increasingly important. To take the best advantage of these opportunities,
we must be able to make accurate measurements of airflows within a room or zone, those between
rooms or zones, those between the building and outdoors, and those through mechanical air
distribution systems. Many techniques have been developed to measure these different types of
airflow. This paper has divided these techniques into five categories generally organized as follows:
air velocity, envelope air leakage, tracer gas (single zone and multiple zone) and air distribution
system measurements.
Most of the papers in this report are listed in the AIVC database, and the AIVC database number is
used to reference each paper. The papers that are not in the AIVC database are listed without a
number. The full abstract is listed with each reference when available. The reference section is
organized by topic contained in the text, and papers are listed in order of the AIVC database number.
This corresponds roughly to the chronological order by date of publishing. Papers without an AIVC
database number were inserted by date of publishing. Papers were chosen to be included in the
annotation section by relevance, and also by availability. Papers that are relevant to more than one
section were included in the section of most relevance. Those that are equally relevant to more than
one section were repeated.
sheet. This information alone is insufficient to determine the direction of the velocity vector and needs
to be supplemented by transversely moving the film a known amount during the exposure. With this
movement, a known stationary particle can then be used to calibrate the movement of the other
particles. The overall error of this method is estimated at about 15%, due mostly to the mechanical
shutter speed of the camera, which can have an uncertainty of up to 10% from the setting value. If the
shutter were electronically controlled, the error is estimated to be about 5% since the exposure time is
exactly the same as the setting value.
Karimipanah and Sandberg (#9854, 1994) performed both experimental and numerical analysis of the
flow field in a room to determine if ventilation of the room would cause discomfort to the occupants.
(They accepted as a premise that velocities higher than 0.15 m/s are uncomfortable to occupants.) The
authors used a hot wire probe to measure velocities for ten minutes consecutively at each measurement
location, allowing them to compute average velocity and turbulent fluctuation in a full scale test room.
They state that their measured turbulence intensities varied from 15% to 85%, however, this does not
represent the actual turbulence intensity because hot wires are not able to measure large fluctuations at
low velocities. In a previous study, the authors found that the maximum measurable turbulent intensity
is about 20%. The authors conclude that the high turbulent intensity is an artifact of the low mean
velocities, indicating that a better measuring technique is needed.
Often the leakage between various buildings is compared using CFM50, the leakage through the
building shell at 50 Pascals. The information that would be more interesting is the flow across the
building shell due to the actual pressure across the shell. This flow is constantly changing since the
pressure across the shell varies with wind and weather conditions. To take this into account, a
parameter called Effective Leakage Area (ELA) was developed, which is the area of an orifice that
provides the same flow as the building shell when subjected to a given pressure differential. The
pressure differential that is commonly used in the U.S. is 4 Pa because it is on the order of the pressure
that buildings experience due to wind and weather conditions.
ASTM method E779 (#2889, 1995) outlines how to determine building envelope ELA using fan
pressurization. Although fan pressurization does not give a measurement of actual ventilation during
normal building operation, it is a useful test in order to compare the leakage area of two different
buildings, to assist in identifying leakage sources, and to determine the leakage reduction from an
individual retrofit. This standard discusses the equipment, procedures and data analysis.
Sherman and Palmiter (#10107, 1993) discuss the uncertainties associated with fan pressurization
testing and with determining the Effective Leakage Area referenced to an envelope pressure
differential of 4 Pa from fan pressurization data. The cases of a one-point test, a two-point test, and a
multi-point test are discussed. Their discussion includes an analysis of precision errors, bias errors,
and modeling errors. They conclude that the multi-point test can be improved by taking more data at
each pressure differential, limiting the wind effects, and carefully choosing which envelope pressure
differentials are used for the measurements.
The air handler pressurization method uses the air handlers (with outdoor air intakes) to create a
pressure difference across the building envelope. The building leakage can be calculated when the
outdoor airflow is measured with tracer gas or orifice flow plates. The air handler method could be
used in both buildings that were tested. The authors discuss the non-uniformity of indoor-outdoor
pressure difference that is found across the building shell. There is both vertical and horizontal
variation due to wind and stack effects. In order to minimize these effects, they suggest that testing not
be done if the wind speed is greater than 9 miles per hour, or if the outdoor temperature is greater than
95°F or lower than 41°F. They also suggest that, in order to improve the regression analysis, a range of
envelope pressure differentials be used between 12.5 Pa and 75 Pa.
floor cannot be tested independently. So a test is performed on the two floors together, and a second
test is performed on the first floor only. The second test result is subtracted from the first test result to
obtain the leakage of the second floor.
Oldham et al. (#5324, 1991) conducted experiments to see if an acoustic technique would work for
determining the size of cracks in buildings. Their experiments were done exclusively in the laboratory
using a wall made of steel beams. They found that the technique would work under these conditions,
but they did not test the technique in the field or with a conventional wall segment. Judging by the
literature after this study was performed, this type of technique does not seem to be pursued in the
field of building science, however it has been extensively used in automotive applications.
ASTM standard E741 (2000) outlines tracer-gas test methods based on decay, constant injection, and
constant-concentration measurements. It also describes the tracer gases that can be used, along with
their toxicology, chemical reactivity, and ability to be detected. It gives details about calibrating gas
analyzers and how to conduct analyses to determine the propagation of errors for the tracer gas tests.
This paper relates to Sections 4.1, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.7. It is listed only once in the reference section under
section 4.0.
Tracer gas theory assumes that the tracer gas concentration is constant throughout the measured zone.
Therefore, complete mixing of the air within the testing zone is very important. Mixing fans have been
used by some researchers to improve the uniformity of tracer gas concentrations. Multiple sampling
points can also be used to verify that the concentration is constant across the zone. The expected error
of tracer gas results is in the range of 5-10%.
rates (less than 6 air changes per hour) because if the air exchange rate is too high then the tracer
concentrations have to be measured very quickly before all the tracer gas has left the zone. The
optimal measuring time period is the inverse of the volumetric air change rate. If the air change rate is
6 air changes per hour, the ideal measuring time is 10 minutes. (Heidt and Werner, #2536, 1986.)
It is important to note that the decay technique cannot be used for continuous measurements of varying
ventilation rates. The decay test provides an average ventilation rate over the time period of the test
because the concentrations are only measured at the beginning and end of the test. Several decay tests
can be performed in series to see if the ventilation rate changes, but the resolution cannot be better
than the time period. Errors related to flow rate oscillations can generally be neglected compared to
other errors (mixing errors are estimated at 12-18%), as long as the measuring time is at least one third
the oscillation time period. If, however, temporally unsteady ventilation is to be investigated, then
either the constant injection or constant concentration technique must be used.
Tamura and Evans (#1272, 1983) show that evacuated glass tubes can be used in decay tests to sample
SF6 tracer gas so that expensive gas analysis equipment does not need to be moved to each testing
location. They note that other researchers have used methods such as flexible plastic bottles which are
filled by squeezing multiple times or plastic sample bags which are filled with a pump to collect gas
samples. The ability to collect samples and bring them back to the lab for analysis significantly
facilitates these tracer gas tests.
Kvisgaard and Collet (#3572, 1989) give a detailed description of the tracer gas measurement
equipment used for the constant concentration tracer gas test. Although this equipment was developed
in the early 1980s, it is still in use today. The authors also describe equipment measurement errors. In
particular, they list all error sources, with the corresponding value of the error, and provide some
examples where the total error is computed for various situations. They conclude that the existing
equipment is sufficiently accurate for making tracer gas measurements, because the uncertainties
associated with the equipment (30 per mil or 3 % on the measured value) are on the order of those
associated with insufficient mixing of tracer gas (20 per mil) and the purity of calibration gases (10 per
mil). They state that tracer gas measuring methods, when used with the constant concentration tracer
gas method, are normally better than 5%.
Axley (#5301, 1991) explains that differential mass balance equations were used originally for the
decay, constant injection and constant concentration techniques, but that these equations were
mathematically ill-conditioned in the sense that they required very accurate measurements of the tracer
gas concentration, and were sensitive to error such as incomplete air mixing and unsteady flow.
Integral formulations of the equations have been used successfully to improve the tracer decay and
constant injection techniques, integrated measurements are much easier to make. The integral
formulation of the mass balance equations has not yet been applied to the constant concentration
technique because this technique does not have the same sensitivity to measurement accuracy as the
other techniques. This paper outlines the integral formulation of the constant concentration equations
as an alternative to the current methodology. Interestingly, when the zone concentration is well
controlled, the integral of the concentration becomes negligibly small, and the integral formulation of
the mass balance equations becomes the same as the conventional mass balance equations. This begs
the question, how much variation is acceptable? Axley compared two tolerance limits: 1% and 2%
variation between the integral of the zone concentration and the integral of the target concentration.
The new method was applied to eight sets of existing data where the actual flow was known, and
various control algorithms were investigated to see if they would yield accurate results when the
ventilation flow experienced a sudden step change. The new mass balance equations were applied, and
were found to yield more accurate results than the previous equations. This was partly due to the
correction factor, and partly due to the tolerance criteria, which screened the data for time periods
where the zone concentration was not able to be accurately controlled, and therefore predicting that it
was not possible to produce accurate results during that time period.
Vercammen et al. (#2825, 1987) examine the effect of high air velocity (0.8 to 6.4 m/s) and orientation
at constant temperature on PFT sampling. They found that these air velocities do in fact cause
measurement errors, over 100% relative error for air velocity of 6.38 m/s and a sampling tube oriented
at 90 degrees to the flow. However, the errors can be minimized by using enclosures (two sizes were
investigated) around the sampling tubes or orienting the tube at 180 degrees with respect to the bulk
airflow velocity vector. They state that more work needs to be done to optimize the size and shape of
the enclosures.
The ASTM standard E741 (2000) also describes the tracer gases that can be used including hydrogen,
helium, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur hexafluoride, nitrous oxide, ethane, methane, and
halocarbons (C-318, 13B1, 12 and 116). The standard gives their toxicology, chemical reactivity, and
ability to be detected. It does not evaluate the gases in terms of how they perform in tracer gas testing.
Sandberg (#2367, 1986) compares the constant concentration method with the decay method, both
theoretically and experimentally. His theoretical analysis seeks to determine how flow rate oscillations
affect measurement error. He finds that errors related to flow rate oscillations can generally be
neglected compared to other errors (mixing errors are estimated at 12-18%) as long as the measuring
time is at least one third the oscillation time period. In the experiment, he determined that the
oscillations in flow rate were high frequency and therefore did not significantly affect the accuracy. He
found good correlation between the constant concentration method and the decay method.
Bohac et al. (#2738, 1987) compare infiltration rates determined using using PFT samplers (constant
injection method) with rates determined using constant-concentration tracer gas measurements. Tests
were performed in one unoccupied house, and in one occupied house. They found that PFT
measurements under-predicted infiltration results significantly. The under-prediction ranged between
5% and 29% during cold weather when the infiltration fluctuated due to weather changes and there
was little occupant airing of the house. Simulations were performed to identify and estimate the
sources of this error. The variation in flow rate accounted for the winter time error, however occupant
airing accounted for the largest discrepancies. It was found that springtime occupant airing led to
under-predictions of 32 to 78%.
Sutcliffe and Waters (#4866, 1990) compare the decay, step up, and pulse techniques, as used to
determine local and room mean air age. They used real and generated data to evaluate the errors
associated with each technique. The generated data assumed that the air was fully mixed, and used a
random error generator to add error within a standard deviation set at 1%, 2%, 5% and 10 %. They
determined that the decay technique was marginally better than the pulse and step up techniques for
determining local room air age. The decay test was found to be much easier to perform from a
practical standpoint.
Roulet and Scartezzini (#2882, 1987) discuss the measurement of outside air infiltration into various
zones using a constant-concentration tracer gas technique. This method does not allow determination
of inter-zonal flows. They have a very detailed description of the equipment and methods that they use
for these measurements. They do not estimate errors or validate their method by comparison to any
other method. They say that more detailed data are needed in order to compare their measurements to
a theoretical model such as the LBL Infiltration Model developed by Sherman and Modera.
Bohac and Harrje (#2745, 1987) describe a method for estimating inter-zonal airflows using only one
tracer gas. This technique is a modified version of a constant-concentration technique where the
concentration in a single zone is varied. The resulting change in concentration gives information about
how that room is connected with the other rooms, which are maintained at constant concentration.
These measurements were compared to multiple tracer gas PFT measurements, and it was found that
the infiltration flows and the downstairs to upstairs flow had good agreement (within 30%), but the
exfiltration flows and the upstairs to downstairs flow disagreed by more than 50%. The discrepancy
may be due to the fact that the injection technique measured flows for discrete two hour periods
whereas the PFT technique measured the average over the entire period of testing. Further testing is
needed to determine if the difference in these two methods are real.
Stymne et al. (#13079, 2000) compare five different techniques for using a single tracer gas to
determine the mean age of air for steady flow conditions: decay, step-up, constant injection, inlet pulse
(injected into the supply air) and homogeneous pulse(injected directly into the zones). They find that
the homogeneous pulse technique produces results that agree very well with the established tracer
decay technique, and it is much easier to perform because the evaluation of mean age of air uses a total
time integration, allowing the use of adsorption tubes for sampling.
Kvisgaard and Collet (#3123, 1988) describe general constant concentration methods using two tracer
gases to determine air exchange between rooms and from outdoors. They discuss where the tracer
gases should be seeded and collected, and what information can be gained from the various
configurations. They do not discuss details of theory or measurement equipment.
Compagnon et al. (#3132, 1988) discuss their work on a new control strategy for maintaining constant
tracer gas concentration. Their method is based on a PI control method with some improvements.
They account for the limitations of the tracer gas injection system and anticipate the next control loop
step in order to minimize the over and under shooting that happens when a change in concentration is
called for. The control algorithm was only tested for the single zone case. It was found that this control
algorithm works well for the single zone case, and could be extended to a multivariable control
algorithm for use in multiple zones.
Irwin and Edwards (#3576, 1989) compare three calculation methods for multi-zone decay tests. They
analyze a particular set of data using a numerical concentration gradient method, a numerical
integration technique, and an analytical solution. They find that the two numerical methods have
problems when the data have fluctuations due to wind effects.
Some of these tests measure duct leakage flows directly while the air handler fan is operating
normally. Other tests, such as the pressurization test, measure the leakage at a fixed pressure induced
by an external fan, then the operating pressure is estimated, and the leakage flow is corrected to the
actual operating conditions. There is inherent error in estimating the operating pressure of the system
since the operating pressure is not constant throughout the system.
He found that the house pressure test and the hybrid test measured higher leakage than the register
flow method whereas the pressurization test and supply blocked pressure test measured lower leakage.
The nulling pressure test agreed with the register flow method. There was quite a bit of scatter in the
data - especially for the house pressure tests. The house pressurization test had the least scatter. All the
methods, on average, produced results within 5% of the register flow method. However, only two
tests, house pressurization and nulling pressure test, had standard deviation of about 5% of air handler
flow. The other tests had standard deviation of 9%-11%.
Walker et al. (2001) describe the Delta Q test in detail. This is a newly developed test, which
determines duct leakage flows by measuring the difference in flow through the house envelope when
the house is maintained at a constant envelope pressure differential and the HVAC fan is turned off
and on. The flows are measured at a number of different envelope pressure differentials, and then used
to calculate duct leakage in the supply and return duct systems during operating conditions. Two major
advantages of this test are that: 1) it determines the leakage at operating conditions whereas tests such
as duct pressurization determine the leakage at a given pressure difference which may be quite
different from the actual pressure difference which varies throughout the system, and 2) it does not
require the sometimes difficult task of covering registers. In this paper, Walker et al. describe how to
do the test; results from several field evaluations, including a repeatability study; and provide an
uncertainty analysis.
Andrews (2000) also provides an uncertainty analysis of the Delta Q test. He provides a parametric
analysis, using a Monte Carlo technique to examine the error. He also performed field tests to evaluate
the theoretical analysis. He found that the Delta Q test results were not strongly affected by the inputs
for the pressure of the leaks in the supply and return plenum. He concluded that the Delta Q test is able
to give useful results even with an uncertainty of 3% for blower door measurements. He finds that the
Delta Q test is limited when the envelope leakage is large, or when the duct leakage is low.
Riffat and Holmes (#4835, 1990) compare three types of tracer gas measurements of flows in ducts
(constant injection, pulse injection, and concentration decay) to pitot tube flow measurements. (Note
that the accuracy of a pitot-tube traverse strongly depends on duct geometry and its effects on flow
patterns at the traverse plane. A more accurate method such as an orifice would have been a better
benchmark.) They find that the constant-injection technique correlates most closely, and they postulate
that the other tracer gas techniques could be improved by more frequent sampling and better mixing of
the tracer gas.
Sateri (#5266, 1991) describes his procedure for making PFT measurements in ducts. He places the
sources in various orientations and measures the uptake (the amount of tracer gas absorbed by the
tube) of each orientation over a range of flow speeds. He finds that the uptake does not vary
significantly with source orientation, but that it does vary with flow velocity. There was a 10% to 16%
increase in uptake for each 1 m/s increase in velocity. He therefore recommends that PFT
measurements always include a velocity correction when used in ducts, and that more measurements
are needed to determine this correction. He concludes that active (pumped) techniques would work
better in ducts than passive techniques because it would eliminate the effects due to velocity and
turbulence.
Cheong and Riffat (#6005, 1992) use tracer gas measurements to determine the k-factors (the
multiplier which quantifies the change in velocity pressure across a particular duct fitting) for various
duct fittings and several filters. These values were compared to k-factors in CIBSE and ASHRAE data
as well as to k-factors calculated from pitot tube measurements by the authors. They found that the k-
factors estimated from tracer gas measurements were similar to those given in the CIBSE guide, and
these were lower than those estimated from pitot tube measurements.
Cheong and Riffat (#7051, 1993) describe in detail their tracer gas sampling system for measuring
airflow in ducts. They use an active system as suggested by Sateri (#5266, 1991). Their results were
very good (5% to 10% difference), agreeing with measurements from a static pitot tube traverse,
however earlier papers indicate that this may not be the best benchmark.
6.4 Airflow through Fans, Heat Exchangers, and Fresh Air Inlets
Sauer and Howell (#4799, 1990) describe a procedure for measuring the volume flow rate of air
through a heating or cooling coil using a vane anemometer. They show that this procedure, which can
be used for flows between 100 and 1100 ft/min (0.508 to 5.588 m/s), has an accuracy of ±7%, when
measured results are compared to the predicted results. This is in the same accuracy range as pitot tube
traverses (5% to 10%). If accuracy is not required, the authors describe a simplified procedure (#4070,
1990) where they omit the density correction and correlate the k-factor only to face velocity. This
procedure has an accuracy better than ±20%. A similar procedure is often applied to flow
measurements across register grills, however, it is difficult to align the anemometer with the direction
of flow out of the grill.
Palmiter and Francisco (2000) discuss a new technology for measuring airflow through a residential
air handler system. The system consists of removing the HVAC filter and installing in its place a
perforated plastic plate, where the flow through the plate can be determined by measuring the pressure
difference between the velocity pressure and the static pressure at the plate. This technology has been
commercialized by The Energy Conservatory. Field tests have been performed where the flow plate
method is compared to the temperature rise method, which is the industry standard at this time,
although not very accurate, and the Duct Blaster method, which is better than the temperature split
method but can still be inaccurate in certain flow geometries. These tests showed that the flow plate
method has a standard deviation of 7% from the Duct Blaster method and a 29% standard deviation
for the temperature rise method. Both the flow plate method and the temperature rise method take
about 15 minutes to perform, which is much less time that the Duct Blaster method which takes 30
minutes to 1 hour to perform.
KEYWORDS air infiltration, tracer gas, house. Sensitivity analyses and calibration
pressurization, instrumentation procedures described in this paper define the
capabilities and limitations of this technique.
#NO 1536 Measurement techniques for air Although this method does not fully
change and air penetration of residential characterize all interzone airflows in the
buildings building, it can be useful in analyzing the
Messmethoden zur Erfassung des energy balance of multizone buildings.
Luftwechsels und der Luftdurchlassigkeit Additionally, these measurements can be used
von Wohnbauten. to evaluate the dilution of indoor air pollutants
AUTHOR Muhlebach H. and the ventilation efficiency of buildings.
BIBINF Heizung und Luftung/Chauffage et KEYWORDS multi-chamber, tracer gas,
ventilation, No 5, 1984. p20-22, 6 diags, 1 tab, measurement technique, decay rate, constant
10 refs. in German concentration, constant emission, air
ABSTRACT Defines air change and air movement, air infiltration
penetration. Describes the differential pressure
method, the infrasound method, qualitative #NO 2216 Tracer gases as a ventilation tool:
judgement methods, and acoustic measurement methods and instrumentation.
devices for determining air penetration. AUTHOR Farant J P, McKinnon D L,
Explains procedures to determine air change - McKenna T A
the rate of decay method, the constant BIBINF Ventilation '85. (Chemical
concentration method, and the constant Engineering Monographs 24). Edited by H D
emission method. Goodfellow. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1986.
KEYWORDS air change, air leakage, p263-274. 4 figs, 5 tabs, 3 refs. in English
pressurization, tracer gas, thermography AIVC bk
ABSTRACT Tracer gas techniques, used for
#NO 1862 Documenting air movements and routine ventilation checks or trouble shooting
infiltration in multicell buildings using are outlined with emphasis on their
various tracer-gas techniques. applicability in a variety of situations. These
AUTHOR Harrje D T, Dutt G S, Bohac D L, et include methods of determining volumetric
al. flow rates in closed conduits and finding
BIBINF Preprint. ASHRAE Transactions ventilation rates at work stations. Other uses of
1985, Vol 91, Pt 2. HI-85-40 No 3. 15p. 11 tracer gases are also dealt with. Investigations
figs, 18 refs. in English have been performed on the use of occupant
ABSTRACT Tracer gas techniques for generated carbon dioxide (CO2) as an
measuring airflows in buildings fall into three indicator of ventilation rates. Results
categories - dilution, constant injection, and comparing the simultaneous decay of CO2 and
constant concentration. Dilution of a single sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) are presented
tracer works well in buildings with a single showing the former to be a potentially useful
zone and also in some two-zone buildings. ventilation tool. Presently, tracer gas studies
Multiple tracer gas measurements, necessary to are limited by available sampling and
characterize flows among more zones, are best analytical equipment. Recent developments in
conducted using the constant injection the technology used for tracer gas testing and
approach. The constant concentration method the research being performed on sampling and
uses a single tracer gas to determine the analytical techniques are outlined. Several
airflow rates from the outside into each of as different sampling methods are considered
many as ten building zones. The paper outlines ranging from passive to pump operated bag
the different tracer techniques for making sampling. SF6 has received wide acceptance as
airflow measurements in multicell buildings a tracer gas. However, investigations have
and describes the operation of a constant shown that while it has most of the desirable
concentration system. This system measures tracer gas characteristics, it also has some
tracer gas concentration in different zones and shortcomings. The physical, chemical, a and
injects accordingly to maintain a constant toxicological properties of alternative gases
concentration in each zone. The system was were reviewed for this reason and their relative
tested in a single zone structure and usefulness as tracer gases is presented.
successfully applied to a small three-zone
#NO 2277 A review of tracer gas techniques #NO 3094 What is ventilation efficiency?
for measuring airflows in buildings. Was ist Luftungseffektivitat?
AUTHOR Lagus P, Persily A K AUTHOR Raatschen W
BIBINF ASHRAE Trans, 1985, Vol 91 Part BIBINF Klima Kalte Heizung, May-August
2B, H1-85-22 No 1, p1075-1087. 8 figs, 2 tabs, 1988, 18pp. in German
38 refs.in English ABSTRACT The first of this three-part series
ABSTRACT This paper describes tracer gas gives a bibliography and review about methods
measuring techniques that have been used to for measuring air exchange rates of rooms, in
characterize ventilation and air infiltration in between rooms and of whole buildings.
buildings, with an emphasis on recent Included are diverse tracer-gas methods as
developments and applications in large well as pressurization methods. Whenever
industrial and commercial structures. possible, the methods are illustrated by
Fundamentals and applications are presented examples. The insufficiency of the nominal air
for both single and multiple tracer gas exchange rate to predict exposure to
methods. In addition to techniques suitable for contaminants is discussed. The second part
detailed characterization of building airflows, deals with the efficiency of the air exchange in
procedures and equipment appropriate to rooms. The "age concept" and the "air
surveying large numbers of buildings are also exchange efficiency" are explained for the
discussed. Illustrative examples of the various application with the tracer-gas decay method.
measuring techniques as well as discussion of A practical example of a tracer-gas
their advantages and disadvantages are measurement is given to deepen the theory.
provided. A detailed bibliography is also The third part explains the constant-
included to facilitate a more thorough concentration and the pulse method and
examination of the topics discussed. definitions to characterize the removal of
KEYWORDS tracer gas, measurement contaminants.
technique, airflow, industrial building, office KEYWORDS ventilation efficiency, air
building, pressurisation change rate, tracer gas, pressurization, constant
concentration
#NO 2682 Measurement techniques for
ventilation and air leakage. #NO 3296 Instrumentation for the
AUTHOR Charlesworth P S measurement of air infiltration - an
BIBINF 8th AIVC conference 'Ventilation annotated bibliography.
Technology - Research and Application', 21-24 AUTHOR Manning S
September 1987, Ueberlingen, West Germany, BIBINF UK, AIC, Technical Note 4, 1981. in
Proceedings, AIVC 1987, p1.1-1.15, 10 refs. in English
English ABSTRACT An annotated bibliography
ABSTRACT Ventilation has a considerable containing 89 references to papers selected
influence on both the indoor air quality and from the AIC's library and intended to be
energy consumption of buildings. Three selective rather than comprehensive. Includes
parameters can be identified which are of key references only to papers entirely or
importance in the assessment of ventilation substantially concerned with instrumentation
behaviour: air change rate, interzonal airflows, of containing information about a particular
air leakage characteristics. This paper measurement technique. References are
describes measurement techniques which divided into three sections according to
enable these parameters to be evaluated. The subject: tracer gas methods, pressure tests, and
list of techniques presented is not exhaustive other associated techniques such as
and the descriptions given are not particularly thermography and acoustic detection of
detailed. The main aim of this report is to leakage paths.(Out of Print)
illustrate the spectrum of techniques which are KEYWORDS measurement technique
currently available for the quantification of
ventilation and air leakage.
#NO 12124 Indoor low speed air jet flow: 3- Roomvent 98: 6th International Conference on
dimensional particle streak Air Distribution in Rooms, held
velocimetry. June 14-17 1998 in Stockholm, Sweden, edited
AUTHOR Linden E, Todde V, Sandberg M by Elisabeth Mundt and Tor-Goran
BIBINF Sweden, Stockholm, KTH Building Malmstrom, Volume 2, pp 585-592, 10 figs, 3
Services Engineering, 1998, proceedings of tabs, 5 refs.
Roomvent 98: 6th International Conference on ABSTRACT This paper presents results
Air Distribution in Rooms, held June 14-17 belonging to a larger investigation on low
1998 in Stockholm, Sweden, edited by velocity indoor air jets. The experiment is
Elisabeth Mundt and Tor-Goran Malmstrom, undertaken in a climate room where an
Volume 2, pp 569-576, 11 figs, refs. isothermal air jet is issued from the centre of
ABSTRACT This paper presents results from one lateral wall. Measurements are performed
a larger project on the use of Particle Steak with a single fiber film probe, and with Particle
Velocimetry (PSV) to determine the air Steak Velocimetry system. With Particle,
movements in ventilated rooms. With this Steak Velocimetry has been
method it is possible to record the developed a three dimensional analysis of the
instantaneous instantaneous velocity field. With the use of
three-dimensional velocities over a large area. fiber film probe, the fluid-dynamics of the jet
The method has been optimised for large field flow is explored in terms of longitudinal
of views ( 10m2 which is required for velocity, and relative turbulence intensity. This
ventilation applications. With the use of small paper treats exclusively the results obtained
light particles in the air, we can present images with the fiber film probe from the
of their tracks. Then, with the help measurements along the centre-line of the jet
computerised image processing and with flow. The investigation deals with a number of
Stereo-Photogrammetry analysis, we can test cases of practical value for designing
obtain three-dimensional velocity. This supply to provide air at low speed directly to
particular application deals with the evaluation the occupied zone.
of the instantaneous velocities of a low speed KEYWORDS air velocity, full scale
jet. The isothermal jet flow was issued from a experiments, jet, measurement technique
small nozzle (diameter, d=5.0cm), in a room of
the size 3.6x3.6x2.5m #NO 12688 Development of PIV techniques
(LxWxH). The test was conducted for the to measure airflow patterns in ventilated
supply velocity of 30cm/s, corresponding to airspaces.
Reynolds number, Red = 1075. This paper AUTHOR Zhao L, Zhang Y, Wang X,
treats the results obtained with the PSV Riskowski G L, Christianson L L
method and presents an analysis of the BIBINF USA, ASHRAE Transactions, Annual
instantaneous three-dimensional velocities in Meeting 1999, Seattle, 9 pp, 11 figs, refs.
the jet flow. Smoke has also been used to ABSTRACT A measurement technique based
visualise the jet flow. The results show that our on particle image velocimetry (PIV) to
whole-field method can be a good tool for measure quantitatively airflow patterns and
measuring three-dimensional velocities in distribution in ventilated airspaces is
rooms and to visualise the indoor-climate. presented. Air laden with helium filled bubbles
The method should be improved by finding was illuminated by a two dimensional light
homogeneous and light particles. It is also sheet in a full scale ventilated room. Images of
important to increase the resolution of bubbles visualized in the light sheet were
photographs. recorded using a photographic camera.
KEYWORDS air velocity, full scale Relatively long camera exposure time makes it
experiments, measurement technique possible to record the bubble path in the
designed time period. Image shift techniques
#NO 12126 Indoor low speed air jet flow: remove the directional ambiguity. The
fibre film probe measurements. photographic images were scanned into a
AUTHOR Todde V, Linden E, Sandberg M computer, and the digitised images were
BIBINF Sweden, Stockholm, KTH Building processed automatically using an image
Services Engineering, 1998, proceedings of processing program to extract flow field
velocity information. The configuration,
the signals and produce a continuous voltage applied for both the anemometer types * a hot
analogue of the velocity component in one sphere anemometer was applied for both the
dimension., anemometer types * techniques proper for each
KEYWORDS ,instrumentation, airflow, probe, of the anemometer types were used. It was
turbulance, found that a hot sphere anemometer should
preferably be used to measure velocity as an
#NO 3583 Buoyancy-driven airflow in a element of thermal conditions of a room
closed half scale stairwell model: velocity whereas in those cases a hot wire anemometer
and temperature measurements. is not suitable. A hot sphere anemometer may
AUTHOR Zohrabian A S, Mokhtarzadeh- also be used to measure velocities of low
Dehghan M R, Reynolds A J turbulence flows.
BIBINF in:UK, AIVC, 10th AIVC KEYWORDS anemometer, instrumentation
Conference, held at Espoo, Finland, 25-28
September 1989, Volume 2, February 1990, #NO 4080 Pulsed hot wire anemometry: an
pp167-187, 7 figs, 6 tabs, 18 refs. in English accurate method to measure highly
ABSTRACT This paper describes an turbulent flows at low speeds.
experimental study of the buoyancy-driven AUTHOR Krogstad P A
flow and the associated energy transfer within BIBINF Norway, Oslo, Norsk VVS,
a closed, half-scale stairwell model. It provides proceedings Roomvent 90, paper 30, 14 pp, 11
new data on the velocity, temperature, volume figs, 7 refs. in English
and mass flow rates of the air circulating ABSTRACT The operating principle of
between the upper and lower storeys. The Pulsed-Hot-Wire-Anemometry has been
results are presented for various heat input described. This type of anemometer has proven
rates from the heater, located in the lower a reliable and accurate measuring device for
floor. For most of the data presented, heat highly turbulent and recirculating flows. Since
transfer to the surrounding atmosphere takes the measurement principle consists of
place through the side walls. However, the measuring a time of flight of a temperature
case of insulated side walls is also included tracer, the accuracy of the device increases as
and the effects on the parameters of interest are the velocity decreases, in contrast to most
discussed. The velocities were measured using other measurement systems. Its ability to
hot-wire anemometers of a temperature measure velocities in flows where the general
compensated type, and the temperatures were flow direction is not known a priory and the
measured using platinum resistance insensitivity of the device to changes in flow
thermometers. These measurements were temperature and gas composition makes it a
supported by flow visualisation using smoke. very versatile device. It has been demonstrated
The paper also provides data on the rate of that for measurement devices that cannot
leakage through the stairwell joints, measured detect changes in flow direction severe
using a concentration decay method. measurement errors may occur. Being
KEYWORDS air movement sensitive only to the part of the velocity vector
in a predefined direction makes it possible to
#NO 4079 Comparatory tests of map the total flow velocity vector at a point
omnidirectional and hot wire anemometers. with a limited number of measurements.
AUTHOR Knobloch B, Mierzwinski S KEYWORDS anemometer, turbulence, airflow
BIBINF Norway, Oslo, Norsk VVS,
proceedings Roomvent 90, paper 29, 16 pp, 7 #NO 5322 Hotwire/film anemometry for
figs, 5 refs. in English room air motion studies.
ABSTRACT Airflows in a two-dimensional AUTHOR Zhang J, Christianson L, Wu G
supply stream and in the zone of secondary BIBINF UK, AIVC 12th Conference, "Air
flows were tested by means of a hot sphere Movement and Ventilation Control within
anemometer, type HST 1, and a hot wire Buildings", held 24-27 September 1991,
anemometer, type DISA 55P81. The following Ottawa, Canada, proceedings published
parameters were measured: the mean velocity, September 1991, Volume 3, pp 277-288. in
standard deviation and turbulence scales. The English
discrepancies of the results were checked for ABSTRACT Application of hot wire/film
the cases when:* hot wire anemometer was anemometry in room airflows presents
difficulties because: (1) the effect of natural new iteration technique including a multi grid
convection due to the heated wire becomes solver.
significant for low air velocity measurements, KEYWORDS numerical modelling, airflow,
(2) the angle sensitivity of a hotwire becomes tracer gas, anemometer
small at low air velocities, which makes it
difficult to resolve the direction of each #NO 6331 Near floor air movement in an
velocity component. This study aimed at enclosure with mixing type ventilation.
quantifying the uncertainty of the hot wire AUTHOR Jin Y, Ogilvie R
anemometry and examining the angle BIBINF Roomvent '92, Third International
sensitivity of a hot wire in low air velocity Conference, Aalborg, Denmark, September 2-4
measurements. Based on the experiments, it 1992, Publisher: DANVAK, Lyngby,
was concluded that: (1) the uncertainties due to Denmark, Volume 3, pp 245-262. in English
natural convection in the velocity ABSTRACT The mean air velocity, and the
measurements with a single component hot RMS value, of the reverse flow in the zone up
wire probe operating at 200 Deg C wire to 0.62 m above the floor of a 4.8 m (long) x
temperature are within + or -15%, + or - 5%, + 3.8 m(wide) x 3 m (high) building were
or - 1% and 0.5% for velocities of 0.05~0.1 measured with a hot-wire anemometer. The
m/s, 0.1~0.15 m/s, 0.15~0.25 m/s and 0.25~0.5 isothermal experiment was conducted for 35
m/s, respectively, and correction can be made inlet conditions in a full-scale slot-ventilated
based on the visualization of the room airflow room. The vertical distributions of average
pattern to achieve higher accuracy, (2) air time-mean velocity, RMS value, and
velocity components can not be measured turbulence intensity are shown at five
simultaneously with multi-component hot wire horizontal positions along the flow direction at
probes if the air velocity is below 0.2m/s since the floor. The mean velocity distributions at
the angle sensitivity of the probe will be the mid floor region showed a similar form and
heavily contaminated by the noise signal due approximated a jet profile. At the corners, the
to the natural convection. main rotary flow was deflected and the small
KEYWORDS anemometer, air movement recirculation flows were formed, causing high
flow turbulence. Analysis of variance indicated
#NO 6006 Experimental and numerical that the same ventilation rates, arising from
investigations within a post-Annex 20 different combinations of inlet opening height
model. and incoming air velocity, resulted in
AUTHOR Hanel B, Richter E, Vogel P significantly different velocities in the
BIBINF UK, Air Infiltration and Ventilation measurement zone. The reverse flow velocities
Centre, 13th AIVC Conference, proceedings, were not a function of ventilation flow rate
held Hotel Plaza Concorde, Nice, France, 15- alone.
18 September 1992. in English KEYWORDS floor, air movement, mixing
ABSTRACT A small test room has been built ventilation, anemometer
which is five times smaller than the so called
Annex-20-room. Different kinds of tracers #NO 7018 The effect of Various Inlet
have been used for visualizing of flow Conditions on the Flow Pattern in
patterns. Velocities, concentrations and mass Ventilated Rooms - Measurements and
transfer coefficients have been measured. The Computations.
measuring instrumentation is based on thermal AUTHOR Vogel P, Richter E, Rosler M
anemometry (hot wire probes) and a special BIBINF UK, Air Infiltration and Ventilation
ammonia-mass transfer method, respectively, Centre, 14th AIVC Conference, "Energy
in order to estimate the heat flux coefficient at Impact of Ventilation and Air Infiltration",
the walls. The values measured and the flow held Copenhagen, Denmark, 21-23 September
patterns have been applied in order to compare 1993, proceedings, pp99-108. in English
and to evaluate a computer code developed in ABSTRACT A test room which was built at a
Dresden to simulate three dimensional flows. scale 1:5 to the original one has been used to
This code is based on a finite-volume- investigate air-conditioned rooms. The original
discretization for the transport equations room was specified by the international project
(Navier-Stokes- with k-e-model) solved with a IEA ANNEX 20. A lot of experiments were
made on different inlet geometries and air
change rates. Velocities and turbulent BIBINF UK, Air Infiltration and Ventilation
quantities were measured not only in the inlet Centre (AIVC), 1996, proceedings of 17th
plan but also in the room itself by means of hot AIVC Conference, "Optimum Ventilation and
wire anemometry. The ammonia absorption Airflow Control in Buildings", Volume 1, held
method according to Kruckels has been 17-20 September 1996, Gothenburg, Sweden,
applied to determine the heat transfer pp 263-271.
coefficients at the walls. Qualitative results ABSTRACT The problem of sensation of
were obtained by laser light sheets. The draught in ventilated spaces is connected to
experimental results serving as boundary inappropriate velocities in the occupied zone.
conditions and relative values for numerical In Scandinavia, velocities higher than 0.15 m/s
studies are used to progress the computer code are said to be an indicator of that occupants are
ResCUE developed in Dresden. Further on, the likely to feel discomfort. Therefore knowledge
experimental data provide statements on of the flow field (both mean velocities and
conditions in the occupied zone. fluctuations) is necessary. Both experimental
KEYWORDS air inlets, air change rate and numerical analysis of the flow field in a
full scale room ventilated by a slot inlet, with
#NO 7960 Methods for investigating indoor two inlet Reynolds numbers 2440 and 7110,
air conditions of ventilated rooms. have been carried out. Results from both
AUTHOR Mueller H, Vogel P approaches show that the location of the
BIBINF UK, Air Infiltration and Ventilation maximum velocity near the floor is nearly
Centre, 1994, "The Role of Ventilation", independent of the Reynolds number. For a
proceedings of 15th AIVC Conference, held two-dimensional room, the maximum velocity
Buxton, UK, 27-30 September 1994, Volume at the floor level occurred at about 2/3 room
1, pp101-108. length from the supply. The distance from the
ABSTRACT The acquisition of temperatures floor level is dependent on the inlet Reynolds
and velocities is a permanent recurrent task for number. The velocity profiles far away from
the investigation of airflow in ventilated the wall opposite to the inlet device have the
rooms. On the one hand it is important to same character as a wall jet profile. However,
measure the temperature and velocity field close to the corners they are transformed. The
with a high spatial resolution. On the other relative turbulence intensities measured in the
hand, in general, varying outdoor conditions return flow region are questionable, because of
prevent from reaching a steady state and a a hot wire's inability to record large
additional demand consists in short measuring fluctuations at low mean velocities. These
times. Sometimes, the obtained measuring turbulence intensities close to floor level vary
results are used both to supply appropriate from 15 to 80% and as the authors have
boundary conditions for numerical pointed out previously hot wires do not
computations and to verify the CFD-codes indicate the real value of the turbulence
used. Therefore, the processing of received intensities beyond 20%. Difficulties appear in
data has further importance. In this paper the numerical predictions of return flow
advantages and limitations of thermography, properties. Comparison between predicted
the usage of thermocouples and hot wire values and experimentally obtained values
anemometry for temperature and velocity show a reasonable agreement. This is
measurement is discussed. It is shown how the promising for future CFD-predictions.
application of modern system components and However, there is a need for an appropriate
data post processing in connection with these measurement technique that can cope with
methods can satisfy better the already reversing flow.
mentioned requirement. KEYWORDS airflow, draughts, human
KEYWORDS temperature, measurement comfort, measurement technique
technique, thermography
#NO 501 Infrasonic impedance #NO 831 Standard practice for measuring
measurement of buildings for air leakage air leakage by the fan pressurization
determination. method.
AUTHOR Graham R.W. AUTHOR ASTM
BIBINF Dept. of Electrical and Computer BIBINF In:Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
Engineering, Syracuse University. Technical part 18, July 1981, p.1-10. in English
report TR-77-15 54p 9 refs. in English AICR ABSTRACT This practice represents a
US8 standardized technique for measuring air
ABSTRACT Reports preliminary research leakage rates through a building envelope
directed towards developing a new method for under controlled pressurization or evacuation,
measuring the air leakage property of an and is applicable to small temperature
enclosure. The low-frequency acoustic differentials and low-wind pressure conditions.
impedance of the enclosure is measured by an It is primarily intended for use in one- story
infrasonic method. Describes and analyses a buildings.
diaphragm-type motor-driven source and a KEYWORDS fan, air leakage, pressurization,
pressure sensor with electronic filters used to low rise building
measure infrasonic impedance.< Reports tests
run in enclosures of different volumes and #NO 1016 A review of possible techniques to
degrees of leakiness. Compares results with measure ventilation in occupied spaces.
blower tests and finds disagreement of less AUTHOR Sinclair V.J. Croome D.J. O
than 10% for small enclosures, but for larger Cathain C.S.
enclosures results differed by more than a BIBINF School of Architecture and Building
factor of three. Engineering Report, University of Bath April
KEYWORDS air leakage, alternating pressure. 1982 57pp. 3 tabs. in English
NOTES See Card et. al. "Air leakage ABSTRACT Reviews current methods of
measurement of buildings by an infrasonic ventilation measurement in occupied buildings
method" abstract no 463 for a final report on including tracer methods, pressurisation, and
this project thermography. Gives criteria for good
ventilation rate measurement techniques. Also
#NO 659 Development of an acoustic explores new methods of measuring ventilation
method for the determination of the air rates in occupied buildings. These include:< 1.
leakage of building elements installed in a Use of non-toxic tracers, including negative
building. ions, CO2 and odour levels< 2. AC
Entwicklung einer akustichen Messmethod pressurisation< 3. The quantification of
zur ermittlung der Luftdurchlassigkeit von thermography< 4. Small-scale detection of
Bauelementen in eingebauten Zustand. local air velocities using hot-wire anemometry.
AUTHOR Esdorn D.E. KEYWORDS measurement technique, tracer
BIBINF Kurzber. Bauforsch. vol.19 no.7 1978 gas, pressurization, anemometer,
p.521-527 3 figs. 1 tab. in German #AIC thermography
314=AIC Translation No.11
ABSTRACT The conduction of sound through #NO 1340 Calculating infiltration -
the gap between window and wall depends on implications for a construction quality
the width of the gap. This width also standard.
determines the air leakage, suggesting that air AUTHOR Grimsrud D.T. Sherman M.H.
leakage might be measured by an acoustic Sonderegger R.C.
method. Notes method requires that cracks are BIBINF Proc. ASHRAE/DOE Conference
relatively large and have fewer than three "Thermal performance of the exterior envelope
kinks. Reports measurements in a wind tunnel of the building II" Dec 6-9 1982 USA p.422-
of airflow through crack models made from 450 9 tabs. 5 figs. 30 refs. in English
aluminum and compares results with theory. ABSTRACT Describes a simple method to
Finds empirical expression relating pressure calculate the leakage area of a house regardless
difference to airflow and gives graphs of of design or weather conditions. The leakage
results. area is used in the LBL infiltration model to
KEYWORDS window, joint, air leakage, calculate infiltration for any weather condition.
sound This method, which uses fan pressurization to
measure leakage area has been used in a ABSTRACT Evaluates results from constant
survey of over 300 houses located through out concentration tracer gas measurements and fan
North America. Presents the results of that pressurization measurements in three houses
survey and suggests that the present capability and predicts ventilation rates for longer time
in air infiltration modelling offers an excellent periods using the LBL model. Test results
framework for an air leakage standard for show that the best way of both supplying
residential buildings. Examples of the adequate ventilation and conserving energy is
interpretation of such a standard are described, to make sure that the building envelope is
based on the ventilation rates adopted in sufficiently tight and then install a mechanical
ASHRAE Standard 62-1981. The results of the ventilation system. Shows that it is possible to
interpretations illustrate differences in correlate fan pressurization measurements and
structural requirements that will occur when infiltration rates.
such a standard is applied to several ventilation KEYWORDS pressurization correlation, tracer
system designs. gas, constant concentration, house, modeling,
KEYWORDS air infiltration, modelling, air infiltration
pressurization correlation, air leakage
#NO 1853 Accuracy in pressurization data
#NO 1355 Airflow calibration of building analysis.
pressurization devices. AUTHOR Persily A K, Grot R A
AUTHOR Persily A.K. BIBINF Preprint. ASHRAE Transactions,
BIBINF Preprint ASTM Symposium on 1985, Vol 91, Pt 2. 14p. 5 tabs, 18 refs. in
measured air leakage performance of buildings English
Philadelphia USA April 2-3 1984 = NBSIR ABSTRACT Several different ratings of
84-2849 30pp. 7 figs. 4 tabs. 23 refs. and 5th building airtightness are used to report the
AIC Conference 'The implementation and results of fan pressurization tests. These are
effectiveness of air infiltration standards in generally based on airflow rates at specific
buildings' Reno, Nevada, 1-4October 1984, reference pressures, predicted by curve fits to
pp21.1-21.18 in English the test data. The statistical analysis used to
ABSTRACT Describes a calibration technique obtain these curves allows estimates of the
to relate the airflow rate through a blower door uncertainties associated with these calculated
to the fan speed and pressure difference across airtightness ratings. The accuracy of the
the door. To obtain an accurate and well- various ratings of building airtightness are
documented calibration of pressurization important issues in airtightness standards
devices, a facility was designed and enforcement and the evaluation of retrofit
constructed at the US National Bureau of effectiveness. The various airtightness ratings
Standards. This accurately determines the flow being used are presented and the uncertainties
rate through the fan as a function of fan speed, associated with these ratings due to
air density and pressure difference across the measurement errors, fan calibration and test
fan. Describes the calibration facility, presents conditions are discussed. Standard statistical
the results of the calibration of one blower techniques are applied to calculate confidence
door, and discusses the effect of the form of limits for the predicted airflow rates used in
the calibration equation on the accuracy of the the airtightness ratings. Using data from many
airflow rate determination. pressurization tests, several common
KEYWORDS fan, blower door, pressurization, airtightness ratings are calculated and the
airflow predictive uncertainties associated with each
are determined. This discussion is based on a
#NO 1398 Natural and mechanical data set of pressurization test results in about
ventilation in tight Swedish homes - seventy houses of different sizes, construction,
measurements and modeling. and airtightness, along with detailed
AUTHOR Blomsterberg A. Lundin L. measurements made on a single house. The
BIBINF Preprint ASTM Symposium on results of this analysis have implications for
measured air leakage performance of buildings the reporting of pressurization test results, for
Philadelphia USA April 2-3 1984 22pp. in their use in models to predict natural
English infiltration rates, and in the enforcement of
airtightness standards.
#NO 3361 Signal attenuation due to cavity using the fan pressurisation method has been
leakage. carried out. The test method is suitable for
AUTHOR Sherman M H, Modera M P research work or field investigations. In order
BIBINF Journal of the Acoustic Society of to extend its field of application to building
America, Vol 84, No 6, December 1988, inspection, a simplified method has been
pp2163-2169, 3 figs, 1 tab, 19 refs. in English added. Studies have also been undertaken in
ABSTRACT The propagation of sound waves order to get a better understanding of the
in fluids requires information about three technical basis which are aimed at reducing air
properties of the system: capacitance leakage in dwellings, specifying air-tightness
(compressibility), resistance (friction), and levels and assessing the technical
inductance (inertia). Acoustical design implementations with regard to these levels.
techniques to date have tended to ignore the KEYWORDS air tightness, air leakage, cross
frictional effects associated with airflow across ventilation, measurement technique
the envelope of the acoustic cavity (e.g.,
resistive vents). Since such leakage through the #NO 4915 Determination of leakages in the
cavity envelope is best expressed with a power building envelope using pressurization test
law dependence on the pressure, standard measurements.
Fourier techniques that rely on linearity cannot AUTHOR Jensen L
be used. In this article, the theory relevant to BIBINF Air Infiltration Review, Vol 7, No 4,
nonlinear leakage is developed and equations August 1986, pp 6-8, 3 figs, 2 tabs, 1 ref. in
presented. Potential applications of the theory English
to techniques for quantifying the leakage of ABSTRACT There are several methods by
buildings are presented. Experimental results which the airtightness of a building can be
from pressure decays in a full-scale test measured. One method involves the use of a
structure are presented and the leakage so fan to pressurize or depressurize the building.
measured is compared with independent This creates a known pressure difference
measurements to demonstrate the technique. across the building envelope. The
KEYWORDS cavity, air leakage, sound corresponding airflow through the fan is
measured and this is an indication of the
#NO 4787 Airtightness in buildings. airtightness of the building. This airflow rate
Permeabilite a l'air des batiments. can be expressed as the number of building air
AUTHOR Riberon J, Bienfait D, Chandellier J changes per hour, a useful unit when
BIBINF "Ventilation et Renouvellement d'Air comparing buildings of different volumes. So
dans les Batiments", AIVC/AFME Workshop, far only simple methods have been employed
held 18-22 March 1991, Lyon, France, 10pp, 5 to analyze this condition. However, it is
figs, refs. in French possible to use a more strict scientific approach
ABSTRACT Air leakage through a building based on mathematical models and known
envelope can disrupt the intended operation of parameter identification methods. These
heating and ventilating. In view of the high techniques are described in this article.
stakes, research work was conducted at the KEYWORDS air leakage, building envelope,
CSTB into air infiltration in buildings. They pressurization
involved improvement in heat loss calculation
due to cross ventilation and development of air #NO 4926 AC pressurisation model tests.
leakage measurement methods. Using AUTHOR Sutcliffe H, Waters J R
computer code which includes climatic data, a BIBINF Air Infiltration Review, Vol 9, No 4,
new way of calculating cross ventilation flow August 1988, pp 12-15, 6 figs, 1 tab, 2 refs. in
rate was derived. Cross ventilation heat losses English
do not only depend on flow rate through the ABSTRACT Leakage area measurement by
building envelope (air leakage and air inlets) fan pressurization becomes more difficult as
but also on flow rate due to ventilation system the volume of a building is increased. The
operation. They are decreasing when the equipment becomes bulky, and measurements
negative pressure inside the building, caused of airflow through the fan and the resulting
by the operation of the ventilation system, is pressure differential require more care. AC
increasing. A guideline which describes how to pressurization offers an attractive alternative.
determine the airtightness of a building by However, in the case of large industrial
buildings, the exterior envelope is often airtightness of the building envelope or parts
constructed of thin flexible sheet material, and thereof. It can be used: to compare the relative
also industrial leakage paths may have a much airtightness of several similar buildings or
larger area than is found in, say, typical building components, to identify the leakage
domestic construction. Thus the inertance sources and rates of leakage from different
effect described by Card et al (1) and the components of the same building envelope, to
flexing constant described by Sherman (2) may determine the air leakage reduction for
be particularly important. In order to explore individual retrofit measures applied
these problems, tests are being carried out on a incrementally to an existing building or
laboratory model. This note reports the results building component. This method does not
of the first sets of measurements. measure the air infiltration rate of a building.
KEYWORDS pressurization, testing chamber The results of the fan pressurization test can be
used to estimate the air infiltration by means of
#NO 10107 Uncertainties in fan calculation. If a direct measurement of the air
pressurization measurements. infiltration is desired, other methods must be
AUTHOR Sherman M, Palmiter L used. It is better to use the fan pressurization
BIBINF in: Airflow performance of building method for diagnostic purposes and measure
envelopes, components and systems, USA, the absolute infiltration rate with the tracer
ASTM 1995, papers presented at a symposium dilution method.
held in Dallas, Texas, 10-11 October 1993, pp KEYWORDS standard
266-283.
ABSTRACT The ASTM Method for Determination of the Airtightness of
Determining Air Leakage Rates by Fan Building Envelopes by the Fan
Pressurization Test (E 799-87) measures the Depressurization Method, CAN/CGSB-
airtightness of building envelopes using fan 149.10-M86
pressurization. Uncertainty is introduced in the AUTHOR CGSB
process from the uncertainty of the airflow and BIBINF Canadian General Standards Board,
pressure measurements as well as from 1986
nonlinearities in the system to be measured. ABSTRACT This is a method for the
This paper analyses the precision and bias determination of the airtightness of building
associated with making a measurement using E envelopes. It is not a method for determining
779 in typical field situations. Model the actual air leakage which occurs through a
specification (or modelization) errors may also building envelope under the influence of wind
contribute significantly to the overall and buoyancy pressured or the operation of
uncertainty in the estimates of the 4 Pa heating and ventilation systems. The method is
leakage, the sources and sizes of these applicable to small detached buildings
modelization errors interact with the (especially houses) but with appropriate
instrumentation errors in making a fan modifications, it can also be used for other
pressurization test. Insufficient field date exist buildings or parts of buildings.
to fully include the effects of modelization and
other low-pressure phenomena, but the current Determination of the Overall Envelope
standard can nevertheless be improved by Airtightness of Buildings by the Fan
tightening the instrumentations and procedural Pressurization Method using the Building's
specifications and by judicious choice of Air Handling System, CAN/CGSB-149.15
pressure measurement stations. AUTHOR CGSB
KEYWORDS building envelope, air leakage, BIBINF Canadian General Standards Board,
airflow 1996
ABSTRACT This is a method for the
#NO 11734 Thermal insulation - determination of the air tightness of building
determination of building airtightness - fan envelopes. It is not a method for determining
pressurization method. ISO 9972. the actual air leakage which occurs through a
AUTHOR Anon building envelope under the influence of wind
BIBINF ISO, 1996, 10 pp. and buoyancy pressures or the operation of
ABSTRACT The fan pressurization method heating and ventilation systems. The method is
produces a result that characterizes the applicable to small detached buildings
(especially houses) but with appropriate zone building, calculates the air infiltration
modifications, it can also be used for other rates of each zone, and measures the duration
buildings or parts of buildings. of events such as HVAC fan operation,
exhaust fan operation and door/window
ASHRAE Standard 62, Air Leakage openings. The measurements also include such
Performance for Detached Single-Family analog variables as interior and exterior
Residential Buildings temperatures, wind speed, wind direction and
AUTHOR ASHRAE pressure differentials across the building
BIBINF ASHRAE, 1989 envelope. The data collected by the system
The purpose of this standard is to specify will allow the determination of the relative
minimum ventilation rates and indoor air importance of air leakage and forced
quality that will be acceptable to human ventilation to the energy requirements of the
occupants and are intended to minimize the building as well as evaluating the influence of
potential for adverse health effects. meteorological conditions, HVAC fan
operation, exhaust fan operation and exterior
ASHRAE Standard 119, Air Leakage building pressure on the air leakage.
Performance for Detached Single-Family KEYWORDS tracer gas, automatic equipment,
Residential Buildings sulphur hexafluoride, constant concentration,
AUTHOR ASHRAE instrumentation
BIBINF ASHRAE, 1988
The purpose of this standard is to establish #NO 1062 Occupant-generated CO2 as an
performance requirements for air leakage of indicator of ventilation rate.
residential building s to reduce the air AUTHOR Turiel I. Rudy J.V.
infiltration load. BIBINF Preprint ASHRAE Transactions
vol.88 no.1 1982 12pp. 4 figs. 1 tab. 11 refs. in
ASHRAE Standard 136, A Method of English
Determining Air Change Rates in Detached ABSTRACT Reports on 2 methods of
Dwellings measuring ventilation rates in the 8-storey San
AUTHOR ASHRAE Francisco Social Services Building, using
BIBINF ASHRAE, 1993 occupant-generated CO2 as a tracer gas.
ABSTRACT The purpose of this standard is to Measures CO2 concentration at regular
provide a procedure for determining effective intervals on the first floor using an infra-red
outdoor air change rates in detached dwellings. gas detector. Uses the tracer gas decay method
This procedure is intended for use in and the constant concentration (integral)
evaluating the impact of these air change rates method to determine ventilation rates. Finds
on indoor air quality. that the CO2 decay method compares
favourably with both SF6 tracer gas
measurements and with air-flow measurements
7.3.2 Techniques for Multizone and in the ducts. The integral method of
Large Buildings determining ventilation rate is satisfactory
when the system is circulating outside air, but
it overestimates the ventilation rate when air is
#NO 653 Automated air infiltration
recirculated, because of the presence of CO2
measurements in large buildings.
gradients. When outside air ventilation rates
AUTHOR Grot R.A. Hunt C.M. Harrje D.T.
are low, CO2 concentration rises and the CO2
BIBINF A.I.C. Conference "Instrumentation
decay method is more easily applied.
and measuring techniques." Windsor 6-8
KEYWORDS tracer gas, carbon dioxide,
October 1980, 22p. 9 figs. in English AIC
decay rate, constant concentration, high rise
ABSTRACT Describes an automated air
building
infiltration measurement system for large
buildings. The system consists of a micro-
#NO 1253 Ventilation measurements in
computer, electron capture gas chromatograph,
large buildings.
a ten port sampling manifold, and five tracer
AUTHOR Freeman J. Gale R. Lilly J.P.
gas injection units. The system controls the
BIBINF 4th AIC Conference "Air infiltration
injection and sampling of tracer gas in a multi-
reduction in existing buildings" Switzerland,
26-28 September 1983 p.5.1-5.14 6 figs. 2 refs. are any special difficulties in using the tracer
in English dilution method in this type of building, prior
ABSTRACT Compares and contrasts different to embarking on a more substantial
methods of ventilation measurement in large measurement program. Uses nitrous oxide and
buildings. Conventional methods of using sulphur hexafluoride as tracers. Finds both to
tracer gas to measure ventilation rates in large be satisfactory, but concludes that SF6 in
volumes are cumbersome and expensive. conjunction with a portable gas chromatograph
These constant concentration and decay performs more reliably when used for on-site
measurements require artificial mixing, measurements.
complex monitoring equipment and large KEYWORDS tracer gas, decay rate, sulphur
installation costs. By using discrete injection hexafluoride, nitrous oxide, air infiltration
and sampling units, long term samples of
tracer gas be collected with the minimum of #NO 1513 Application of the constant
capital and installation costs. Samples concentration technique for ventilation
collected represent the mean local equilibrium measurement to large buildings.
tracer gas concentrations. Finds the method to AUTHOR Etheridge D W.
be a useful measure of ventilation rate but BIBINF SERC Workshop on Ventilation,
increasing problems are found with increase of Coventry Polytechnic, 25-26 October 1984,
measured volume requiring greater attention to 16pp, 6 figs. in English Rev. version BSERT,
thorough mixing of the atmosphere and Vol 6, No 3, 1985. p129-133
injection sample bag positioning. ABSTRACT The British Gas 'Autovent'
KEYWORDS tracer gas, measurement system utilises the constant concentration
technique, constant emission technique and was developed for measuring
ventilation rates in dwellings. It has recently
#NO 1276 Air leakage in industrial been used in two large open-plan buildings, a
buildings - preliminary results. school nursery and a factory unit, and the
AUTHOR Lundin L. opportunity was taken to carry out special tests
BIBINF 4th AIC Conference "Air infiltration to assess its validity in such buildings. The
reduction in existing buildings" Switzerland, reason why these tests were needed, the nature
26-28 September 1983 p.6.1-6.8 5 figs. 1 ref. of the tests and the results obtained form the
in English main content of the paper. The evidence from
ABSTRACT Describes pressurization tests the tests strongly indicates that the system is
conducted by the National Testing Institute on suitable. This evidence is supported by the
3 large industrial buildings. Sets out equipment ventilation measurements themselves,
and methods used including atracer gas examples of which are presented.
method to calculate airflow through the fan KEYWORDS school, factory, ventilation,
rather than the usual measuring duct. Gives constant concentration, measurement
construction and volume details of buildings technique
measured.
KEYWORDS industrial building, air leakage, #NO 1809 The reduction of air infiltration
pressurization, fan, tracer gas, instrumentation, in an industrial laboratory.
measurement technique AUTHOR Lilly J P, Gale R
BIBINF 6th AIC Conference "Ventilation
#NO 1386 The measurement of air Strategies and Measurement Techniques", Het
infiltration in large single cell industrial Meerdal Park, Netherlands, 16-19 September
buildings. 1985. Bracknell, UK: Air Infiltration Centre,
AUTHOR Waters J.R. Simons M.W. 1985. p10.1-10.11. 4 figs, 1 tab, 8 refs. in
BIBINF Preprint ASTM Symposium on English AIVC bk
measured air leakage performance of buildings ABSTRACT As part of a programme to
Philadelphia USA April 2-3 1984 23pp. 7 figs. develop measurement methods for determining
4 tabs. in English the ventilation rates of large buildings, two
ABSTRACT Carries out measurements of the series of tests were performed in a single-
air infiltration rate of 3 large single cell celled laboratory with a volume of 600 m3.
buildings using the tracer dilution method. The The first series utilised constant concentration,
purpose is to determine whether or not there constant emission and decay rate tracer gas
KEYWORDS air change rate, constant Lausanne, Switzerland, September 28- October
concentration, tracer gas, nitrous oxide, 2, 1987, p154-161, 3 figs, 10 refs. in English
terraced house, measurement technique ABSTRACT The majority of factory buildings
may be considered as large single-cell
#NO 2683 Measurements of infiltration and structures. In order to measure the air
air movement in five large single-cell infiltration characteristics of such buildings, it
buildings. has been found necessary to consider air
AUTHOR Lawrence G V, Waters J R movement patterns within them. The
BIBINF 8th AIVC conference 'Ventilation simultaneous consideration of both air
Technology - Research and Application', 21-24 infiltration and internal air movement has the
September 1987, Ueberlingen, West Germany, added advantage that the dispersal of air-borne
Proceedings, AIVC 1987, p2.1-2.18, 4 figs, 5 contaminants within the factory can also be
tabs, 6 refs. in English studied. Using multi-zone air movement
ABSTRACT A six channel, computer theory, in which one zone represents the
controlled, tracer gas detection system for the outside air, air exchange between the inside
measurement of infiltration rates and air and the outside and between internal zones
movement in large single-cell industrial may be measured and evaluated. The equations
buildings has been designed, constructed and governing flows in the multi-zone model are
calibrated. This has been used for over 50 sets well known. Application of these equations to
of tracer decay measurements in five single- multi-zone tracer decay measurements has
cell buildings ranging in size from 4000 to shown how it is possible to: 1. determine the
31000 m3. The buildings included a sports best initial distribution of the tracer gas, i.e. the
hall, a vehicle maintenance depot, two factory most advantageous seeding strategy, 2. avoid
workshops and an aircraft hangar. Infiltration inaccurate results due to ill conditioning or
rates and interzonal flows were derived from linear dependence, 3. maximise the
the tracer curves using methods based on information that can be obtained from a set of
multizone theory. The analysis method measured data. An automated tracer gas
includes a specially developed, constrained monitoring system has been designed and
least squares technique which gives both built. The system is being used to measure air
infiltration rate and internal flow rates. The infiltration and air movement in a range of
equipment and method of analysis are briefly large single cell buildings, most of which are
described, and results for each data set factories. The objective is to gain experience
presented. A comparison of infiltration rates, of the operation of the equipment, to refine
derived from interzonal flows and from data analysis techniques, and to provide a data
averaged tracer decay data is also given. In bank as a basis for further developments of the
addition examples are given of comparisons theory.
between measured decay curves and KEYWORDS factory, air movement,
theoretical decay curves reconstructed from pollutant, tracer gas measurements, large
measured flow rates. Finally inconsistencies in building
the data and the model are discussed, together
with suggestions for improvements to the #NO 2642 A multiple tracer gas technique
experimental technique and the method of for the measurement of air movements in
analysis. industrial buildings.
KEYWORDS measurement technique, AUTHOR Niemela R, Toppila E, Tossavainen
industrial building, large building, sports A
building, hangar, factory BIBINF Roomvent 87, proceedings,
Stockholm 10-12 June 1987, 19p, 4 figs, 2
#NO 2718 The measurement of ventilation tabs, 5 refs. in English
and air movement in factory buildings. ABSTRACT This paper deals with a multiple
AUTHOR Simons M W, Waters J R tracer gas measurement system suitable for
BIBINF in: Third International Congress on characterization of airflow patterns and
Building Energy Management, III Ventilation, ventilation effectiveness in large industrial
air movement and air quality: field premises and commercial structures. The
measurement and energy auditing, held in highly automated system consists of a
multipoint sampling unit, an IR-analyser and a
the building to establish the air infiltration Buildings", 3-6 September 1990, Rotterdam, p
rates. The air leakage of the building was II 12, 3 figs, 8 refs. in English
determined by the fan pressurisation method. ABSTRACT A major factor in the ventilation
The paper presents the results of the of buildings and their energy performance is
measurements and the discussion focuses on the leakiness of the building envelope. In some
the variations of the air infiltration rate due to circumstances, the adventitious leakage
changes in internal and external conditions. through the building fabric is a source of
The results from the three different techniques excessive ventilation which can lead to energy
used are compared. The results show that there waste and, in some cases, to discomfort. The
was good agreement between the tracer decay air leakiness of the building envelope can be
and constant concentration methods when determined by carrying out whole-building
determining the air infiltration rate. There was leakage tests. BREFAN is a fan
also good agreement under reductive sealing "pressurisation" rig designed for such tests in
between the reductions in measured air most non-domestic buildings. The
infiltration rate and measured air leakages. The measurements so obtained can be used to
paper is a result from research work funded by quantify the variation of air leakage through
the Building Research Establishment to the fabric as a function of the applied pressure
investigate air infiltration rates and air leakage differential across the envelope. A "leakage"
rates in industrial buildings. index can also be evaluated and used as a
KEYWORDS industrial building, infiltration diagnostic measure of the constructional
rate, air leakage, retrofitting, fan pressurisation quality of the external fabric. This paper gives
results from field measurements in five large
#NO 3648 Use of BREFAN to measure the buildings in the UK. Measurements in two
airtightness of non-domestic buildings. office buildings show that the external
AUTHOR Perera M D A E S, Stephen R K, envelope of one specifically designed and
Tull R G constructed as a low-energy office (LEO), is
BIBINF UK, Watford, BRE Information twice as tight as the other built in a more
Paper, 6/89, April 1989, 3pp, 5 figs, 1 tab, 9 conventional manner. Comparison with
refs. in English buildings tested in North America shows that
ABSTRACT BREFAN is a fan the LEO is as tight as those. Measurements in
"pressurization" rig designed to carry out air two old, industrial "hangar" buildings are
leakage test on the whole building envelope of compared with one built within the last decade
most non-domestic buildings, like office and under current UK Building Regulations.
hangars. This paper describes field Although the leakage index shows the new
measurements with BREFAN in two office building to be only half as leaky as the old,
buildings and shows how a "leakage" index comparison with tight Swedish industrial
can be evaluated and then used as a diagnostic buildings shows that a further fivefold
measure of the constructional quality of the reduction is possible. Finally, tests in a large
external fabric of the building. BRE provides a Law Court building are briefly described to
BREFAN measurement service to other show how BREFAN can be used as a
organizations, and this paper will be of interest diagnostic tool in a more qualitative manner.
to architects, builders, building services By depressurising the building, a possible
engineers, surveyors and others concerned cause for complaints of insufficient internal
with the provision and control of ventilation in heating during cold weather was traced to
buildings. excessive air leakage through the roof.
KEYWORDS measurement technique, air KEYWORDS air leakage, large building,
tightness, office building, hangar building envelope, fan
#NO 4164 BREFAN - a diagnostic tool to #NO 5267 The reliability of infiltration and
assess the envelope air leakiness of large air movement data obtained from single
buildings. tracer gas measurements in large spaces.
AUTHOR Perera M D A E S, Tull R G AUTHOR Sutcliffe H, Waters J
BIBINF Netherlands, International CIB W67 BIBINF UK, AIVC 12th Conference, "Air
Symposium, "Energy, Moisture and Climate in Movement and Ventilation Control within
Buildings", held 24-27 September 1991,
easily applied on a system-by-system level Finds that doors and windows account for a
rather than floor-by-floor. Fan airflow surprisingly small proportion of total leakage.
techniques including orifice plate, pitot KEYWORDS air infiltration, fan, component
traverse, and tracer gas dilution were leakage, pressurization, house.
considered. The tracer gas method was found
to be relatively easy to apply and highly #NO 1100 Simple method of measuring
accurate. Fan airflow rate measurement airtightness of windows.
uncertainty by tracer gas was estimated to be Nu finns en enkel metod att prova fonsters
5.4% to 8.8% for the cases considered, tathet.
assuming a 5% uncertainty in interzonal AUTHOR Wetterstad L.
leakage. BIBINF VVS no.4 1982 p.83-84 1 fig. in
KEYWORDS air leakage rate, building Swedish
envelope, tall building ABSTRACT Describes method and equipment
for measuring air leakage from windows.
KEYWORDS window, component leakage,
7.3.3 Component Leakage instrumentation, measurement technique
Techniques
#NO 1103 Testing times.
AUTHOR Turnbull N.
#NO 41 Air infiltration measurements in a
BIBINF Energy Manager vol.6 no.1 1983 p41
four-bedroom townhouse using sulphur
3 figs in English 674
hexafluoride as a tracer gas.
ABSTRACT Describes Schlegel's test
AUTHOR Hunt C.M. Burch D.
chamber for measuring air and water
BIBINF ASHRAE transactions 1975, 81, part
infiltration around doors and windows. This
1. 186-201, 5 figs, 4 tabs, 18 refs. in English
can record infiltration at any point around the
ABSTRACT Reports measurements in title.
frame to high light the exact source of a leak.
House was contained in environmental
This is used to test the company's own draught
chamber with control over inside and outside
proofing and weather sealing products and is
temperature with essentially no wind velocity.
available to door and window manufacturers
Observes familiar correlation between inside-
for development work.
outside temperature difference and infiltration
KEYWORDS door, window, component
rate, and effect of sealing doors and ducts
leakage, instrumentation, measurement
under conditions of negligible wind velocity.
technique
Compares different methods of collecting air
samples for analysis and compares SF6
#NO 1105 Measurement of local airtightness
measurements with air exchange rates imposed
in buildings.
on the house by means of a centrifugal blower.
AUTHOR Siilonen V.
KEYWORDS air infiltration, tracer gas,
BIBINF Technical Research Centre of Finland
sulphur hexafluoride, house, component
Research Note 125 July 1982 12 pp. 4 figs. 1
leakage
tab. in English
ABSTRACT Describes the "collector
#NO 175 The testing of whole houses for air
chamber" method, where a room or whole
leakage.
building is pressurised and the air leaking
AUTHOR McIntyre I.S. Newman C.J.
through the target areas is collected with a
BIBINF Building Research Establishment
pressure compensated chamber to a
note. 21/75. 5 figs. 1 ref. in English.
measurement device.
ABSTRACT Describes portable air leakage
KEYWORDS component leakage,
apparatus capable of measuring the air
instrumentation, measurement technique
infiltration of whole dwellings directly on site
by the pressure method. Main assembly
consists of a flow measurement duct and
electric fan. Describes test procedure and gives
air leakage curves for an ordinary semi-
detached house and an experimental house.
acoustic measurement of air leakage for #NO 1898 Air leakage of residential
components after installation. buildings.
KEYWORDS component leakage, door, La perméabilité a l'air des bâtiments
window, measurement technique, sound d'habitation.
AUTHOR Moye C
#NO 1662 The value of pressure testing to BIBINF Cahiers du Centre Scientifique et
establish the viability of retrofit procedures Technique du Batiment, livr 262, cahier 2019,
for a high rise building. September 1985. 20p. 23 figs, 10 tabs. in
AUTHOR Ward I C. French
BIBINF Energy and Buildings, January 1984, ABSTRACT The development and
Vol 6, No 1, 93-94, 2 figs, 1 tab, 1 ref. in construction of portable test equipment to
English determine air leakage has made it possible to
ABSTRACT Presents the results of air leakage carry out measurements on a large number of
tests on the windows of the Arts Tower at dwellings built using different construction
Sheffield University. The results quoted show technologies. The recording and analysis of the
the ranges into which infiltration coefficients data collected is presented in this paper. This
fall. Relates pay-back periods for weather- makes it possible to propose a method for
stripping to height above ground level. taking sealing defects into account in the
Tabulates mean values of leakage coefficient calculation of air infiltration of dwellings.
and flow exponent for defective and non- KEYWORDS air leakage, residential building,
defective sealant and compares with values component leakage, pressurization,
suggested in CIBS Guide. measurement technique
KEYWORDS window, high rise building,
component leakage, sealant, weather-stripping #NO 2143 Air leakage of residential
buildings.
#NO 1739 Air leakage tests on polyethylene La perméabilité a l'air des bâtiments
membrane installed in a wood frame wall. d'habitation.
AUTHOR Shaw C Y. AUTHOR Moye C.
BIBINF Ottawa: National Research Council BIBINF CSTB Magazine No 43, Jan-Feb
Canada, 1985. Building Research Note No 1986. p12-15. 2 figs. in French
225. 26p. 19 figs, 1 tab. in English ABSTRACT Describes the instrumentation
ABSTRACT This report presents the results of and measurement technique used by the CSTB
air leakage tests on polyethylene membranes to measure the leakiness of residential
installed in a frame wall. The results would be buildings. Results of the experiments are also
useful in evaluating the methods commonly presented.
used for installing such a component. They can KEYWORDS air leakage, component leakage,
besummarized as follows: 1, a 6 mil measurement technique, instrumentation.
polyethylene membrane was stiffer than a 4
mil membrane and had a greater air leakage #NO 2628 Balanced fan depressurization
rate through the joint, 2, the best method for method for measuring component and
installing a wall joint was to have the two overall air leakage in single and multi
sheets of polyethylene overlapped by about family dwellings.
400 mm, with the edges stapled to two vertical AUTHOR Reardon J T, Kim A K, Shaw C Y
studs, 3, the spline system was too difficult to BIBINF Preprint, Ashrae Trans, Vol 93, Part 2,
apply, especially at the corners, 4, taping and No 3062, 1987, 15p, 8 figs, 3 tabs, 6 refs. in
caulking the joint did not produce an air-tight English
joint, and 5, a new technique is needed to ABSTRACT The balanced fan
fasten the edges of the polyethylene sheet to depressurization technique has been applied to
the window frame and hold the edges in place. measure air leakage characteristics of row
KEYWORDS wood frame, vapour barrier, houses and individual house stories. Controlled
component leakage, joint, pressurization field tests on two detached, two-storey houses
with full basements were carried out to verify
the consistency of the method. The technique
was then used to measure the air leakage rates
of three row house units and the storeys of two
other houses. The results were presented and 7.3.4 Leak Detection Methods
discussed.
KEYWORDS fan depressurization, component #NO 208 The use of sound to locate
leakage, air leakage, multi family building, infiltration openings in buildings.
house, terraced house AUTHOR Keast D.N. Pei H-S.
BIBINF Proceedings ASHRAE/DOE
#NO 2708 Air leakage measurements on Conference "Thermal performance of the
full-scale construction. exterior envelopes of buildings" Florida,
AUTHOR Baker P, Valentine G December 3-5, 1979 in English
BIBINF Bldg Serv Eng Res Tech, 8(1987), ABSTRACT Suggests the use of sound waves
p69-71, 5 figs, 5 refs. in English to locate openings in buildings that allow air
ABSTRACT A technique for identifying and infiltration. Reports results of an experimental
measuring air leakage through the fabric of program, including laboratory tests of a
buildings is presented. The leakage specially constructed partition and field tests
characteristics of a few selected full-scale on eight buildings. Finds that on average
building details are illustrated. The data derive openings that can be located acoustically
from both laboratory and real-world buildings, transmit sound that is about twice as loud as
and indicate the importance of design detailing that through adjacent, sealed locations.
and construction of junctions to control air Laboratory studies indicate that the sound level
leakage. increase through a leakage opening is roughly
KEYWORDS air leakage, thermography, correlated with the logarithm of the local
measurement technique airflow rate when a steady differential pressure
is established across the partition. Concludes
#NO 2722 The validation and application of that acoustic leak location is most useful in
a portable pressurisation test facility for the buildings that are draughty but works less well
measurement of the flow characteristics of in tight well insulated buildings. It is a simple
background leakage areas. and inexpensive method for finding hidden
AUTHOR Baker P H, Sharples S, Ward I C openings, needing no pressure or temperature
BIBINF in: Third International Congress on differentials across the building envelope.
Building Energy Management, III Ventilation, KEYWORDS air leakage, air infiltration,
air movement and air quality: field instrumentation, sound
measurement and energy auditing, held in
Lausanne, Switzerland, September 28- October #NO 375 Thermography. Testing of the
2, 1987, p277-284, 7 figs, 9 refs. in English thermal insulation and airtightness of
ABSTRACT The use of the pressurization buildings.
system, which is capable of direct localised AUTHOR Petterson B. Axen B.
measurement can greatly aid the identification BIBINF Swedish Council for Building
and quantification of individual background Research D5. 227p. 20tabs 128 figs 21 refs. in
leakage areas. The test uses the guarded English
pressure box principle to measure the airflow ABSTRACT Discusses in general terms
through a specified target under pressurization. energy consumption and energy requirements
The whole room or house is pressurized using and the testing and checking of buildings.
a blower door and a measurement box, Gives principles of thermography and
pressurized by an auxillary fan, is placed over discusses the influence of various parameters
the target. The latter fan, if adjusted to on the thermography of buildings. Gives rules
maintain a zero pressure difference, between for interpretation of thermograms and use of
the measurement box and the room, comparative thermograms. Gives examples of
compensates for any disturbance of the leakage comparative thermograms for common defects
flow due to the presence of the measurement in insulation and airtightness, and actual cases
box and the connected volume flow meter. The where certain constructions and components
resultant flow, is the leakage due only to the were examined. Shows effectiveness of
target area at the pressure difference, improvements made to remedy certain types of
maintained across the building envelope. defects in insulation and air tightness. Reports
KEYWORDS validation, pressurization results of a general survey to find systematic
testing, leakage area, airflow, blower door defects in insulation and airtightness.
ABSTRACT Test method describes techniques methods with nitrous oxide as tracer gas.
using tracer gas dilution for determining a Disturbing influences due to H2O and CO2 are
single zone's air change with the outdoors, as low. The analyzer is coupled via a RS-232-C
induced by weather conditions and by interface to a microcomputer, which is
mechanical ventilation. The techniques are 1) programmed to service the following
concentration decay, 2) constant injection, and functions: (1) calibration, (2) preparation and
3) constant concentration. control of measurements, (3) recording,
KEYWORDS standard, tracer gas displaying and storing of data, (4) evaluation
of results, and (5) error analysis. The
7.4.1 Tracer Decay implemented programs provide an instant
access to results. The whole equipment is
#NO 1272 Evaluation of evacuated glass installed in compact form on a mobile rack.
tubes for sampling of SF6/Air mixture for Measurements have been taken in a university
air exchange measurements. laboratory to examine air change rates with (1)
AUTHOR Tamura G.T. Evans R.G. closed door and window, (2) open door only,
BIBINF ASHRAE Jnl. vol.25 no.10 p.40-43 3 and (3) tilted window only. Typical results are
figs. 2 tabs. 4 refs. in English given and show where the decay method or the
ABSTRACT Grab sampling of a tracer gas/air constant-emission method is more appropriate.
mixture in conjunction with the tracer gas KEYWORDS computer, measurement, air
decay technique is a convenient method for change rate, decay rate, constant emission,
conducting a survey of air infiltration rates in tracer gas, nitrous oxide, door, window,
homes. Examines such a method, using SF6 as instruments
the tracer gas and storing the concentration in
evacuated glass tubes. #NO 4072 Improving an IR tracer gas
KEYWORDS tracer gas, decay rate, analyser by digital filtering.
measurement technique, sulphur hexafluoride AUTHOR Skotte J, Breum N O, Schneider T
BIBINF UK, Building and Environment, Vol
#NO 1944 Rapid thermal calibration of 25, No 2, 1990, pp151-154, 4 figs, 1 tab, 12
houses. refs. in English
AUTHOR Everett R ABSTRACT An algorithm is described by
BIBINF Milton Keynes, UK:Energy Research which the time between samples can be greatly
Group, Open University,1985. ERG 055. 200p. reduced in a multipoint measuring system with
figs, tabs, 6 refs. in English AIVC bk an infrared gas analyser. Normally such a
ABSTRACT Presents a detailed description of system is rather slow due to the large cuvette
the measurement technique and apparatus used volume of the analyser. By using a simple
to measure the air change rate in the Spencer correctional algorithm the sample period can
St and Linford low-energy houses in Milton be reduced from approximately 30-45 s to 10-
Keynes, UK. An automatic air infiltration rig 15 s without substantial loss of precision. It is
using nitrous oxide tracer gas constant decay required that the airflow through the analyser
was used. Air leakage was also measured by is maintained constant. The algorithm is
pressurization for the Linford houses and some derived using a digital filter designing
from the neighbouring Pennyland project. technique.
KEYWORDS air change rate, air leakage, KEYWORDS instruments, measurement
measurement technique, automatic equipment, technique, tracer gas
nitrous oxide, tracer gas, decay rate,
pressurization #NO 4117 Mapping indoor air movements
with a tracer gas technique.
#NO 2536 Microcomputer-aided AUTHOR Afonso C F A, Maldonado E A B
measurement of air change rates. BIBINF Netherlands, Kluwer Academic
AUTHOR Heidt F D, Werner H Publishers, 1990, proceedings "Second
BIBINF Energy Bldgs, Vol 9, 1986, p313-320, European conference on architecture. Science
8 figs, 10 refs. in English and technology at the service of architecture",
ABSTRACT Air change rates are measured by held Paris, France, 4-8 December 1989, pp134-
a non-dispersive one-beam IR gas analyser 137, 5 figs, 11 refs. in English
using the decay and constant-emission
ABSTRACT This paper describes how the maximize the precision and the accuracy of the
tracer decay method was used to map all results. This paper discusses some of the issues
indoor airflows in a passive solar residence in raised by the results that have been obtained
Porto. A specific analysis of the influence of and presents suggestions for minimizing errors
the fireplace chimney was made, showing that in the interpretation of the test results.
it accounted for a 50% increase in air exchange KEYWORDS outdoor air, carbon dioxide,
rate, and that indoor air movements were tracer gas
strongly affected in both magnitudes and
directions. #NO 4486 The feasibility of achieving
KEYWORDS air movement, tracer gas necessary initial mixing when using tracer
gas decays for ventilation measurements.
#NO 4211 Determining delivered quantities AUTHOR Alevantis L E, Hayward S B
of outside air: CO2, tracer gas or both? BIBINF Canada, Indoor Air '90, Proceedings
AUTHOR Turner W A, Bearg D W of the 5th International Conference on Indoor
BIBINF in: The human equation: health and Air Quality and Climate, Toronto, 29 July -3
comfort proceedings IAQ 89, pp117-121, 2 August 1990, Volume 4 "Building and System
figs, 2 tabs, 7 refs. in English Assessments and Solutions", pp 349-354. in
ABSTRACT As part of an indoor air quality English
investigation protocol, a major focus is ABSTRACT The degree of initial mixing of
frequently a determination of the quantities of tracer gas with building air was examined in
outside air (OA) actually being delivered to the four office buildings by using the tracer decay
occupants of a building. This quantity is a method both at low and at high ventilation
function of both the quantity of OA taken in at rates. The results indicate that the tracer gas
the OA dampers and the effectiveness of the mixed well with building air at low ventilation
HVAC system in delivering this air to the rates (0.5 air changes per hour), but that at high
people. In this paper, the ratio of the air ventilation rates (1.0 air changes per hour or
quantity entering the OA dampers and the above) good initial tracer gas mixing
outside air quantity delivered to the occupants conditions were not achieved on a consistent
is referred to as the ventilation efficiency basis.
(others have suggested this be called KEYWORDS tracer gas, decay rate,
ventilation performance). Often, it is desirable ventilation rate
to know this ventilation efficiency in order to
determine if improvements in the delivery #NO 4786 Practical determination of air
efficiency are warranted. Measurement of both change. Automated acquisition of measured
the delivered quantities of outside air and the data from the exchange of room air under
efficiency of the ventilation system is different flow conditions in the room. (Part
especially important in light of various 2)
protocols for design options, which are Praktische Luftwechselermittlung.
contained in proposed ASHRAE Standard 62- Automatisierte Messwerterfassung des
1981R, "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Raumluftwechsels unter verschiedenen
Quality". The two principal tools currently Strumungsbedingungen im Raum - 2. Teil.
utilized for evaluating the quantity of outdoor AUTHOR Lobeck W, Masuhr F
air (OA) delivered to the occupants of a BIBINF Germany, HLH, Vol 41, No 12, 1990,
building are the measurement of carbon pp 1051-1056, 4 figs, 8 refs. in German
dioxide (CO2) concentrations and the ABSTRACT The 1st part of this article, in
measurement of tracer decay rates using sulfur HLH 11/90, gave a description of the tracer
hexafluoride. These two methods have also measuring method to determine the exchange
been utilized by the authors and other of air in rooms. In part 2, the automated
researchers to assess the efficiency of outside acquisition of the exchange of room air under
air delivery. Each of these techniques has its different flow conditions in the room are
own set of advantages and disadvantages, but specified. Comparative assessments are made
the performance of the two together tends to under different flow conditions between the
cancel out some of the weaknesses of each. results based on the tracer decay method and
Therefore, whenever possible, the authors have blower induced air exchange, and statements
performed both procedures side by side to are also made on the number of outlet points
required. The most suitable trial variant is KEYWORDS ventilation rate, airflow,
determined and its advantages specified. The pollutant
measured concentrations (CO2 tracer) are
determined with an infra-red gas analyzer, #NO 6771 Tracer gas mixing with air.
which is coupled with a small computer. The AUTHOR Shao L, Sharples S, Ward I C
prepared software permits control of the BIBINF UK, Building Serv. Eng. Res.
measuring sequence, data acquisition, its Technol., Vol 14, No 2, 1993, pp 43-50, 3 figs,
protection and evaluation. 5 tabs, 12 refs. in English
KEYWORDS air change rate, tracer gas ABSTRACT The tracer gas method is one of
the most widely used methods for measuring
#NO 5688 Estimation of zone effective flow rates for building air infiltration and
volume using tracer-gas techniques. ventilation. The accuracy of this method
AUTHOR Riffat S B, Cheong K W depends vitally on the spatial uniformity of the
BIBINF UK, Loughborough University of tracer/air mixing. However, information on
Technology, Dept of Civil Engineering, this critical problem has been scarce, largely
[1992], 12pp. in English due to the practical difficulty in experimentally
ABSTRACT The concentration-decay and obtaining data. In the last decade a new tool
pulse-injection tracer-gas techniques were used for building research has emerged, namely
to evaluate the effective volume of a zone, computational fluid dynamics or CFD. A study
Measurement of airflow rates were carried out of tracer/air mixing has been carried out using
in an environmental chamber using SF6 as the a time dependent CFD method, supported by
tracer gas. Results showed the flow rate conceptual/dimensional analysis. In this study,
estimated from the concentration-decay 12 cases of tracer/air mixing in simulated
technique is about 4.5 to 14.3% higher than tracer decay tests were computed. Each case
actual flow rate if the effective volume of the had a different zonal volume or other boundary
chamber is assumed equal to the physical or initial conditions. By comparing these
volume. The effective volume estimated from results, it was found that there were many
tracer-gas measurements was found to be factors affecting tracer/air mixing and,
about 1.5 to 2.7% higher than the physical contrary to a previous report, there does not
volume of the chamber. exist a universal critical value of air change
KEYWORDS tracer gas measurements, rate below which satisfactory mixing is
sulphur hexafluoride, airflow guaranteed, although lower air change rates are
generally beneficial to mixing. In addition, it
#NO 5866 Errors in the calculation of has been demonstrated that smaller building
ventilation flow rates. zones and higher inlet airflow velocities have
AUTHOR Brouns C positive effects on tracer/air mixing while the
BIBINF UK, Coventry Polytechnic, Dept of initial tracer concentration level has no effect.
Civil Engineering and Building, Dissertation, Finally a statistical parameter of concentration
May 1989, 69pp. in English spread coefficient for assessing tracer mixing
ABSTRACT This project investigates the has been introduced.
effect of rounding errors in the calculation of KEYWORDS tracer gas, mixing, air change
ventilation flow rates. The flow rates are rate, computational fluid dynamics
determined from the concentrations of
contaminant which are measured in a tracer #NO 7746 Tracer gas mixing with air: effect
decay experiment. As shown in the present of tracer.
dissertation, the introduction of rounding AUTHOR L Shao & S B Riffat
errors leads to substantial changes in the final BIBINF UK, University of Nottingham,
flows. Experimental errors are expected to be Building Technology Group, 1994, 21pp,
larger than rounding errors and therefore, they 7figs, 10 refs in English
would produce greater errors in the computed ABSTRACT The accuracy of tracer gas
flows. The aim of this research is to find a way method depends vitally on the spatial
of measuring these errors, and as shown later, uniformity of tracer/air mixing, which in many
the condition number used in this report is not cases is unsatisfactory. However, information
a satisfactory measure of these errors. on this critical problem has been scarce,
largely due to the practical difficulty in
experimentally obtaining data. This paper KEYWORDS tracer gas, computational fluid
presents a study of the effect of tracer species dynamics, airflow, measurement technique
on tracer mixing, using a time dependent CFD
method. It was found that for single-zone #NO 8443 Determination of outdoor air
tracer decay tests, three tracer-gases, sulphur quantities delivered.
hexafluoride, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide AUTHOR Bearg D W, Turner W A
have virtually identical mixing patterns and BIBINF Building systems - room air
thus there is no difference between them in contaminant distribution 5-8 December 1988,
terms of airflow measurement results. University of Illinois, Ashrae 1989, Ed
However, for multi-gas tests where there is Christianson L L, pp 106-108, 2 refs.
interzonal tracer movement, the tracer-gases ABSTRACT As part of an indoor air quality
with different binary diffusivities exhibit investigation protocol, the quantities of outside
significantly different mixing behaviour. In air being delivered to the occupants of a
these situations, the choice of tracer will building frequently need assessment. Methods
impact the accuracy of airflow measurement. often used for this task include tracer decay
These results support recent experimental assessments and the measurement of indoor
findings concerning the significant effect of CO2 levels, assumed to be generated by the
tracer species on airflow measurement. occupants. This paper presents data from
KEYWORDS Tracer gas, mixing, buildings in which both CO2 measurement and
computational fluid dynamics tracer gas decay were performed separately or
simultaneously to assess the amounts of
#NO 8013 Investigation of effect of tracer outside air reaching the occupants. The
species on tracer mixing using CFD. methods are explained, and discrepancies in
AUTHOR Riffat S B, Shao L the results of the two methods are discussed.
BIBINF UK, Air Infiltration and Ventilation "Ventilation efficiency" (the delivery of
Centre, 1994, "The Role of Ventilation", outside air to the occupied space vs. the
proceedings of 15th AIVC Conference, held quantity of outside air brought in at the air
Buxton, UK, 27-30 September 1994, Volume intake) protocols are suggested that are
2, pp645-654. expected to minimize errors in the correct
ABSTRACT Tracer-gas techniques are widely interpretation of the results, and further
used for measurement of airflow in buildings research needs are discussed.
and their accuracy depends critically on the KEYWORDS outdoor air, ventilation system
uniformity of tracer/air mixing. However,
tracer mixing is still an unsolved problem and #NO 12111 Effect of data logging frequency
the effect of many factors remains unclear. on tracer gas measurement.
This paper presents a study of the effect on AUTHOR Lee H, Awbi H B
mixing of tracer species. The investigation BIBINF Sweden, Stockholm, KTH Building
concentrated on tracer mixing involved in the Services Engineering, 1998, proceedings of
decay technique, which is the most widely Roomvent 98: 6th International Conference on
used version of the tracer gas method. The Air Distribution in Rooms, held June 14-17
distribution and history of tracer concentration 1998 in Stockholm, Sweden, edited by
during airflow measurements were examined Elisabeth Mundt and Tor-Goran Malmstrom,
using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Volume 2, pp 477-482, 8 figs, refs.
It was found that for single-zone tracer decay ABSTRACT A data acquisition system which
tests, three tracer gases, sulphur hexafluoride, uses a computer provides a more useful
nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide have virtually analysis system. Since the processing speed of
identical mixing patterns and thus there is no a computer is continuously increasing, the
difference between them in terms of flow rate measurements can produce much more
measurement results. However, for multi- information than it is possible using
tracer gas tests where there is interzonal tracer conventional data acquisition systems.
movement, the three tracer gases with different However, the raw measurements also include
binary diffusivities exhibit significantly the signal noise which many lead to difficulty
different mixing behaviour. In these situations, when the signal is analysed.
the choice of tracer will impact the accuracy of This work assesses an algorithm for removing
airflow measurement. possible signal noise, usually with high-
frequency, from the measurement of tracer gas measurements. Tracer gas concentrations are
concentration. The code, written by the measured during leakage and ventilation tests
authors, contains three main parts: fast-Fourier in a model test room. The signal analysis
transformation (FFT), inverse fast-Fourier functions embedded in Matlab are used to
transformation (IFFT) and a digital filter. In carry out the digital signal processing (DSP)
this method, the raw data is transformed using work.
FFT from time-domain into frequency-domain. KEYWORDS Tracer Gas Measurement,
The digital filter, so-called Notch filter, then Digital Signal Processing, Correlation
selects the required signal without the high Analysis, Signal Noise, Air Leakage
frequency noise. Finally IFFT conducts inverse
transformation from frequency-domain to
time-domain with the frequency data selected 7.4.2 Pulse Injection
by the filter and yields a smoothed time-
domain signal back. #NO 3121 Integral mass balances and pulse
Using this technique, the digital filtering injection tracer technique.
algorithm provides the measurement data AUTHOR Axley J, Persily A
without the high frequency noise. It has been BIBINF in: "Effective Ventilation", 9th AIVC
found that 1 Hz of sampling rate is fast enough Conference, Gent, Belgium, 12-15 September,
to monitor the variation of tracer gas 1988. in English
concentration in model experiments. ABSTRACT Tracer gas techniques for
KEYWORDS tracer gas, measurement measuring airflow rates in building systems are
technique, modelling considered. These techniques are classified in
terms of tracer gas injection strategy employed
#NO 13303 Pre-Processor for Ventilation and mass balance relationships used to analyze
Measurement Analysis measured tracer concentration data. The
AUTHOR Heekwan Lee and Hazim B. Awbi discussion focuses on one class of tracer
BIBINF Proceeding of Seventh International techniques - the pulse injection techniques -
conference on Air Distribution in Rooms based upon pulse injection strategies and
(ROOMVENT 2000), Reading, UK, Vol. 1, integral mass balance relationships. These
pp.355-360, (Ed. H.B. Awbi), Elsevier. pulse injection techniques have not been
ABSTRACT It is well known that the commonly used in the past yet they provide
introduction of tracer gas techniques to practically useful means for the determination
ventilation studies has provided much useful of airflow rates in building systems. Pulse
information that used to be unattainable from injection techniques are presented for
conventional measuring techniques. Data measuring airflows in ducts, and for studying
acquisition systems (DASs) containing analog- single-zone and multi-zone building airflow
to-digital (A/D) converters are usually used to systems. Experimental procedures for these
perform the key role which is reading and three cases are discussed, and preliminary
saving signals to storage in digital format. In results from field applications of these
the measuring process, there are a number of techniques are presented. The possibility of
components in the measuring equipment which flow variation is accounted for in all cases, and
may produce system-based noise fluctuations the sensitivity of the single-zone pulse
to the final result. These unwanted fluctuations injection technique to these flow variations is
may cause discrepancy in computations, compared to that of the single-zone constant
especially when non-linear algorithms are injection technique. This comparison leads to
involved. integral formulations of the constant injection
In this study, a pre-processor is developed and technique for duct, single-zone, and multi-zone
used to separate the unwanted fluctuations situations that may provide means to improve
(noise or interference) in raw measurements the accuracy of the commonly used constant
and to reduce the uncertainty in the injection tracer technique.
measurement. Moving average KEYWORDS tracer gas, airflow,
Notch filter, FIR (Finite Impulse Response) measurement technique
filters, and IIR (Infinite Impulse Response)
filters are designed and applied to collect the
desired information from the raw
#NO 3433 Integral mass balances and pulse concentrations of nitrous oxide and sulfur
injection tracer techniques. hexafluoride were simultaneously measured
AUTHOR Axley J, Persily A with a dual-channel IR-analyzer. Tests were
BIBINF US Dept of Commerce, NISTIR 88- carried out in a test chamber with air change
3855, October 1988, 31pp, 1 tab, 16 figs, 30 rates of 3 h-1 and 5 h-1. The tracer gases were
refs. in English injected under three conditions: into the inlet
ABSTRACT Tracer gas techniques for air and directly into the room with and without
measuring airflow rates in buildings are extra mixing fans. The results suggest that the
considered. These techniques are classified in pulse procedure is as reliable as the two other
terms of tracer gas injection strategy employed methods used.
and mass balance relationships used to analyze KEYWORDS tracer gas, model, measurement
measured tracer concentration data. The techniques
discussion focuses on one class of tracer
techniques- the pulse injection techniques - #NO 3694 The air exchange efficiency of a
based upon pulse injection strategies and lecture hall.
integral mass balance relationships. These AUTHOR Breum N O
pulse injection techniques have not been BIBINF Reprinted from: Ventilation '88,
commonly used in the past yet they provide Proceedings of the Second International
practically useful means for the determination Symposium on Ventilation for Contaminant
of airflow rates in building systems. Pulse Control, 20-23 September 1988, London, UK,
injection techniques are presented for pp373-380, 3 figs, 1 tabs, 15 refs. in English
measuring airflows in ducts, and for studying ABSTRACT The airflow pattern in a lecture
single-zone and multi-zone building airflow hall (V=690m3) designed for displacement
systems. Experimental procedures for these ventilation was characterised by age analysis
three cases are discussed, and preliminary in the case of a non-occupied hall as well as an
results from field applications of these occupied hall. The ventilation system was
techniques are presented. The possibility of slightly (17%) unbalanced. For comparison the
flow variation is accounted for in all cases, and following three experimental signal-response
the sensitivity of the single-zone pulse tracer gas techniques were applied: "step-up",
injection technique to these flow variations is "decay" and pulse injection. The mean ages of
compared to that of the single-zone constant air estimated by the "decay" technique were
injection technique. This comparison leads to elevated (1-23%) compared to the results of
integral formulations of the constant injection the "step-up" method. Generally the pulse
technique for duct, single-zone, and multi-zone technique estimated the lowest mean ages. The
situations that may provide means to improve estimated air exchange efficiency of the non-
the accuracy of the commonly used constant occupied hall was 50%, and for the occupied
injection tracer technique. hall the efficiency was estimated to be 60%.
KEYWORDS airflow, infiltration, tracer gas, KEYWORDS air change rate, large building
ventilation
#NO 5688 Estimation of zone effective
#NO 3573 A comparison between the step- volume using tracer-gas techniques.
up, step down and pulse injection AUTHOR Riffat S B, Cheong K W
techniques for the measurements of the BIBINF UK, Loughborough University of
mean age of air. Technology, Dept of Civil Engineering,
AUTHOR Niemela R, Saamanen A, Koshela [1992], 12pp. in English
H ABSTRACT The concentration-decay and
BIBINF in:UK, AIVC, 10th AIVC pulse-injection tracer-gas techniques were used
Conference, held at Espoo, Finland, 25-28 to evaluate the effective volume of a zone,
September 1989, Volume 2, February 1990, Measurement of airflow rates were carried out
pp17-30, 16 figs, 20 refs. in English in an environmental chamber using SF6 as the
ABSTRACT A comparison of three injection tracer gas. Results showed the flow rate
manners, step-up, step-down and pulse, for estimated from the concentration-decay
determination of the mean age of air was made technique is about 4.5 to 14.3% higher than
by using nitrous oxide and sulphur actual flow rate if the effective volume of the
hexafluoride as tracer gases. The chamber is assumed equal to the physical
volume. The effective volume estimated from #NO 9649 Outdoor air delivery rates to
tracer-gas measurements was found to be occupants and age of air.
about 1.5 to 2.7% higher than the physical AUTHOR Li Z, Zhang J S, Christianson L L,
volume of the chamber. Kulp R N, Sparks L E
KEYWORDS tracer gas measurements, BIBINF USA, Ashrae Transactions, Vol 102,
sulphur hexafluoride, airflow Pt 2, 1996 [preprint], 4 figs, 2 tabs, refs.
ABSTRACT A simple and accurate technique
#NO 5845 9th AIVC Conference: Effective to directly measure the outdoor air delivery
ventilation: Proceedings Volume 1. rates to building occupants is presented. A few
AUTHOR Air Infiltration and Ventilation (two to three) measurements of tracer
Centre concentrations are sufficient for calculation.
BIBINF UK, Air Infiltration and Ventilation Experimental results show that the calculated
Centre, 9th AIVC Conference proceedings outdoor air change rates from the tracer gas
Vol.1, held Novotel Hotel, Gent, Belgium, 12- experiments agreed well with the outdoor
15 September, 1988, 439pp. in English airflow rates measured independently by
ABSTRACT Twenty three papers form the nozzles. A relationship between the local
ninth AIVC Conference, titles as follows: outdoor air exchange rate and the mean age of
Keynote speech: Air Infiltration and air was derived. The proposed technique
Ventilation, Natural airflows between roof, provides a way of simplifying the
subfloor and living spaces, Experimental measurement of mean age of air and correcting
analysis of air diffusion in large space, experimental errors. Experimental results show
Determination of ventilation efficiency based that almost all the errors in the mean age of air
upon short term tests, Ventilation strategies in (a maximum of 20% in our tests) caused by
the case of polluted outdoor air situations, inaccurate timing of the start of a tracer gas
Ventilation generated by a fluctuating pressure step-up process (tracer buildup) can be
differential, Air motion in the vicinity of air- corrected by the proposed method. The
supply devices for displacement ventilation, underestimated ages of air in the step-down
Integral mass balances and pulse injection processes (tracer decay) were also successfully
tracer-techniques, Commercial building corrected.
ventilation measurements using multiple tracer KEYWORDS outdoor air, occupant reaction,
gases, Constant concentration measurement tracer gas, air change rate
with 2 tracers, Extended testing of a
multifamily building using constant #NO 11930 The principles of a
concentration and PFT methods, Analysis of homogeneous tracer pulse technique for
errors for a fan-pressurization technique for measurement of ventilation and air
measuring inter-zonal air leakage, The use of a distribution in buildings.
guarded zone pressurization technique to AUTHOR Stymne H, Boman C A
measure airflow permeabilities of a multi-zone BIBINF in: UK, Air Infiltration and
building, Air leakage between apartments, Air Ventilation Centre, proceedings of
infiltration induced by heating appliances, "Ventilation Technologies in Urban Areas",
Indoor formaldehyde levels in energy-efficient 19th Annual Conference - Supplement, held
homes with mechanical ventilation systems, Oslo, Norway, 28-30 September 1998.
Recirculation of air in dwellings, Effective ABSTRACT The principles of a new tracer
ventilation in offices - the occupant's gas technique is described in the paper. The
perspective, A ventilation concept for future new technique involves pulse injection of
dwelling-houses, Natural ventilation for a tracer gas and has the same advantages as the
Crown court: developing statistical assessment previously known homogeneous emission
techniques at the design stage, Market analysis technique. It can for example advantageously
of sensors for the use in demand controlled be used in large buildings and buildings with
ventilating systems, Ventilation design for a many rooms and yields information on the
bus station, Ventilation and air quality in distribution of ventilation air within the
Belgian buildings: a state of the art. building. However, contrary to the
KEYWORDS ventilation effectiveness, homogeneous emission technique, yielding the
ventilation system average ventilation performance during an
extended time, the new technique allows
measurement during short term periods. The BIBINF Indoor Air. Vol 5. Buildings,
new technique is based on homogeneous pulse Ventilation and Thermal Climate. Edited by B
injection, which means that pulses of tracer gas Berglund, T Lindvall, J Sundell. Swedish
are injected in each zone in a zone-divided Council for Building Research, 1984. 505-510,
building, with amounts which are proportional 2 figs, 1 tab, 5 refs. in English AIVC bk
to the zone volumes and integrating sampling ABSTRACT A tracer gas technique has been
of tracer gas concentration. Theoretical and used for evaluation and characterization of
practical aspects of the technique are airflow pattern of contaminants penetrating
described. into buildings. As a tracer, sulfur hexafluoride
KEYWORDS tracer gas, air distribution (SF6) was used and detected by a gas
chromatograph equipped with an electron
capture detector. SF6 was released at suspected
7.4.3 Constant Injection points of contaminant origin at a constant flow
rate and was detected quantitatively in the
#NO 1653 A modified tracer gas infiltration room or laboratory of concern. A dilution
method for use in a residential indoor air factor concept was established which can be
quality/weatherization study. used to estimate room contaminant levels and
AUTHOR Totzke D. et al. to calculate the level of contaminant in a
BIBINF Indoor Air. Vol 5. Buildings, laboratory hood exhaust system which will
Ventilation and Thermal Climate. Edited by B result in any given level in the make-up air
Berglund, T Lindvall, J Sundell. Swedish system or room supply system. In all cases, the
Council for Building Research, 1984. 459-464, tracer gas method was successful and proved
8 refs. in English AIVC bk to be an effective method for the
ABSTRACT As part of a study to evaluate the characterization and the investigation of the
effects of home weatherization on indoor air contaminant flow pattern. The sensitivity of
quality, a tracer gas method to determine the SF6 gas detection, the low toxicity, and the
infiltration rates was developed by modifying specificity of the tracer make this procedure a
existing methods to meet several project very useful tool for this type of study.
constraints. A method was needed that did not KEYWORDS tracer gas, sulphur hexafluoride,
involve occupant participation, required only a constant emission, measurement technique
small amount of time from the field
investigators, and had to be fabricated from #NO 4640 Measurement of airflow through
rugged, low cost materials that could be easily a porous medium.
transported. The method developed is based on AUTHOR Riffat S B, Cheong K W
the continuous release of pure sulfur BIBINF UK, Loughborough University of
hexafluoride (SF6) from a cylinder and the Technology, Department of Civil Engineering,
transfer of indoor air to a storage bag. The [1990], 11pp, 4 figs, 7 refs. in English
collection bags were analyzed for SF6 ABSTRACT This work examines the
concentration by gas chromatography using an application of the constant-injection tracer-gas
electron capture detector. The concentration of technique for measurement of airflow in a duct
SF6 along with tracer release rates and house filled with a porous medium. The duct used for
volume measurements were used to calculate this investigation had an aspect ratio of6.25
an air exchange rate for each home studied. and measurements of tracer-gas concentration
Fifty homes were evaluated several times each and pressure distribution along the duct were
using this method under varying weather performed for Reynolds numbers between
conditions before and after energy 1140 and 1790. The work indicated that the
conservation improvements were performed. concentration of tracer-gas in the porous
KEYWORDS tracer gas, sulphur hexafluoride, medium became constant at a distance of
retrofit, constant emission, sample bag, approximately 52 hydraulic diameters from the
chromatograph, measurement technique tracer-gas injection point.
KEYWORDS airflow, porosity, tracer gas
#NO 1657 Indoor air pollution evaluation
by tracer gas technique.
AUTHOR Hampl V.
#NO 5312 Numerical prediction of airflow ventilation dominates stack driven ventilation.
patterns and ventilation effectiveness in an We found a considerable airflow between
open office environment. floors. Simple one zone calculations of air
AUTHOR Fang J, Persily A leakage over windows partly confirms the
BIBINF UK, AIVC 12th Conference, "Air ACH measured. The palace management will
Movement and Ventilation Control within use the results of the investigation in the
Buildings", held 24-27 September 1991, ongoing planning process to improve the
Ottawa, Canada, proceedings published indoor climate and abating the indoor
September 1991, Volume 3, pp 181-182. in deterioration.
English KEYWORDS airflow patterns, air exchange
ABSTRACT Numerical modelling is efficiency, air tightness, tracer gas, large
performed to predict air movement, thermal building
comfort level and contamination distribution
within an open office space. The office located
in the building interior has a concentrated 7.4.4 Constant Concentration
thermal load at its center and is conditioned by
cool air delivered from a ceiling-mounted #NO 474 Theoretical and experimental
linear diffuser. The air velocity and studies of heat loss due to ventilation.
temperature distributions and contaminant AUTHOR Alexander D.K. Etheridge D.W.
dispersion in the office are calculated for three Gale R.
different cooling loads and air exchange rates BIBINF Proceedings XXI International
with a three-dimensional turbulent finite Congress for Building Services Engineering,
difference model. Calculations of ventilation Berlin 17/18 April 1980 in English
effectiveness based on the time variations of ABSTRACT Outlines two techniques for
contaminant or tracer gas concentrations in the estimating ventilation heat losses in houses.
supply, exhaust and occupied space are The first is a tracer gas technique using a
performed for the condition of constant constant concentration of gas and the second a
injection of tracer gas into the supply air theoretical prediction method. The theoretical
stream. The calculated values of the Air technique treats the building as a multi-cell
Diffusion Performance Index (ADPI) and model with specified wind pressure, leakage
ventilation effectiveness in the occupied zone openings and background leakage area.
for different supply airflow rates are presented. Reports use of the method for simulating the
KEYWORDS prediction, airflow, ventilation natural ventilation of a house in London and
effectiveness, office building, large building the effectiveness of sealing the windows and
floor.
#NO 12072 Airflow patterns in Schonbrunn KEYWORDS heat loss, ventilation, theoretical
Palace. modelling
AUTHOR Holmberg J G, Kippes W
BIBINF Sweden, Stockholm, KTH Building #NO 586 An investigation using the tracer
Services Engineering, 1998, proceedings of gas method for the measurement of
Roomvent 98: 6th International Conference on ventilation rate in rooms and airflow rate in
Air Distribution in Rooms, held June 14-17 ducts.
1998 in Stockholm, Sweden, edited by AUTHOR Weatherall P.J.
Elisabeth Mundt and Tor-Goran Malmstrom, BIBINF MSc. dissertation. University of
Volume 2, pp 189-196, figs, refs. Manchester Institute of Science and
ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to Technology. October 1977 116p. 29 refs. in
find more information of the complicated english
airflow pattern in the Schœnbrunn Palace. The ABSTRACT Reviews tracer gas methods for
aim is to improve the control of the air measuring ventilation rate and discusses the
infiltration. We have used a passive tracer gas diffusion of gases. Describes four tracer gas
technique, a special case of the constant methods, rate of decay, equilibrium
injection technique, called the homogeneous concentration, transfer index and constant
emission technique. The results give Air concentration. Discusses the analysis of
Change Rates (ACH) of 0,7 to 1,7 in different results. Describes an experimental room and
rooms and parts of the palace. Wind driven series of measurements of air change rate using
two methods a) rate of decay, where a balloon KEYWORDS tracer gas, pressurization,
filled with gas was burst as a point source and measurement technique, decay rate, constant
b) equilibrium concentration where tracer gas concentration, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide
was released continuously at a constant rate.
Discusses results.< Describes further tests in #NO 916 Tracer gas measurements in low
different rooms using decay rate method. leakage houses.
Treats use of tracer gas technique to measure AUTHOR Blomsterberg A.
airflow rates in ducts.< Concludes decay BIBINF 2nd AIC Conference `Building
method has error of 15% in field conditions. Design for Minimum Air Infiltration'
KEYWORDS tracer gas, nitrous oxide, Stockholm 21-23 September 1981 1 fig. 1 tab.
instrumentation, 4 refs. in English
NOTES A discussion of this paper by ABSTRACT Measures the air infiltration in
T.Stathopoulos is given in vol.7 1981 p.367- individual rooms of a one-storey airtight
368 house, using a special tracer gas measurement
technique. Concludes that the overall
#NO 614 Experimental techniques for ventilation rate was very low for the test house,
ventilation research. although it had mechanical ventilation (exhaust
AUTHOR Alexander D.K. Etheridge D.W. fan). States that the best way of getting
Gale R. adequate ventilation is to install a ventilation
BIBINF A.I.C. Conference "Instrumentation system with built-in routes where fresh air can
and Measuring Techniques" Windsor 6-8 enter the building. This should either be
October 1980 in english AIC = in `Ventilation balanced ventilation system or an exhaust fan
of Domestic Buildings' #AIC 492 system with special vents to the outside for
ABSTRACT Reviews experimental techniques supplying fresh air.
for determining the infiltration characteristics KEYWORDS house, tracer gas, decay rate,
of buildings. Discusses the use of wind tunnel constant concentration, air change rate,
models to determine surface pressure mechanical ventilation, ventilation efficiency,
distributions and ventilation rates. Reviews the air infiltration
measurement of open areas and leakages.
Discusses correlation of measured leakage and #NO 975 Air infiltration site measurement
ventilation. Describes the British Gas method techniques
of measuring ventilation rates using tracer gas. AUTHOR Harrje D. Grot R. Grimsrud P.
The system, known as "Autovent" provides a BIBINF 2nd AIC Conference `Building design
constant concentration of tracer gas and can be for minimum air infiltration' Sweden 21-23
used for the continuous monitoring of September 1981 p.113-134 9 figs. 13 refs. in
ventilation rates. English
KEYWORDS tracer gas, constant ABSTRACT Gives a summary of the existing
concentration types of air infiltration measurement
techniques and instrumentation using tracer
#NO 763 Methods of measuring ventilation gases. Describes automated air infiltration
rates and leakage of houses. instrumentation used by researchers in the US,
AUTHOR Dickson D.J. Canada, the UK, Denmark, Sweden and
BIBINF Electricity Council Research Centre Switzerland. The equipment can operate in the
report ECRC/M1419 April 1981 13p. 12 figs. decay mode, constant flow mode and the
in English #AIC 410 constant concentration mode. Most of these
ABSTRACT Describes methods used at ECRC instruments are microcomputer or
for measuring the ventilation rate in houses. microprocessor based and capable of
Two tracer gas methods are used, the decay performing real time determination of the air
method and the constant concentration method. infiltration rate in multizone buildings and
Measurements have been made using both monitor parameters such as temperature, wind
nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide as tracer speed and energy consumption. Summarizes
gases. Also describes test of air leakage made two simple techniques - the air bag or
by pressurizing the entire house. Gives for container method and the average infiltration
each method a detailed description of the monitor, developed by researchers in the US.
measurement technique.
#NO 1316 Measurements of air change rate developing equipment for continuous
and ventilation efficiency in buildings. measurement of air infiltration. It enables
Misure di portata d'aria di ricambio e di continuous measurement of air change rate in
efficienza della ventilazione negli edifice up to ten rooms, the constant concentration
AUTHOR Sandberg M. Fracastoro G.V. method with tracer gas is used, and the results
BIBINF Condiz.Riscald.Refrig. Feb.1984 are recorded on a computer diskette during
vol.28 no.2 p.141-148 in Italian measurement. Analysis of possible measuring
ABSTRACT Describes the general errors show that the method is accurate and to
methodology for ventilation measurements by within plus or minus 5%. Shows the results of
tracer gas, using decay, constant concentration measurement of air infiltration in 10 relatively
and constant emission methods. Defines airtight dwellings. The air change rate of an
ventilation efficiency and the ways in which it occupied dwelling can be more than 5 times
can be experimentally determined. Gives the the air change rate of an unoccupied dwelling.
results of a series of lab measurements to KEYWORDS constant concentration, tracer
determine the accuracy of the decay method gas, air infiltration, instrumentation,
under different conditions, and the efficiency measurement technique, tight house,
of some mechanical ventilation systems. occupancy effects
KEYWORDS measurement technique, tracer
gas, decay rate, constant concentration, #NO 1536 Measurement techniques for air
constant emission, ventilation efficiency change and air penetration of residential
buildings
#NO 1398 Natural and mechanical Messmethoden zur Erfassung des
ventilation in tight Swedish homes - Luftwechsels und der Luftdurchlassigkeit
measurements and modelling. von Wohnbauten.
AUTHOR Blomsterberg A. Lundin L. AUTHOR Muhlebach H.
BIBINF Preprint ASTM Symposium on BIBINF Heizung und Luftung/Chauffage et
measured air leakage performance of buildings ventilation, No 5, 1984. p20-22, 6 diags, 1 tab,
Philadelphia USA April 2-3 1984 22pp. in 10 refs. in German
English ABSTRACT Defines air change and air
ABSTRACT Evaluates results from constant penetration. Describes the differential pressure
concentration tracer gas measurements and fan method, the infrasound method, qualitative
pressurization measurements in three houses judgement methods, and acoustic measurement
and predicts ventilation rates for longer time devices for determining air penetration.
periods using the LBL model. Test results Explains procedures todetermine air change -
show that the best way of both supplying the rate of decay method, the constant
adequate ventilation and conserving energy is concentration method, and the constant
to make sure that the building envelope is emission method.
sufficiently tight and then install a mechanical KEYWORDS air change, air leakage,
ventilation system. Shows that it is possible to pressurization, tracer gas, thermography
correlate fan pressurization measurements and
infiltration rates. #NO 1570 Multi-chamber air renewal
KEYWORDS pressurization correlation, tracer survey using constant concentration tracer-
gas, constant concentration, house, modelling, gas technique.
air infiltration Mesures du taux de renouvellement d'air a
l'aide d'un dispositif compact a
#NO 1425 Continuous measurement of air concentration constante.
change rate in occupied buildings AUTHOR Scartezzini J-L., Roecker C., Quevit
Boligers luftskifte l brugstilstand D.
AUTHOR Kvisgaard B., Collet P F., Kure J. BIBINF Groupe de Recherche en Energie
BIBINF Byggeteknik Teknologisk Institut. Solaire, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de
Report, 1984, 95pp, 65 figs, 13 tabs, 11 refs. , Lausanne,1984. 13pp, 7 figs, 11 refs. in French
in Danish ABSTRACT An accurate determination of air
ABSTRACT The Department of Building renewal rate and connective exchanges
Technology, the Technological Institute of between units was needed for study of the
Copenhagen, have for several years been solar units of the experimental building LESO,
in both an occupied and empty state. The aggregate period of 205 days, using the
CESAR compact equipment for tracer gas constant concentration tracer gas method.
(nitrous oxide) measurement was developed. Results showed that the occupants exert a very
This unit uses a microcomputer to perform a considerable influence on the total air change
simultaneous and periodical gas analysis in 10 in the dwelling. The air change rate for
locations. Three tracer gas methods can be occupied dwellings is, on average, 3-4 times
used: decay, constant concentration, and greater than the air change rate in sealed
continuous flow. The device and regulating buildings (with air-escape valves, doors,
program work well with low rates of windows and ventilation systems closed). The
concentration (100ppm of nitrous oxide). The average air change rate for the sealed
measurements by decay and constant dwellings is 0.19 ach. Although the average air
concentration give similar results and with the change rate for occupied dwellings is higher
simultaneous survey of the 10 rooms, a than the recommended rate, some 20% of
comparison between air movement and dwellings have an extremely low air change
infiltration is possible. Occupancy effects can rate. Mechanically ventilated dwellings tend to
also be evaluated. have a higher air change rate than naturally
KEYWORDS air infiltration, tracer gas, ventilated dwellings. Air-escape valves with
nitrous oxide, decay rate, constant apertures of 30 cm2 per room were not found
concentration, constant emission, air to provide the requisite air change rate for
movement, occupancy effects, measurement sealed dwellings.
technique, automatic equipment KEYWORDS air change rate, occupancy
effects, measurement technique, tracer gas,
#NO 1714 An automated air infiltration constant concentration
measurement system - its design and
capabilities -: preliminary experimental #NO 1784 Continuous air renewal
results. measurements in different inhabited
AUTHOR Lundin L, Blomsterberg A. buildings.
BIBINF Air Infiltration Review, November AUTHOR Scartezzini J-L, Roulet C-A, Jolliet
1982, Vol 4, No 1, p8-10. 7 figs. in English O
ABSTRACT Describes a completely BIBINF 6th AIC Conference "Ventilation
automated constant concentration tracer gas Strategies and Measurement Techniques", Het
technique for measurement of air infiltration. Meerdal Park, Netherlands, 16-19 September
The equipment consists of five components: 1 1985. Bracknell, UK: Air Infiltration Centre,
a controller, 2 a tracer gas analyzer, 3 an 1985. p9.1-9.19. 16 figs, 6 refs. inEnglish
injection and sampling unit, 4 special mixing AIVC bk
fans and 5 apparatus for the calibration of the ABSTRACT A Compact Equipment for
tracer gas flow. The system is controlled by a Survey of Air Renewal (CESAR) was
microcomputer. developed at the Ecole Polytechnique Federale
KEYWORDS tracer gas, constant de Lausanne in Switzerland. Controlled by a
concentration, measurement technique, microcomputer and using tracer gas methods,
automatic equipment, microprocessor this apparatus can monitor up to ten different
locations in inhabited rooms simultaneously
#NO 1752 Research on fresh-air change over extended periods of time. Decay,
rate: 1. occupants' influence on air-change. continuous flow or constant concentration
AUTHOR Kvisgaard B, Collet P F, Kure J. methods can be used, but the constant
BIBINF 2nd. ed. Copenhagen, Denmark: concentration technique is mainly used.
Building Technology, Technological Institute Several air renewal surveys were carried out
of Copenhagen, 1985. 233p. 168 figs, 41 tabs, on different inhabited buildings. During the
14 refs. in English AIVC bk 1983/84 and 1984/85 heating seasons the
ABSTRACT Knowledge of the air change in following three buildings were investigated: an
dwellings under conditions of use is a inhabited passive solar office building (LESO
prerequisite for the calculation of energy building), a three storey one family Swiss
consumption and for evaluation of a dwelling's dwelling, and a low energy test greenhouse at
indoor climate. Air change was measured in a the European Nuclear Research Centre
total of 25 occupied dwellings over an (CERN). The following significant results
#NO 2050 Interim Report on the ABSTRACT In 1979 a project was launched at
Continuous Injection Air Infiltration the Technological Institute, Copenhagen with
Measuring Device, the purpose of developing a method for
AUTHOR Mencher, P., continuous measurement of air change rates in
BIBINF National Bureau of occupied dwellings. Today - 10 years later -
Standards,Princeton University's Center for we can introduce the first generation of mass-
Environmental Studies, , in English produced measuring equipment performing
ABSTRACT This report contains a brief measurements of air change rates employing
description of an air infiltration measuring the method of constant concentration of tracer
device jointly developed by the National gas. The principles used in the first model,
Bureau of Standards and Princeton which was introduced 1981, are largely
University's Center for Environmental Studies. identical to those used in the latest model.
The device maintains a constant concentration However, components and programmes have
of a tracer gas (SF6) in each room of a been changed several times. Furthermore,
structure by injection, and relates the through the years new programmes that
infiltration rate for each room to the rate of gas expand the capability of the measuring
injected. Specifics of construction and use are equipment have been developed. The paper
included., will discuss the development that has taken
KEYWORDS air infiltration, tracer gas place over the 10 years, which problems have
instrumentation multi chamber caused the biggest trouble and how they were
solved. Also, the types of measurement
#NO 2920 Simple adaptive control for performed with the equipment will be touched
constant tracer gas concentration. upon, and we shall take a closer look at a
AUTHOR Jensen L couple of special measurements. Finally, the
BIBINF Sweden, Lund Institute of accuracy of the equipment as well as the cost
Technology, Department of Building Science, of reaching today's level of development will
Report BKL 1988:9(E), 1988, 13pp, 4 figs, 4 be discussed.
tabs. in English KEYWORDS tracer gas, measurement
ABSTRACT This report describes two simple technique, instrumentation, constant
adaptive controllers for constant tracer gas concentration
concentration. The first controller determines
the diluting flow from a simple mass balance #NO 4637 Tracer gas measurements in
equation and actual measurements. The apartment buildings.
volume is assumed to be known. The second AUTHOR Levin P
controller determines both the diluting flow BIBINF Sweden, Swedish Council for
and the volume indirectly from a discrete time Building Research, "Building Physics in the
model determined by the least squares method Nordic Countries", D13:1988, 6pp, 2 figs, refs.
and actual measurements. The first and simpler in English
controller with fixed volume turns out to be the ABSTRACT The development of a tracer gas
safest. The second controller gets out of method for measurements of air change rates
control after too accurate control which makes including passive sampling is briefly
the equation system in the least squares described. This method has the potential to be
method badly conditioned. Full-scale test runs used in a large scale at a reasonable cost. It is
are made with both controllers for a small also suitable for use of many tracer gases to be
office room. analysed in the same sample. The results from
KEYWORDS constant concentration, tracer recent calibration measurements show that
gas improvements of the analytical system is
necessary before final evaluation of e.g.
#NO 3572 Accuracy and development of systematical measurement errors can take
tracer-gas measurement equipment. place. Results from continuous tracer gas
AUTHOR Kvisgaard B, Collet P F measurements with the constant concentration
BIBINF in:UK, AIVC, 10th AIVC method for one unoccupied apartment with
Conference, held at Espoo, Finland, 25-28 mechanical exhaust ventilation show very
September 1989, Volume 2, February 1990, small differences in air change rate due to
pp1-16, 5 figs, in English fluctuations in wind speed and wind direction.
KEYWORDS tracer gas, apartment building, AUTHOR Air Infiltration and Ventilation
passive sampling Centre
BIBINF UK, Air Infiltration and Ventilation
#NO 4922 Ten years of constant Centre, 6th AIC Conference Proceedings, held
concentration tracer gas measurements. at Het Meerdal Park, Southern Netherlands,
AUTHOR Collet P F, Egedorf M 16-19 September, 1985. in English
BIBINF Air Infiltration Review, Vol 9, No 2, ABSTRACT Contains twenty seven papers
February 1988, pp 2-3, 5 figs, 1 ref. in English from the sixth AIC Conference as follows:
ABSTRACT Ten years ago the automated Ventilation, the balance between energy and
constant concentration tracer gas (CCTG) well-being, The infiltration component of
method was conceived at the Technological ventilation in New Zealand houses, Ventilation
Institute, Tastrup, Denmark. This technique is research and characterization in three types of
now used by researchers to examine a wide residences, A passive ventilation system under
variety of air infiltration and ventilation related trial in UK homes, Indoor air quality and air
problems. At this juncture it would seem exchange in bedrooms, Effect of unvented
appropriate to summarise the development of combustion appliances on air exchange among
the CCTG system and examine its use in indoor spaces, Air exchange rates based upon
present day research. individual room and single cell measurements,
KEYWORDS constant concentration, tracer Multiple cell air movement measurements,
gas measurements Continuous air renewal measurements in
different inhabited buildings, The reduction of
#NO 5301 An integral mass balance air infiltration in an industrial laboratory,
formulation of the constant concentration Ventilation of factories, Advanced energy-
tracer technique. efficient ventilation, Design for ventilation, Air
AUTHOR Axley J quality and energy conservation by different
BIBINF UK, AIVC 12th Conference, "Air ventilation strategies, Exploration of
Movement and Ventilation Control within ventilation strategies in domestic housing.
Buildings", held 24-27 September 1991, Theory and experimental results, Mechanical
Ottawa, Canada, proceedings published ventilation system requirements and measured
September 1991, Volume 3, pp 39-50. in results for homes constructed under the R-
English 2000 super energy-efficient home program,
ABSTRACT This paper extends the integral Indoor formaldehyde levels in houses with
mass balance approach to the remaining different ventilation strategies, Development of
constant concentration technique. An integral a simplified multizone infiltration model,
formulation of the constant concentration Multizone modeling and air leakage analysis,
problem is presented that accounts for the Inhabitants behaviour with regard to
possibility of variation of tracer concentration. ventilation, the use of windows. First heating
This approach leads, in principle, to data season, Basic material for the instruction of
reduction strategies that may be expected to occupants of homes. How, when and where to
improve the accuracy of the constant use your windows, Monitoring of ventilation
concentration technique and that may be used and humidity in crawl spaces of dwellings,
to isolate those portions of a given constant Ventilation strategies for crawl-spaces, attics,
concentration data set that are likely to be most etc, Use of a single tracer gas for measurement
reliable. The method is applied to the reduction of ventilation rates in a large enclosure,
of constant concentration data sets measured at Improving the accuracy of a constant
the National Swedish Institute for Building concentration tracer gas system, Ventilation
Research and the results of this application are system performance evaluation using tracer
reviewed. gas techniques, Ventilation efficiency
KEYWORDS constant concentration, tracer measurements in occupied mechanically
gas ventilated buildings.
KEYWORDS ventilation strategy,
#NO 5842 6th AIC Conference: Ventilation measurement technique
strategies and measurement techniques:
Proceedings.
tracer source divided by the air leakage or PFT-determined ventilation rate. Temperature
infiltration rate. Knowing the source rate and cycling differences of as much as 8 degrees C
measuring the average concentration then were accommodated to provide essentially no
provides a means to calculate the air leakage bias in the PFT-determined ventilation rate.
rate. Extending this technique to a The PFT technique is applicable to the
multichamber concept, in which a different expected range of conditions in homes and
type of PFT source is deployed in each buildings.
chamber of a building, allows the calculation KEYWORDS tracer gas, perfluorocarbon,
of not only the infiltration rates in each measurement technique, passive sampling, air
chamber but also the air exchange rates change rate, environmental chamber
between chambers as well. Since both the PFT
source and the passive sampler, a miniature #NO 2278 Evaluation of the perfluorcarbon
Capillary Adsorption Tube Sampler (CATS), tracer technique for determining infiltration
are about the size of a cigarette, inexpensive rates in residences.
and reusable, the BNL/AIMS is a very cost- AUTHOR Leaderer B P, Schaap L, Dietz R N
effective means for determining these air BIBINF Environ Sci Technol, Vol 19, No 12,
exchange rates. 1985. p1225-1232. 4 figs, 7 tabs, 18 refs. in
KEYWORDS perfluorocarbon, tracer gas, English
measurement technique, passive sampling, ABSTRACT Describes the evaluation of a
multi-chamber new simple passive perfluorocarbon tracer
technique for determining air infiltration rates
#NO 1834 Evaluation of the into houses and buildings. The authors explain
perfluorocarbon tracer technique for the methods used and present and discuss their
determining infiltration rates in residences. results.
AUTHOR Leaderer B P, Schaap L, Dietz R N KEYWORDS tracer gas, house, residential
BIBINF BNL 36334. February 1985. 33p. 4 building
figs, 7 tabs, 18 refs. in English
ABSTRACT A simple means for determining #NO 2594 The use of detector tubes with
air infiltration rates into homes and buildings carbon dioxide as a tracer gas.
for assessment of indoor air quality and energy AUTHOR Sandberg M, Sundberg J
conservation measures, based on a passive BIBINF AIR, Vol 8, No 3, May 1987, p6-7, 2
perfluorocarbon tracer (PFT) technique, was figs, 1 tab, 2 refs. in English
evaluated in a well-defined environmental ABSTRACT Tracer gas concentrations are
chamber under experimental conditions of 1) often analysed by using infrared spectroscopy.
constant temperature and ventilation rate, 2) Infrared gas analysers have a fast response
constant temperature, variable ventilation rate, time and are accurate. However, this type of
and 3) variable temperature, constant instrumentation is relatively expensive and can
ventilation rate. Two PFT sources of known only be used for this type of measurement. A
emission rate and temperature dependence cheaper alternative is therefore preferred.
produced chamber concentrations of 100 to Normally there is a trade-off between cost and
300 nL/m3 (parts per trillion). The average accuracy. Detector tubes are inexpensive and
relative standard deviation of 16 paired are available for many gases, among them
samplers deployed for 44 h during experiment CO2. They are packed with a selective solid
1 indicated good reproducibility of the passive absorbent which gives a colour reaction with
sampling rate and analysis and there was little the gas in question. The higher the
consequence of sampler orientation with concentration of gas which enters the tube the
respect to the low air velocities (<0.2 m/s) further the coloured region extends down the
present in houses. Even with the nearly 3-fold packing. The tubes have approximate
variation in ventilation rates during experiment calibration markings which show the
2, the passive samplers accurately measured concentration of the gas. This article reports a
the average chamber tracer concentration as method of measuring the ventilation airflow
calculated from the known source strength and rate using a tracer decay technique in occupied
the measured ventilation rates based on CO2 houses with CO2 as a tracer gas. The
concentration decay: such large ventilation rate metabolic CO2 from people is taken into
variations caused a 10% negative bias in the
account. The accuracy of the method has been the uses of the AIMS Infiltration Monitor and
explored through various tests. blower doors is made. It is concluded that
KEYWORDS tracer gas, carbon dioxide, AIMS is a useful tool for builders, housing
instrumentation, ventilation rate, decay rate, authorities, building inspectors, and utility
residential building, measurement technique program managers who need to accurately
assess and quantify the impact of
#NO 2825 Influence of airflow on the weatherization and shell tightening measures
performance of perfluorocarbon tracer on building performance.
techniques for measuring ventilation rates. KEYWORDS tracer gas, passive sampling,
AUTHOR Vercammen M, Leaderer B P, Dietz constant emission
RN
BIBINF in: Indoor Air '87, Proceedings of 4th
International Conference on Indoor Air Quality 7.4.6 Comparison of Tracer Gases
and Climate, Berlin (West), 17-21 August
1987. Vol 3 Institute of Water, Soil and Air #NO 200 An intercomparison of tracer
Hygiene, 1987, p 388-392, 3 figs. 3 refs. in gases used for air infiltration
English measurements.
ABSTRACT The perfluorocarbon tracer AUTHOR Grimsrud D.T. Sherman M.H.
technique (PFT) is being extensively used for Janssen J.E. Pearman A.N. Harrje D.T.
determining air infiltration rates in residences BIBINF Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
and office buildings. The method has been University of California paper LBL-8394 2
evaluated in chamber studies for effects of figs =ASHRAE trans. 1980. vol 86 no 1. in
temperature, variable ventilation rates and English
orientation of the passive capillary collectors ABSTRACT Reviews ideal characteristics of a
in low air velocities (<.2m/s) typical of tracer gas and gives literature review of the
residences. This paper presents the results of subject. Reports tests made on a house in
chamber studies designed to evaluate the PFT California giving a direct intercomparison
method under conditions of constant between common tracer gases used to measure
temperature and high air velocities (0.8 to 6.4 air infiltration rates in buildings. Results
m/s). The efficiency of the passive capillary indicate that air exchange rates measured using
collectors was evaluated as a function of air sulphur hexafluoride are slightly larger than
velocity and orientation in the flow. Two those measured using methane or nitrous
different enclosures for the collectors, oxide. The ratio of air change rates measured
designed to minimize the air velocity effects, using sulphur hexafluoride to air change rates
were also evaluated. The results indicate that measured concurrently using a lighter tracer
air velocities above 0.8 m/s and collector gas was found to be 1.10 +/- 0.10
orientation affect the efficiency of the KEYWORDS tracer gas, air change rate,
collectors. Enclosing the collector and sulphur hexafluoride, methane nitrous oxide
orienting it 180o to the flow minimizes effect.
KEYWORDS airflow, perfluorocarbon, tracer #NO 1005 The effect of tracer gas on the
gas, ventilation rate accuracy of air change measurements in
buildings.
#NO 3095 The AIMS Monitor: Measuring AUTHOR Shaw C.Y.
Infiltration not Tightness. BIBINF Preprint for ASHRAE Atlantic
AUTHOR Dupont P Meeting January 23-27 1983 30pp. 10 figs. 5
BIBINF Energy Auditor and Retrofitter, Vol.4, tabs. 6 refs. in English
No.1 Jan/Feb 1987, pp6-11. in English ABSTRACT Compares the air change rates
ABSTRACT A monitor to measure the measured using the decay method with several
effective ventilation rate in houses, over different tracer gases. Tracer gas
extended periods of time, is described. The measurements were conducted in a tightly
infiltration measurement system was sealed room where constant air leakage rates
developed by Russell Dietz at Brookhaven were maintained using an exhaust fan. Tracer
Laboratory in New York to provide a reliable gases investigated were CH4, CO, CO2, N2O
low-cost method for determining the and SF6. Agreement between tracer gas
infiltration rate in buildings. A comparison of measurements and measured flow rates of the
exhaust fan was very good for CH4, CO and ventilation rate and a constant temperature, of
N2O. The agreement was also satisfactory for variable ventilation rate at a constant
CO2 and SF6, but the scatter in tracer gas data temperature, and of variable temperature at a
was much greater then it was for the other constant ventilation rate were evaluated in
three gases. three experiments. The average relative
KEYWORDS tracer gas, decay rate, methane, standard deviation of 16 paired samplers
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous deployed in experiment 1 was plus or minus
oxide, sulphur hexafluoride 1.9% plus or minus 1.0% indicating good
reproducibility of the passive sampling rate
and sample analysis. No impact of sampler
7.4.7 Comparison of Tracer Gas orientation with respect to low air velocities
Methods (less than 0.2 m/s) present in houses is
expected. The passive samplers accurately
#NO 284 An automated air infiltration measured the average tracer concentration as
measuring system using SF6 tracer gas in compared with calculations based on the
constant concentration and decay methods known source strength (CO2 decays) and the
AUTHOR Kumar R. Ireson A.D. Orr H.W. measured ventilation rate under conditions of a
BIBINF ASHRAE trans. vol 85 part2 p385- 3-fold variation in ventilation rates
395 9 figs, 5 refs. in English (experiment 2). Temperature cycling
ABSTRACT Describes a system which differences of 8 deg. C (experiment 3) did not
measures the rate of air infiltration in buildings produce a bias in the PFT determined
using sulphur hexafluoride as a tracer gas. ventilation rate. The PFT technique is
Discusses two methods for evaluating the applicable to the expected range of conditions
infiltration rate, the decay method and the in homes and buildings.
constant concentration method. The system KEYWORDS perfluorocarbon, environmental
automatically operates a portable electron chamber, decay rate, passive sampling
capture detector /chromatograph and samples
air on a one-minute cycle. In the decay method #NO 2367 Predicting a time-varying flow
the slope of concentration vs. time on a semi- rate using the constant concentration and
logarithmic plot can be used to compute decay technique.
infiltration rate. In the second method the AUTHOR Sandberg M
infiltration rate is proportional to the rate at BIBINF Ashrae Trans, Vol 93 Part 1, 4 figs, 1
which tracer gas must be injected to maintain a tab, 3 refs.
constant concentration. in English
KEYWORDS tracer gas, sulphur hexafluoride, ABSTRACT This study deals with the
instrumentation, air infiltration, automatic accuracy of different tracer gas techniques for
equipment predicting the mean flow rate of a time-varying
airflow rate, as occurs in naturally ventilated
#NO 1954 A comparison of the houses. A theoretical analysis of the accuracy
perfluorocarbon and tracer gas decay is first presented. Experiments were conducted
methods for assessing infiltration. in a test house ventilated by natural ventilation.
AUTHOR Schaap L, Leaderer B P, Renes S, et The methods explored were the constant
al. concentration method and the decay method.
BIBINF Proceedings of the CLIMA 2000 The airflow rate in the duct connected to the
World Congress on Heating, Ventilating and house was continuously recorded by the
Air-Conditioning, Copenhagen, 25-30 August constant tracer gas flow technique. The
1985. Edited by P Fanger. Vol 2 Building oscillations in flow rates that occurred were of
Design and Performance. p19-24. 1 fig, 1 tab, a high frequency nature, which should not
3 refs. in English affect the accuracy. Incomplete mixing of both
ABSTRACT The passive perfluorocarbon tracer gas and air seems to be the greatest
tracer (PFT) technique for determining air source of error, even in cases with a time-
infiltration rates into homes and buildings was varying ventilation airflow rate.
evaluated in an environmental chamber. The KEYWORDS tracer gas, airflow, natural
impact of sampler orientation at a constant ventilation
#NO 2738 Field study comparisons of carried out in an indoor test house located in
constant concentration and PFT infiltration the laboratory hall at the National Swedish
measurements. Institute for Building Research. At the
AUTHOR Bohac D L, Harrje D T, Horner G S beginning of the paper the relevant meaning of
BIBINF 8th AIVC Conference, 'Ventilation the concept 'air-exchange rate' is discussed and
Technology - Research and Application', an appropriate terminology is suggested. Then
Ueberlingen, Federal Republic of Germany, follows a presentation of the theoretical
21-24 September, 1987, Supplement to background, based on a multi-cell model, of
Proceedings, p47-62, 9 figs, 10 refs. in English the two tracer gas methods studied
ABSTRACT The accuracy of tracer gas experimentally. Finally, the results obtained
measurements of building air infiltration rates are given. Apart from the accuracy of the
has been a widely discussed topic. One tracer gas methods, some results of studies of
question that has often come up at past AIVC the effect on the infiltration rate due to
conferences is the ability of passive methods, different operation modes of mechanical
such as the Perfluorocarbon Tracer (PFT) ventilation systems are also presented.
method, to accurately measure fluctuation KEYWORDS tracer gas measurements,
airflow rates. A series of field studies is being ventilation rate
conducted to compare the air infiltration
measurements of the constant concentration #NO 4866 Errors in the measurement of
tracer gas (CCTG) and PFT methods and local and room mean age using tracer gas
provide recommendation for their proper methods.
implementation in the field. The field studies AUTHOR Sutcliffe H C, Waters J R
include side-by-side measurements of multi- BIBINF UK, AIVC 11th Conference,
zone air infiltration rates using the CCTG and "Ventilation System Performance", held 18-21
PFT methods. The results are reported from September 1990, Belgirate, Italy, Proceedings
two tests in an unoccupied single-family house published March 1990, Volume 2, pp 279-292,
and eight tests in an occupied house. Test 7 figs, 9 tabs, 1 ref. in English
periods varied from one to three weeks. The ABSTRACT Local and room mean ages of the
measurements from the unoccupied house air in a room may be measured by three
showed that there were no major discrepancies versions of the tracer gas technique, which are
between the two methods. The PFT the pulse method, the tracer step-up method
measurements in the occupied house were and the tracer decay method. The values of
consistently lower than those by the CCTG mean age obtained are of course subject to
method. Warm weather periods with errors in the measurement of the tracer gas
substantial, periodic airing resulted in the PFT concentrations. The sensitivity of the three
method producing under-prediction errors methods to errors in the tracer gas
greater than 30%. During the cold weather concentrations is not the same, and in some
periods when the fluctuation in the infiltration cases can be very large. In order to examine
rate was due to weather changes and a small this problem, test measurements have been
amount of airing, the under-prediction error carried out in a model room using the three
ranged from 5 to 29%. different methods. The results obtained from
KEYWORDS constant concentration, these tests were then compared with each
perfluorocarbon, tracer gas measurements other, and with theoretical data, which was
generated with differing levels of error. It has
#NO 4642 A quantitative estimate of the been found that the step-up method was the
accuracy of tracer gas methods for the least reliable and local and room mean ages
determination of the ventilation flow rates generated using this method varied
in buildings. substantially from mean ages measured using
AUTHOR Sandberg M, Blomqvist C the other two tracer gas techniques.
BIBINF Building and Environment, No 5, KEYWORDS ageing, tracer gas measurements
1985, pp 139-150, 8 figs, 3 tabs, 5 refs. in
English
ABSTRACT The paper presents a quantitative
estimate of the error of the decay and constant
concentration method. A number of tests were
#NO 6377 A study of ventilation rate provided by the minimum outdoor air
measurement in an office building. intake fans. The additional air change under
AUTHOR Dols W S, Persily A K minimum outdoor air intake conditions was
BIBINF USA, National Inst of Standards and due primarily to leakage through the main
Technology, NISTIR 4905, October 1992, outdoor air intake dampers.
42pp, 11 figs, 10 tabs, refs. in English KEYWORDS ventilation rate, measurement
ABSTRACT The National Institute of technique, office building, outdoor air
Standards and Technology has conducted a
study of ventilation and ventilation
measurement techniques in the Bonneville 7.5 Air Exchange Measurements
Power Administration (BPA) Building in for Multizone Systems
Portland, Oregon. The project involved the
comparison of outdoor air ventilation 7.5.1 Single Gas Techniques
measurement techniques for relative accuracies
and an examination of changes in building
ventilation rates over time. The following #NO 1862 Documenting air movements and
measurement techniques were compared: infiltration in multicell buildings using
tracer gas decay measurements of whole various tracer-gas techniques.
building air change rates, the determination of AUTHOR Harrje D T, Dutt G S, Bohac D L, et
air change rates based on peak carbon dioxide al.
(CO2) concentrations, the determination of BIBINF Preprint. ASHRAE Transactions
percent outdoor air intake using tracer gas 1985, Vol 91, Pt 2. HI-85-40 No 3. 15p. 11
(sulfur hexafluoride and occupant-generated figs, 18 refs. in English
CO2), and direct airflow rate measurements ABSTRACT Tracer gas techniques for
within the air handling system. In addition, air measuring airflows in buildings fall into three
change rate measurements made with an categories - dilution, constant injection, and
automated tracer gas decay system constant concentration. Dilution of a single
approximately three years apart were tracer works well in buildings with a single
compared. The major findings of the study are zone and also in some two-zone buildings.
as follows. Airflow rates were measured in the Multiple tracer gas measurements, necessary to
air handling system ductwork using pitot tube, characterize flows among more zones, are best
hot-wire anemometer, and vane anemometer conducted using the constant injection
traverses, and good agreement was obtained approach. The constant concentration method
between the different techniques. While uses a single tracer gas to determine the
accurate determinations of percent outdoor air airflow rates from the outside into each of as
intake were achieved using tracer gas many as ten building zones. The paper outlines
techniques, the use of CO2 detector tubes the different tracer techniques for making
yielded unreliable results. Reliable airflow measurements in multi-cell buildings
determinations of ventilation rates per person and describes the operation of a constant
were made based on SF6 decay and direct concentration system. This system measures
airflow rate measurements but the use of peak tracer gas concentration in different zones and
CO2 concentrations led to inaccuracies, i.e., injects accordingly to maintain a constant
the over prediction of ventilation rates by as concentration in each zone. The system was
much as 100%. The measured values of the tested in a single zone structure and
whole building air change rates, and their successfully applied to a small three-zone
dependence on outdoor air temperature, did not house. Sensitivity analyses and calibration
change significantly over a three year period. procedures described in this paper define the
The minimum air change rates were above the capabilities and limitations of this technique.
building design value and ASHRAE Standard Although this method does not fully
62-1981, the standard on which the design was characterize all interzone airflows in the
based, but the minimum rates were below the building, it can be useful in analyzing the
minimum recommendation given in Standard energy balance of multizone buildings.
62-1989. The whole building air change rate Additionally, these measurements can be used
under minimum outdoor intake conditions was to evaluate the dilution of indoor air pollutants
determined to be twice the outdoor air intake and the ventilation efficiency of buildings.
KEYWORDS multi-chamber, tracer gas, concentration. The system was field tested for
measurement technique, decay rate, constant 11 days in an unoccupied single family house.
concentration, constant emission, air Analysis of the data indicate that the system is
movement, air infiltration generally reliable. The startup time and control
of the system was as good as, or superior to,
#NO 1895 Strategy for measuring that achieved by other constant concentration
infiltration rates in large, multicelled and tracer gas systems. The measured air
naturally ventilated buildings using a single infiltration rates were reasonable and appear to
tracer gas. respond to both wind and stack effects. In
AUTHOR Perera M D A E S, Walker R R addition, large differences in the infiltration in
BIBINF Building Services Engineering separate zones of the house were able to be
Research & Technology, 1985, Vol 6, No 2, measured even when there was a high degree
p82-88. 5 figs, 5 tabs, 7 refs. in English of interzone mixing.
ABSTRACT Large, multi-celled and naturally KEYWORDS house, tracer gas, constant
ventilated buildings pose many inherent concentration, measurement technique, multi-
problems for the measurement of overall chamber, sulphur hexafluoride
infiltration rates using tracer gases.
Considering a single tracer gas decay #NO 2666 Time lags in a two-zone air
technique, the most obvious problems are: (a) movement model.
local variations in infiltration, (b) imperfect AUTHOR Waters J R
internal mixing of the air, and (c) practical BIBINF Bldg Serv Res Tech, Vol 18, 1987,
difficulties in distributing (i.e., seeding) the 43-46, 7 figs, 5 refs. in English
tracer gas and subsequently obtaining air ABSTRACT Multi zone models of air
samples. This paper proposes a relatively movement in buildings usually assume that
simple technique which avoids these problems there is no time lag in the flows between
and which, if successful, makes a breakthrough zones. Nevertheless, such time lags could have
in the measurement of infiltration rates in large a significant effect on the pattern of
and complex buildings. By considering a contaminant distribution throughout a building.
multi-cell model, it is shown that it can be This note shows how such effects can be
sufficient to seed part of a building with a evaluated by examining theoretically a two
single tracer gas in order to measure the zone model with time lags. The results have
overall infiltration rate to a good implications for the interpretation of tracer
approximation. decay measurements.
KEYWORDS measurement technique, multi- KEYWORDS model, air movement,
chamber, tracer gas, decay rate, mathematical theoretical model, tracer gas
modelling
#NO 2745 The use of modified constant
#NO 2076 The use of a constant concentration techniques to measure
concentration tracer gas system to measure infiltration and interzone airflow rates.
ventilation in buildings. AUTHOR Bohac D L, Harrje D T
AUTHOR Bohac D L BIBINF 8th AIVC Conference, 'Ventilation
BIBINF PU/CEES Report No 205, February Technology - Research and Application',
1986. 292p. 81 figs, 17 tabs, 45 refs in English Ueberlingen, Federal Republic of Germany,
ABSTRACT A constant concentration tracer 21-24 September, 1987, Supplement to
gas system was designed and constructed to Proceedings, p129-152, 9 figs, 5 tabs, 12 refs.
continuously measure the air infiltration rate in in English
as many as ten zones of a building. The ABSTRACT The constant concentration tracer
portable, microcomputer controlled system gas (CCTG) technique is typically used to
injects a metered amount of tracer gas into measure air infiltration rates in multizone
each zone so that the concentration of the gas buildings. The measurements are performed by
is held at the same target level in all the zones. injecting metered amounts of a tracer gas into
With the concentration kept at the target level, each zone so as to keep all the zones at a target
the air infiltration rate of a zone is concentration. One drawback to this method is
approximately equal to the tracer injection rate that no information is gained about the level of
into the zone divided by the target interzone flow rates in the building. Modified
#NO 5691 Measurements of the rates of air BIBINF Sweden, Stockholm, KTH Building
change in multivolumes: constant Services Engineering, 1998, proceedings of
concentration method, presentation of a Roomvent 98: 6th International Conference on
mobile system designed by LNE. Air Distribution in Rooms, held June 14-17
Mesures du taux de renouvellement d'air 1998 in Stockholm, Sweden, edited by
dans les multivolumes: méthode a Elisabeth Mundt and Tor-Goran Malmstrom,
concentration constante, présentation d'un Volume 2, pp 483-490, 19 figs, 1 tab, refs.
système mobile réalisé par le LNE. ABSTRACT Under the conditions that the air
AUTHOR Rabourdin Y in each room is in the state of perfect mixing
BIBINF Intervention au Seminaire Gerva, 19- and ventilation is in steady state, a method to
20 September 1989, Sophia-Antipolis, 10p. in estimate steady state concentration distribution
French to match an arbitrary contaminant generation
ABSTRACT Presentation of the experimental distribution is proposed, using concentration
device "EMMARA" (mobile automatic air data obtained from short-time tracer gas
change measuring equipment) aimed at experiment. Also, a method is proposed, which
determining air change rates in a multi room is used to estimate ventilation rate by adding
premises by tracer gas (N2O) at constant other available equations. The proposed
concentration: principle of function, method was tested on full-scale house models
measurement method, first test results. installed in the environmental test room, and it
KEYWORDS air change rate, constant was confirmed that the steady state
concentration, measurement technique concentration by the proposed method
corresponds well to the steady state
#NO 9740 Measurement of multizone concentration obtained by tracer gas
airflow in experimental house. continuous generating method. The proposed
AUTHOR Doi S method was applied on one each of a single
BIBINF Japan, proceedings of the 5th house and a collective house with high air
International Conference on Air Distribution in tightness performance, for which elaborate
Rooms, Roomvent '96, held Yokohama, Japan, equipment for ventilation has been adopted,
17-19 July, 1996, Volume 1, pp 55-60. and ventilation characteristics was evaluated
ABSTRACT Prediction and measurement of from multilateral viewpoints.
interzonal airflow in a building is important in KEYWORDS air tightness, contaminant
evaluating and planning IAQ, thermal comfort, sources, full scale experiments, measurement
etc. In our experimental house, we planed the technique, residential building
distribution of fresh air, passive ventilative
cooling in summer. In this context the #NO 12214 Comparison of modelled and
measurement of multi-zone airflow in this measured tracer gas concentrations in a
house, considered as 17 rooms, was needed. In multizone building.
application of the measurement method using a AUTHOR Sextro R G, Daisey J M, Feustel H
single tracer gas, based on the system E, Dickerhoff D J, Jump C
identification theory proposed by Okuyama, BIBINF UK, Garston, BRE, 1999, proceedings
some improvements were made to secure of Indoor Air 99, the 8th International
accuracy. The additional measurement for the Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate,
fresh airflow from outside to each room was and the Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre
also carried out by another method of constant- (AIVC) 20th Annual Conference, held
concentration. In this paper, these Edinburgh, Scotland, 8-13 August 1999,
measurements and results are described. Volume 1, pp 696-701.
KEYWORDS multizone airflow, residential ABSTRACT Few detailed comparisons of
building, thermal comfort modelled and measured pollutant
concentrations in multizone buildings have
#NO 12112 Evaluation of ventilation been published. The COMIS airflow and
characteristics of residential buildings based contaminant transport model permits
on multi room tracer gas decay simulation of the effects of building and
experimental techniques. HVAC operation, as well as the influence of
AUTHOR Kurabuchi T, Yoshihara K, Usui M the local meteorology, on airflows within the
building. We have recently used this model to
simulate the release of a gas-phase tracer in a manual injection of tracer gas. It is shown that
three-story, multi-room building located at this technique yields results as accurate as the
Dugway Proving Ground, Utah, USA. decay technique. Using manual injection (with
Following detailed leakage and flow-path syringe), however, requires special caution in
characterisation measurements of the building, order to achieve a uniform distribution of the
experiments were conducted in which tracer injection in a room and to avoid redistribution
gas concentrations were measured as a while walking between rooms.
function of time in each room of the building. KEYWORDS tracer gas techniques,
Comparison of the simulations with these measurement techniques, multizone building
detailed measurements showed reasonable-and
in some cases, quite good - agreement. The
paper describes some details of the 7.5.2 Active Multigas Techniques
experiments and modelling and discusses the
differences between the observed and the #NO 3123 Constant concentration
predicted concentrations. measurement with two tracers.
KEYWORDS tracer gas, modelling, AUTHOR Kvisgaard B, Collet P F
measurement technique, multizone building BIBINF in: "Effective Ventilation" 9th AIVC
Conference, Gent, Belgium, 12-15 September,
#NO 13079 Experimental testing of a 1988. in English
homogeneous tracer pulse technique for ABSTRACT The technique of tracer gas
measurement of ventilation and air measurement has during recent years tended
distribution in buildings. towards increasingly complicated measuring
AUTHOR Stymne H, Hansson P, Boman C A methods. The new measuring techniques are
BIBINF UK, Air Infiltration and Ventilation essential in order to procure more information
Centre, proceedings of "Innovations in about the circulation of air through buildings,
Ventilation Technology", 21st AIVC Annual or in order to perform more accurate
Conference, held The Hague, Netherlands, 26- measurements in large and complex buildings.
29 September 2000, paper 30. The measuring method by means of "constant
ABSTRACT A number of single tracer gas concentration of tracer-gas", which has been
techniques (decay, step-up, homogeneous applied at the Technological Institute for about
constant emission, inlet pulse and 7 years, has proved to be a very accurate
homogeneous pulse) suitable for measuring the measuring method for both small and very
local mean ages of air in multi-zone buildings large buildings. The method has the advantage
exist, each having their advantages and of being able to continuously register the air
drawbacks. The characteristics of the different change in a measuring area divided in
available techniques are compared from numerous zones. The limitation of this method
theoretical and practical points of view. The is that only information about the infiltration
homogeneous pulse technique has not been from outside into the measuring area is
experimentally validated before. This obtained whereas no details are given about the
technique relies on pulses of tracer gas being air-flow between the individual zones of the
injected into the different zones in amounts, measuring area. The limitation of the
which are proportional to the zone volumes. measuring method can be overcome by using 2
Some advantages with the "homogeneous tracer-gases. The article describes the different
pulse" technique, compared with the "inlet philosophies on which measurements with
pulse" technique, are that the pulses can be "constant concentration of 2 tracer-gases"
injected at any time path, that they must not might be based, measurement result to be
necessarily be short and that the evaluation of obtained, and discusses whether there is any
local mean ages of air involves a simple total advantage of using more than 2 tracer-gases. In
time integration of concentration, making it addition a specific measurement is described,
possible to utilise integrating air samplers (e. g. where the method with "constant concentration
adsorption tubes). of 2 tracer-gases" is used.
KEYWORDS constant concentration, tracer
The homogeneous pulse technique is tested gas, measurement technique
against the decay technique in a five-room
indoor test house, using both automatic and
Calculates airflow rates from experimental BIBINF Final Report on SERC Grant
data. Uses an in-house computer program GR/C/63427. RIB/1985/718. January 1985.
which predicts the dispersion of a tracer gas in 26p. 14 figs, 8 refs. in English
a multi-zoned environment, to compare the ABSTRACT Describes the development of an
predicted time histories of concentrations with automated air sampling equipment to measure
those obtained experimentally. air infiltration and interzonal airflows. A new
KEYWORDS airflow, multi chamber, matrix analysis method has been developed to
modelling, tracer gas, office building calculate single zone infiltration and interzonal
airflow rates from measured data. A number of
#NO 1731 Application of perfluorocarbon multi-zone experiments have been carried out
tracers to multizone airflow measurements in the PCL solar heated house at Peterborough,
in mechanically and naturally ventilated and several single zone infiltration rate
buildings. measurement experiments have been carried
AUTHOR Dietz R N, Goodrich R W, Cote E out in a wide variety of buildings. A grab-tube
A, et al. method has been developed for assessing air
BIBINF Upton, New York, USA:Brookhaven change rates.
National Laboratory, Dept of Applied Science, KEYWORDS tracer gas, multi-chamber,
August 1984. BNL 35249. 23p. 7 figs, 7 tabs, passive sampling, passive solar house,
10 refs. in English measurement technique, automatic equipment
ABSTRACT The Brookhaven air infiltration
measurement system (BNL/AIMS) uses a #NO 1992 The measurement of airflows
family of four passive perfluorocarbon tracer using a rapid response tracer gas technique.
sources and miniature passive adsorbent AUTHOR Irwin C, Edwards R E, Howarth A
samplers to inexpensively but very effectively T
tag individual zones within multizone BIBINF Building Services Engineering
buildings with uniquely discernible tracer Research and Technology, 1985, Vol 6 No 4,
vapours. The concentrations measured with the p146-152. 7 figs, 1 tab, 7 refs. in English
passive samplers allow the air infiltration and ABSTRACT The multiple tracer gas technique
exfiltration rates from each zone to be of I'Anson et al. has been improved, in order to
computed as well as the air exchange rates increase the rate at which samples can be
between zones. Two naturally ventilated taken. Using parallel gas chromatographic
buildings, a 2-zone (3056 m3) jailhouse and a separation columns and an electron capture
4-zone (1028 m3) apartment building were detector, it is now possible to take an air/tracer
tested: the former showed a 2.5 to 1 ratio in the gas sample every thirty seconds in the case of a
fresh air rates into the zones. Two two-zone ventilation and air movement test.
mechanically ventilated buildings, each of 3- Rapid sampling enables a new, simplified
zones, were also tested. The 3-storey (each analysis of the air movement between two
floor was a zone) library (5840 m3) was shown connected zones to be employed. This analysis
to have 10 times more fresh air entering the derives ventilation rates and intercell airflows
first floor than the second (1.33 h-1 compared simultaneously. A specimen set of results for
to 0.15 h-1). The 16-storey office building two cell ventilation/air movement is given.
(142,500 m3) had 4 times as much fresh air in KEYWORDS tracer gas, measurement
one zone compared to a side-by-side identical technique, decay rate, air change rate, air
zone (1.07 h-1 versus 0.25 h-1). The movement, multi-chamber
performance of BNL/AIMS in certifying
HVAC systems is demonstrated. #NO 2645 The measurement of air
KEYWORDS tracer gas, perfluorocarbon, movements between four interconnected
measurement technique, multi-chamber, cells by a multiple tracer gas decay
airflow, natural ventilation, mechanical technique.
ventilation AUTHOR Edwards R E, Irwin C
BIBINF Roomvent 87, proceedings,
#NO 1843 Automation, extension and use of Stockholm 10-12 June 1987, 16p, 9 figs, 2
the PCL multi-tracer gas technique for tabs, 10 refs. in English
measuring interzonal airflows in buildings. ABSTRACT This paper describes the
AUTHOR Littler J, Martin C, Prior J development and application of a multiple
tracer gas decay technique for the interconnected cells under controlled
measurement of the ventilation rates in, and conditions in environmental chambers.
the air movements between, four However, up until now, no direct comparison
interconnected cells. The measurement with the results generated by other methods
equipment used is a refinement of the existing using the same raw concentration/time data has
UMIST parallel separation column portable been made. This paper describes an exercise in
gas chromatograph. By the use of the parallel which site data for two and three zone regimes
electron capture detectors, it is possible to is analyzed by several different methods, and
measure the concentrations of four tracer gases the results obtained by each method compared.
in four cells, within sufficiently short a time It is demonstrated that, in particular,
interval for an air movement calculation concentration gradient methods appear to be
procedure, based on the previous procedures particularly ill-suited to dealing with site data
used for two and three cells, to be used which exhibits irregularities in concentration-
successfully: this procedure is summarised in time profiles caused by fluctuations in wind
this paper. A typical set of results is presented, speed and direction. Integration techniques
in order to demonstrate a situation in which the only appear to be marginally better.
technique could be applied to complex air KEYWORDS calculation techniques, tracer
movements within the building envelope. The gas
possible extension of the technique to five or
more cells is also briefly discussed. #NO 6978 Ventilation rate and airflow
KEYWORDS measurement technique, air measurements using a modified PFT
movement, tracer gas, decay rate Technique
AUTHOR Bloemen H J TH, Verhoeff A P,
#NO 3576 A comparison of different Blavers T T M, Torn P van der, Wijnen J H
methods of calculating interzonal airflows van
by multiple tracer gas decay tests. BIBINF Finland, Helsinki, Proceedings of
AUTHOR Irwin C, Edwards R E 'Indoor Air '93', The 6th International
BIBINF in:UK, AIVC, 10th AIVC Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate,
Conference, held at Espoo, Finland, 25-28 July 4-8, 1993, Volume 5, "Ventilation", pp
September 1989, Volume 2, February 1990, 91-96. in English
pp57-70, 3 figs, 2 tabs, 11 ref in English ABSTRACT The ventilation rate and the
ABSTRACT Measurement methods based airflows in buildings are important both for the
upon multiple tracer gas techniques have management of (health) complaints related to
become an established branch of the study of indoor air quality, and for the assessment of
air infiltration and interzonal air movements. the penetration of outdoor air pollutants into
Three general groups of techniques have indoor air. A relatively simple method that
emerged, namely constant concentration, provides reliable information on the ventilation
constant emission, and decay. Of the decay rate and airflows over longer periods is
type group of techniques, several methods of needed. The BNL/AIMS PFT technique,
deriving airflows from measured initially developed by Dietz et al. (1), was
concentration/time curves have been modified using commercially available
suggested. Broadly speaking, these techniques components. Three different perfluorcarbons,
can be classified into three types: numerical perfluordimethylcyclobutane,
methods involving the use of concentration methylcyclopentane and methylcylohexane,
gradients, numerical methods involving use of were used as tracers. Source strengths were
integration of concentration/time data, and constant within 3% for periods of six weeks at
thirdly, techniques based upon analytical temperatures ranging from 20 to 27 degrees C.
solutions for the fundamental tracer gas Passive sampling was feasible using Carbotrap
equations. The favoured method of analysis at as adsorbent. The adsorption and desorption
UMIST has been that of a simplified analytical efficiencies were approximately 98%. Samples
solution in which the effects of tracer gas re- were analyzed using capillary gas
circulation are only taken into account if the chromatography, a porous-layer open tubular
degree of connection between zones is high. column (Al2 O3) and electron capture
This method of analysis has been successfully detection. The accuracy of the tracer analysis
validated for the cases of two and three at concentrations usually obtained for
ventilation measurements was within 5 to 10%. biased by 30-50% if the duct pressure was not
In a pilot study the mean coefficient of incorporated into the measurements and
variation was approximately 5%. The location analyses as is specified in the standard.
of the sampling tube and of the source in the Similarly, it is shown that supply leakage
room had no significant influence. The mean measurements with the flow-capture-hood
ventilation rate in the living rooms and technique would be negatively biased by 33%
bedrooms was 1 and 1.7,respectively. The if the envelope pressure differential was used
variation in time was small. The ventilation instead of the duct pressure differential.
rate of the living room was higher in older KEYWORDS Duct, air leakage, fan
dwellings and/or if occupants were smokers. pressurization, measurement technique, air
The ventilation rate of the bedroom was higher infiltration.
in flats than in single-family dwellings and in
older dwellings, the rate was also higher if the #NO 10265 Field comparison of design and
occupants were smokers and rose with an diagnostic pathways for duct efficiency
increasing number of occupants. evaluation.
KEYWORDS ventilation rate, airflow, AUTHOR Andrews J W
measurement technique, perfluorocarbon, BIBINF USA, Washington DC, American
tracer gas Council for an Energy Efficient Economy
(ACEEE), Proceedings of the 1996 Summer
Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings,
7.6 Air Distribution System "Profiting from Energy Efficiency".
Measurements ABSTRACT A new method of test for
residential thermal distribution efficiency is
7.6.1 Duct Leakage Flows currently being developed under the auspices
of the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers
#NO 7472 Field comparison of alternative (ASHRAE). This test method will have three
techniques for measuring air distribution main approaches, or ”pathways,” designated
system leakage. Design, Diagnostic, and Research. The Design
AUTHOR Modera M P Pathway uses builder's information to predict
BIBINF Paper submitted for ASTM thermal distribution efficiency in new
Symposium on Airflow Performance of construction. The Diagnostic Pathway uses air-
Building Envelopes, Components and flow, temperature, and pressure-difference
Systems, October 10-11, 1993, Ft Worth, TX, tests intended to take one to four hours to
USA, 16pp, 7 figs, 4 tabs, refs.in English evaluate thermal distribution efficiency in a
ABSTRACT ASTM has recently standardized completed house. For forced-air systems, three
a methodology for measuring the leakage of distinct techniques are being considered, one
residential air distribution systems to based on thermal inputs and outputs in the duct
unconditioned zones. The standard includes system, the second based on pressure and
two alternative leakage measurement leakage-area measurements, and the third
techniques, one of which requires only a based on pressure differentials induced in the
blower door, whereas the second technique house by partial blockage of the return duct.
requires a flow-capture hood as well as a This paper presents and discusses the results of
blower door. This paper reports on the results Design Pathway calculations based on
of field measurements in 30 houses using both measured duct-system and floor-plan layouts
measurement techniques, and analyzes the and surface areas (in lieu of building plans) for
relative strengths and weaknesses of the two fifteen residential duct systems in Long Island,
techniques. The repeatability of each of the New York. These are compared with measured
techniques, as well as the comparability of the Diagnostic Pathway efficiencies in eight of
results from the two techniques, are examined. these homes.
A key issue that is addressed in this paper is KEYWORDS duct, energy efficiency,
the importance of duct pressure measurements standard
in each of the two techniques. Analyses show
that the leakage measured with the blower-
door-only technique would be negatively
#NO 11612 HVAC ductwork: constant- methods. To predict the effect of duct leakage
injection tracer-gas assessment of on energy loss, it is necessary to look at the
airtightness. ratio of the leakage to the air handler flow rate.
AUTHOR Cheong K W On average, all of the methods are within 5%
BIBINF UK, Building Serv. Eng. Res. of the best-estimate ratio of duct leakage to air
Technol., Vol 19, No 3, 1998, pp 171-174, 6 handler flow rate. However the scatter was
figs, 2 tabs, 13 refs. quite large for the two house pressure tests and
ABSTRACT Constant injection of tracer gas the hybrid test. States that the project's findings
was used to determine the airtightness of a indicate that the measurement of duct leakage
straight length of 300 x 300 mm square duct in is still far from an exact science. The level of
a laboratory setting. Holes are preformed in the discrepancy can have a large impact on the
ductwork which is connected to a fan with prediction of duct losses and will sometimes
variable speed control to simulate leakages. provide the wrong answer as to whether it is
The holes can be sealed with rubber bungs to worth performing a leakage retrofit on the
simulate an airtight ductwork. 'Stationary' and ducts. The Duct Blaster and nulling test were
'mobile' methods have been developed. The found to be much more accurate than the other
stationary method is suitable for conditions tests.
where the locations of the leaks in the KEYWORDS duct leakage, field monitoring,
ductwork is known. The 'mobile' method is pressurization testing, energy losses
used to determine the airtightness of ductwork
without any prior knowledge of the locations HVAC Air Duct Leakage Test Manual
of leaks. Both methods were found capable of AUTHOR SMACNA
locating the leaks and of determining the BIBINF SMACNA, 1985.
leakage rate of the ductwork without
disrupting the operation of the HVAC system. Two New Duct Leakage Tests
Algorithms were established for leakage rates AUTHOR Andrews, J.W.
in terms of airflow rates and for leakage rates BIBINF Brookhaven National Laboratory.
in terms of pressure drops. Report 66148, 1998.
KEYWORDS duct, component leakage, ABSTRACT Two variations on the tests for
calculation techniques duct leakage currently embodied in ASHRAE
Standard 152P (Method of Test for
#NO 13604 The current state of duct Determining the Design and Seasonal
leakage measurement: field evaluation of Efficiencies of Residential Thermal
five methods. Distribution Systems) are presented.
AUTHOR Francisco P W Procedures are derived for calculating supply
BIBINF Home Energy, March/April 2001, pp and return duct leakage to/from outside using
32-35, 2 figs. these new variations. Results of these tests are
ABSTRACT Describes a study of test methods compared with the original ones in Standard
for duct leakage which revealed that there is 152P on the basis of data collected in three
room for improvement in this evolving field. New York State homes.
Five different methods of measuring duct
leakage were evaluated. The first two were Measurement Uncertainties in the DeltaQ
from proposed ASHRAE standard 152P: the test for Duct Leakage.
Duct Blaster test (duct pressurization test), and AUTHOR Andrews, J.W
the house pressure test. The other three were BIBINF Brookhaven National Laboratory
the supply-blocked house pressure test, which report BNL-67894, 2000.
is a modification of the house pressure test, the ABSTRACT Theoretical and field-test results
hybrid test, which is a combination of the two are reported on a new method for measuring
tests in Standard 152P, and the nulling test, air leakage in residential duct systems. This
which the authors developed near the test, called the Delta Q test by its developers,
beginning of the project. Ten one-storey homes involves a set of 10
in the Pacific Northwest US were tested, or 11 pairs of measurements using a calibrated
including eight single family and tow fan (blower door). Each pair of measurements
manufactured homes. A table is presented is performed with the house pressurized or
showing summary statistics of the five tests depressurized to a different pressure with
respect to outside. One test in each pair is operator errors in performing field tests. In
conducted with the system fan on, the other addition, the test has been evaluated
with it off. Each pair of measurements gives a in over 100 houses by several research teams
linear equation in two unknowns, where the to show that it can be used in a wide range of
unknowns are the air leakage rates (under houses and to aid in finding limits or problems
normal operating conditions) from the supply in field applications. The test procedure is
ducts to outside and into the return ducts from currently being considered by ASTM as an
outside. The straight lines represented by these update of an existing duct leakage standard.
equations rarely intersect at a single point, so a
least-squares fit is used to find the best ASHRAE Standard 126P : Method of
compromise value for the supply and return Testing HVAC Air Ducts
leakage rates. This report describes a AUTHOR ASHRAE
theoretical analysis of errors resulting from BIBINF American Society of Heating
mismatches between the assumed and actual Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
operating conditions in the ducts and Corn Inc., 1999.
uncertainties in the blower-door airflow ABSTRACT This standard provides laboratory
measurements. It develops a way to estimate test procedures for the evaluation of HVAC air
the probable errors on a house-specific basis? ducts. This standard may be used to determine
using the data from a single application of the HVAC air duct structural strength,
Delta Q test. Finally, it applies this analysis to dimensional stability, durability and leakage
field-test results from two houses. characteristics.
flow and this was compared with lengths and does not require a long measuring
measurements made using a pitot tube and hot- duct for the establishment of fully-developed
wire anemometer. We present a relationship flow.
for the friction-factor and Reynolds number KEYWORDS air conditioning, tracer gas
derived from tracer-gas measurements. measurements, instrumentation
KEYWORDS duct, tracer gas, measurement
technique #NO 5698 Tracer gas techniques for
determination of velocity pressure loss
#NO 5689 Performance heating of HVAC factors for duct fittings.
systems using tracer gas techniques. AUTHOR Riffat S B, Cheong K W
AUTHOR Cheong K W, Riffat S B BIBINF UK, Loughborough University of
BIBINF UK, Loughborough University of Technology, Dept of Civil Engineering,
Technology, Dept of Civil Engineering, [1992], 16pp. in English
[1992], 16pp. in English ABSTRACT This investigation is concerned
ABSTRACT The constant-injection and pulse- with the determination of velocity pressure
injection techniques were used to measure loss-factors (k-factors) for duct fittings. The
airflow in a duct and small-scale HVAC constant-injection tracer-gas technique was
system. Tracer-gas measurements were used to measure airflow through the
compared with measurements made using a components of a small-scale HVAC system.
pitot-tube. The concentration of SF6 tracer gas, Tracer-gas measurements were compared with
velocity and static pressure distributions were measurements made using a pitot tube. The
measured in the duct and HVAC system for concentration of SF6 tracer gas, velocity and
various Reynolds numbers. Results indicated static pressures in duct fittings were measured
that the flow rate obtained using the pulse- for various Reynolds numbers. Results
injection technique is in closer agreement with indicated that the k-factors estimated using the
values obtained using the pitot-tube than pitot static traverse method were generally
results obtained using the constant-injection higher than those obtained using the tracer-gas
technique. This paper also describes the technique. The estimated k-factors were
development of a tracer-gas system which has compared with data published in the CIBSE
high-sampling frequency and could be used for Guide and ASHRAE Handbook.
measurement of airflow in HVAC systems. KEYWORDS tracer gas measurements, duct
KEYWORDS air-conditioning, tracer gas
measurements, duct, sulphur hexafluoride #NO 5846 Assessment of ventilation and air
quality in a library building.
#NO 5690 Balancing airflow in HVAC AUTHOR Cheong K W, Riffat S B
systems using tracer gas techniques. BIBINF UK, University of Nottingham,
AUTHOR Riffat S B School of Architecture, 9 figs, 9 refs. in
BIBINF UK, University of Nottingham, Dept English
of Architecture and Planning, April 1992, ABSTRACT Measurements of airflow were
14pp, 9 figs, 5 tabs, 1 ref. in English carried out in a library building. The constant-
ABSTRACT The present study describes new injection and pulse-injection tracer-gas
equipment which could be used to balance techniques were used to measure airflow in air
HVAC systems. The equipment allows the handling units and estimates flow rates
constant-injection tracer gas technique to be supplied to each floor. Tracer-gas
employed and has the following advantages measurements were compared with
over existing balancing methods: i) It is simple measurements made using a pitot-tube. Air
to use and allows HVAC systems to be exchange rate, ventilation efficiency and age of
balanced in a short period, ii) It can be used to air were examined. The concentrations of
measure airflow rates in HVAC systems carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO),
directly and does not require determination of formaldehyde (HCHO) and dust particles were
the cross-sectional areas of ducts or velocity monitored. In addition, a questionnaire was
profiles, iii) It can be used to provide accurate completed by library staff and users in order to
measurement of airflow over a wide range of provide a subjective assessment of indoor air
air velocities, iv) It can be used to measure quality.
airflow in ducts of different sizes, shapes and
KEYWORDS indoor air quality, library, tracer (sulfur hexafluoride and occupant-generated
gas, airflow, occupant reaction CO2), and direct airflow rate measurements
within the air handling system. In addition, air
#NO 6005 A new method for determination change rate measurements made with an
of velocity pressure loss-factors for HVAC automated tracer gas decay system
system components approximately three years apart were
AUTHOR Cheong K W, Riffat S B compared. The major findings of the study are
BIBINF UK, Air Infiltration and Ventilation as follows. Airflow rates were measured in the
Centre, 13th AIVC Conference, proceedings, air handling system ductwork using pitot tube,
held Hotel Plaza Concorde, Nice, France, 15- hot-wire anemometer, and vane anemometer
18 September 1992. in English traverses, and good agreement was obtained
ABSTRACT This investigation is concerned between the different techniques. While
with the determination of velocity pressure accurate determinations of percent outdoor air
loss-factors for HVAC system components intake were achieved using tracer gas
using tracer-gas techniques. Experimental techniques, the use of CO2 detector tubes
work was carried out using an HVAC system yielded unreliable results. Reliable
and k-factors for various components such as determinations of ventilation rates per person
bends, branches, contractions, expansions and were made based on SF6 decay and direct
orifice were determined. Results were airflow rate measurements but the use of peak
compared with measurements made using a CO2 concentrations led to inaccuracies, i.e.,
pitot tube and values given in the CIBSE the over prediction of ventilation rates by as
Guide and ASHRAE Handbook. The much as 100%. The measured values of the
performance of different types of filters used in whole building air change rates, and their
HVAC systems was also examined. The dependence on outdoor air temperature, did not
constant-injection tracer gas technique was change significantly over a three-year period.
used to develop correlations between the The minimum air change rates were above the
pressure drop and face velocity of a synthetic- building design value and ASHRAE Standard
fibre filter, bag filter and glass-fibre filter. 62-1981, the standard on which the design was
Results were compared with data obtained based, but the minimum rates were below the
using traditional instrumentation. minimum recommendation given in Standard
KEYWORDS air conditioning, tracer gas, 62-1989. The whole building air change rate
instrumentation under minimum outdoor intake conditions was
determined to be twice the outdoor air intake
#NO 6377 A study of ventilation rate provided by the minimum outdoor air
measurement in an office building. intake fans. The additional air change under
AUTHOR Dols W S, Persily A K minimum outdoor air intake conditions was
BIBINF USA, National Inst of Standards and due primarily to leakage through the main
Technology, NISTIR 4905, October 1992, outdoor air intake dampers.
42pp, 11 figs, 10 tabs, refs. in English KEYWORDS ventilation rate, measurement
ABSTRACT The National Institute of technique, office building, outdoor air
Standards and Technology has conducted a
study of ventilation and ventilation #NO 7051 Development of a New Tracer-
measurement techniques in the Bonneville Gas Sampling System For Measuring
Power Administration (BPA) Building in Airflow in Ducts.
Portland, Oregon. The project involved the AUTHOR Cheong K.W., Riffat S.B.
comparison of outdoor air ventilation BIBINF UK, Air Infiltration and Ventilation
measurement techniques for relative accuracies Centre, 14th AIVC Conference, "Energy
and an examination of changes in building Impact of Ventilation and Air Infiltration",
ventilation rates over time. The following held Copenhagen, Denmark, 21-23 September
measurement techniques were compared: 1993, proceedings, pp407-420., in English
tracer gas decay measurements of whole ABSTRACT This paper is concerned with the
building air change rates, the determination of measurement of airflow in ducts using an
air change rates based on peak carbon dioxide active (pumped) sampling system. The system
(CO2) concentrations, the determination of is capable of sampling tracer gases using either
percent outdoor air intake using tracer gas tubes packed with adsorbent or sample bags. A
perfluorocarbon tracer (PFT) was injected into KEYWORDS Measurement technique, tracer
the ducts using thermostatically-controlled gas, airflow, air conditioning.
heating blocks. The samples were collected
and analysed using a thermal desorber/gas #NO 7891 Application of tracer gas
analyzer system. Laboratory and field testing techniques for measurement of friction-
of airflow in ducts was carried out. A large factors of rectangular ducts.
office building was studied for measurements AUTHOR Cheong K W, Riffat S B
of ventilation rate, ventilation efficiency and BIBINF UK, Air Infiltration Review, Vol 13,
air quality. A questionnaire was also No 4, September 1992, pp 10-11, 1 fig, 1 tab, 1
completed by office staff in order to assess air ref. in English
quality and thermal comfort. ABSTRACT This work examines the
application of the constant-injection and pulse-
#NO 7468 A measurement technique guide injection tracer gas techniques for
on the application of tracer gas techniques measurement of airflow in rectangular ducts.
for measuring airflow in HVAC systems. Experiments were carried out in ducts with
AUTHOR Cheong K W, Riffat S B. aspect ratios of 1,2, and 4. Tracer gas
BIBINF UK, University of Nottingham, measurements were generally similar to
School of Architecture, Building Technology measurements made using a pitot tube.
group, (pre print) 1994, 137pp, 73 figs, 21 Relationships for the friction-factor and
tabs, 42 refs. in English hydrodynamic entrance length are presented
ABSTRACT This handbook describes the use for Reynolds number between 73,300 and
of tracer-gas techniques for measurement of 395,000.
airflow in ducts. Initial measurements were KEYWORDS tracer gas, duct
carried out in the laboratory to examine the
accuracy of these techniques. The mixing of #NO 8678 Computational and experimental
tracer gases (eg, sulphur hexafluoride, SF6) in study of pressure losses in duct transitions.
ducts of various shapes and sizes was AUTHOR Gan G, Riffat S B.
examined using different types of tracer BIBINF UK, University of Nottingham,
injector. Airflow estimated using tracer-gas Institute of Building Technology, 1995, 21 pp,
techniques (e.g. constant-injection, pulse- 9 figs, refs.
injection) was compared with measurements ABSTRACT This paper is concerned with
made with traditional instrumentation such as numerical prediction and experimental
pitot-tubes and hot-wire anemometers. Work measurement of airflow and pressure
also involved the development of tracer-gas distribution in rectangular ducts with
equipment for balancing airflow in HVAC transitions. The constant-injection tracer-gas
systems. This equipment was used to balance technique was used to measure mean air
airflow in a small-scale HVAC system. velocity in the ducts. Pressure distribution
Research also involved the development of a along the ducts was measured using static
perfluorocarbon (PFT) tracer-gas sampling pressure taps. The pressure loss coefficient was
system. The PFT was injected using a calculated from the measured pressure loss and
thermostatically-controlled injection unit and a air velocity. Computational fluid dynamics
fast-response sampling system, using stainless was used to predict airflow and pressure
steel tubes packed with adsorbent, was distribution in the ducts. The predicted
employed to collect tracer gas samples. The pressure loss coefficient was in good
samples were analysed in the laboratory using agreement with experimental results for a duct
a thermal desorber and gas monitor. The PFT with a contraction.
system was tested successfully in the KEYWORDS computational fluid dynamics,
laboratory. Airflow measurements were carried duct, pressure coefficient, tracer gas.
out in the HVAC system of an office building
using tracer-gas techniques and the new PFT #NO 12975 Error analysis of measurement
technique. Tracer-gas techniques were used in and control techniques of outside air intake
other applications including measurement of rates in VAV systems.
airflow through a porous medium in a AUTHOR Krarti M, Brandemuehl M J,
rectangular duct and determination of the air- Schroeder C C
tightness of ductwork.
BIBINF in: ASHRAE Annual Meeting 2000, 7.6.3 Airflow through Air Terminal
proceedings of a conference held Minneapolis, Devices
USA, June 24-28, 2000.
ABSTRACT The results of the error analysis Evaluation of flow hood measurements for
indicated that control strategies using direct residential register flows
airflow measurement from either an averaging AUTHOR Walker, I.S., Wray, C.P.,
Pitot-tube array or an electronic thermal Dickerhoff, D.J., and Sherman, M.H.
anemometry provided the best ventilation BIBINF Lawrence Berkeley National
control. The results show that the use of the Laboratory publication: LBNL-47382
temperature balance technique to calculate the 2001.
outside air intake is not adequate under ABSTRACT Flow measurement at residential
common building operating conditions. The registers using flow hoods is becoming more
use of a fixed minimum outside air damper common. These measurements are used to
position or a volumetric fan-tracking control determine if the HVAC system is providing
strategy both proved to be inadequate control adequate comfort, appropriate flow over heat
techniques for maintaining minimum exchangers and in estimates of system energy
ventilation rates in variable air volume. losses. These HVAC system performance
KEYWORDS measurement technique, metrics are determined by using register
temperature, airflow measurements to find out if individual rooms
are getting the correct airflow, and in estimates
#NO 12976 Experimental analysis of of total air handler flow and duct air leakage.
measurement and control techniques of The work discussed in this paper shows that
outside air intake rates in VAV systems. commercially available flow hoods are poor at
AUTHOR Krarti M, Schroeder C C, Jeanette measuring flows in residential systems. There
E, Brandemuehl M J is also evidence in this and other studies that
BIBINF in: ASHRAE Annual Meeting 2000, flow hoods can have significant errors even
proceedings of a conference held Minneapolis, when used on the non-residential systems they
USA, June 24-28, 2000. were originally developed for. The
ABSTRACT This paper presents the results of measurement uncertainties arise from poor
an experimental evaluation of four airflow calibrations and the sensitivity of exiting flow
measurement techniques and six control hoods to non-uniformity of flows entering the
techniques used for maintaining minimum device. The errors are usually large – on the
outside air intake rates in variable air volume order of 20% of measured flow, which is
(VAV) systems. The experimental testing was unacceptably high for most applications.
conducted in a controllable environment using Active flow hoods that have flow measurement
a laboratory equipped with a full-size HVAC devices that are insensitive to the entering
system. The experimental study indicated that airflow pattern were found to be clearly
control strategies using the direct measurement superior to commercially available flow hoods.
of the outside airflow from an averaging Pitot- In addition, it is clear that current calibration
tube array or an electronic thermal procedures for flow hoods may not take into
anemometer provided the best ventilation account any field application problems and a
control. new flow hood measurement standard should
KEYWORDS measurement technique, air be developed to address this issue.
conditioning
#NO 2751 The contaminant distribution in a
ASHRAE Standard 120P, Methods of ventilated room with different air terminal
Testing to Determine Flow Resistance of devices.
HVAC Dir Ducts and Fittings AUTHOR Heiselberg P, Nielsen P V
AUTHORS ASHRAE BIBINF Institute of Building Technology and
BIBINF ASHRAE, December 1995 Structural Engineering, Aalborg University,
ABSTRACT This standard establishes uniform Denmark, August 1987, 14p, 9 figs, 8 refs. in
methods of laboratory testing of HVAC ducts English
and fittings to determine their resistance to ABSTRACT The room ventilation is
airflow investigated for three different air terminal
devices under isothermal conditions. Velocity the occupied zone and a more uniform
distribution in the occupied zone is measured concentration distribution in the room.
for each air terminal device at different air KEYWORDS airflow, mechanical ventilation,
exchange rates. The maximum air exchange convection heating, mathematical modeling
rate is determined on the basis of both the
throw of the jets and the comfort requirements #NO 13314 Temperature and velocity
applied to measured air velocities in the measurements on a diffuser for
occupied zone. Normalised concentration displacement ventilation with whole field
distribution in the test room is determined methods.
along a vertical line through the middle of the AUTHOR Linden E, Cehlin M, Sandberg M
room as a function of the air exchange rate and BIBINF UK, Oxford, Elsevier, 2000,
the density of the tracer gas. The relative proceedings of Roomvent 2000, "Air
ventilation efficiency, based on the room Distribution in Rooms: Ventilation for Health
average concentration is also determined as a and Sustainable Environment", held 9-12 July
function of the air exchange rate and the 2000, Reading, UK, Volume 1, pp 491-496, 4
density of the tracer gas. The influence from figs, refs.
the position of the return opening on the ABSTRACT In this study the instantaneous
relative ventilation efficiency is found for one temperatures and velocities close to a diffuser
air terminal device. for displacement ventilation have been
KEYWORDS pollutant, air change rate, tracer recorded using whole-fed measuring
gas, ventilation efficiency, instrument techniques. The air temperatures were
measured indirectly by the use of a low
#NO 3146 Flow conditions in a mechanically thermal mass screen in conjunction with
ventilated room with a convective heat infrared thermography. The measuring screen
source. was mounted parallel to the airflow, acting as a
AUTHOR Heiselberg P, Nielsen P V target screen. By using the thermal images the
BIBINF in: "Effective Ventilation", 9th AIVC size of the near zone was also calculated. To
Conference, Gent, Belgium, 12-15 September, determine air movements a whole field method
1988. in English called particle streak velocimetry (PSV) was
ABSTRACT The ventilation of a test room used. Images of tracks created by small, low-
(LxWxH = 5.4x3.6x2.4m) with a wall density particles, suspended in the air, were
mounted heat source is investigated for two analyzed using computerized image processing
different air terminal devices. The properties of to obtain the velocities. The experiment took
each air terminal device are described by place in a climate chamber in which the wall
measuring the velocity decay of the primary and air temperatures were controlled. The
wall jet below the ceiling. The velocity diffuser was located in the centre of one of the
distribution in the plume above the heat source walls. The tests were conducted for a supply
has been measured at different heat loads as a flow of 15 l/s and a temperature difference
function of the distance to the wall and the between the inlet air and the room air of 4oC
distance to the heat source. The measurements and of 6oC. This paper deals with the results
have led to an estimate of the maximum obtained from the two whole-field
velocity in the plume and of the volume flow measurement methods. The results show that
rate as a function of the heat load and the the two whole-field measurement methods can
distance to the heat source. In order to find the be good tools for visualizing and measuring air
influence of the convective heat source on the velocities and temperatures in rooms. These
flow conditions in the room, the velocity techniques could be used in the work of
distribution in the occupied zone and the improving the indoor climate.
normalized concentration distribution along a KEYWORDS Indoor climate, whole field
vertical line through the middle of the room measurement methods, air velocity, air
has been determined as a function of the temperature, digital infrared camera,
specific flow rate and the heat load. The temperatures, diffuser, displacement
convective heat source is found to have ventilation, infrared thermography, 2D particle
significant influence on the flow conditions in streak velocimetry (PSV), digital pictures,
the room. This paper shows lower velocities in particle tracking.
7.6.4 Airflow through Fans, Heat #NO 4799 Airflow measurements at coil
Exchangers and Fresh Air Inlets faces with vane anemometers: statistical
correlation and recommended field
#NO 1204 Methods for the measurement of measurement procedure.
airflow rates in ventilation systems. AUTHOR Sauer H J, Howell R H
Metoder for matning av luftloden i BIBINF USA, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol 96,
ventilations installationer. Part 1, 1990, pp 502-511, 15 figs, refs. in
AUTHOR The Nordic Ventilation Group English
BIBINF Publication T32:1982 Swedish ABSTRACT A procedure for measuring the
Council for Building Research 1982 in volume flow rate of air through a heating or
Swedish cooling coil is presented. When a pitot-tube
ABSTRACT Describes methods for measuring traverse is impossible or impractical, the
airflow rates and air velocities in buildings, rotating vane anemometer procedure described
with the aim of formulating identical rules and verified here will provide volume flow
within the Nordic countries for the inspection rates with similar uncertainty in the results.
and adjustment of ventilation systems. The rotating vane anemometer procedure was
KEYWORDS airflow, ventilation, shown to produce estimates of volume flow
measurement technique rate at coil faces with plus or minus 7%. The
procedure is valid in a velocity range of 100 to
#NO 4070 Field measurements of air 1100 fpm, and upstream disturbances such as
velocity: pitot traverse or vane elbows, partially blocked coils, dampers, and
anemometer? fan blasts had virtually no effect on the
AUTHOR Howell R H, Sauer H J accuracy of using the K-factor procedure as
BIBINF USA, Ashrae J, March 1990, pp46-52, long as the measured velocities were positive
4 figs, refs. in English and relatively uniform.
ABSTRACT A rotating vane anemometer at a KEYWORDS airflow, measurement
downstream coil face can provide the same technique, anemometer
accuracy as an in-duct pitot tube traverse.
KEYWORDS air velocity, anemometer, #NO 4835 Measurement of airflow in
measurement technique HVAC systems using tracer-gas techniques.
AUTHOR Riffat S B, Holmes M
#NO 4115 Airflow rate through a heat BIBINF UK, AIVC 11th Conference,
exchanger coil: comparison of "Ventilation System Performance", held 18-21
measurements made with a rotating vane- September 1990, Belgirate, Italy, Proceedings
anemometer and a tracer-gas technique. published March 1990, Volume 1, pp 195-214,
AUTHOR Riffat S B 10 figs, 3 refs. in English
BIBINF UK, Loughborough University of ABSTRACT This paper describes the use of
Technology, Dept of Civil Engineering, tracer-gas techniques to measure airflow in a
Building Services Group, to be published in rectangular duct and a HVAC system.
Applied Energy, [1990], 11 pp, 2 figs, 4 refs. Experimental procedures are discussed for the
in English application of the constant injection, pulse
ABSTRACT This work compares injection and decay techniques using N2O
measurements of airflow rate through a heat- andSF6 as tracer gases. This paper also
exchanger coil made with a rotating vane- describes a new tracer-gas system with
anemometer and a tracer-gas technique. The variable sampling speed that was used to
two sets of measurements were generally in measure the decay of tracer-gas concentration.
good agreement. The tracer-gas technique was A comparison is presented between tracer-gas
found to be simpler to use in practice and has measurements and those made with a pitot tube
additional advantages as it does not require and a hot wire anemometer.
detailed specification of the coil or actual KEYWORDS airflow, air conditioning, tracer
density of air. gas
KEYWORDS airflow, heat exchanger, tracer
gas, measurement technique
#NO 5146 Performance testing of HVAC with perforated inlet and exhaust surfaces, can
systems using tracer gas techniques. have open areas considerably less than 70%.
AUTHOR Cheong K W, Riffat S B No advice is given for rotating vane
BIBINF UK, Loughborough University of anemometers. An investigation was carried out
Technology, Civil Engineering, 1991. in at the UK Health and Safety Laboratory to
English identify the problems in the use of vanes at
ABSTRACT The constant-injection and pulse- inlet grilles and to determine the likely
injection techniques were used to measure correction factors for a wide range of mesh
airflow in a duct and small-scale HVAC geometries and open areas. Concludes that
system. Tracer-gas measurements were vane anemometers used at inlet grilles with
compared with measurements made using a open areas less than 80% over-read. As the
pitot-tube. The concentration of SF6 tracer gas, open area decreases, the percentage speed
velocity and static pressure distributions were over-read increases. For grilles of equal open
measured in the duct and HVAC system for area and the same perforation shape, the size
various Reynolds numbers. Results indicated and/or spacing of the holes effects the variation
that the flow rate obtained using the pulse- of air speed with distance from the grille. The
injection technique is in closer agreement with grille perforation hole shape affects the over-
values obtained using the pitot-tube than read.
results obtained using the constant-injection KEYWORDS instrumentation, anemometer,
technique. This paper also describes the inlet grille
development of a tracer-gas system that has
high-sampling frequency and could be used for Development of a Simple Device for Field
measurement of airflow in HVAC systems. Airflow Measurement of Residential Air
KEYWORDS performance testing, tracer gas, Handling Equipment, Phase I and Phase II
air conditioning AUTHOR Larry Palmiter and Paul Francisco
BIBINF Ecotope Final Report for DOE, June
#NO 13774 The use of rotating vane 2000
anemometers to measure inlet grille ABSTRACT This report presents the results of
velocities. the development of a new, fast and accurate
AUTHOR Saunders J, Johnson A, Fletcher B device for measuring the airflow through a
BIBINF in: "Progress in Modern Ventilation", residential air handler. The device is a
Proceedings of Ventilation 2000, Volume 2, calibrated plate that can be inserted into a filter
proceedings of the 6th International slot in place of the filter. The pressure drop
Symposium on Ventilation for Contaminant across the plate is measured and entered into a
Control, held Helsinki, Finland, 4-7 June 2000, simple discharge coefficient equation to
Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, estimate the flow rate. This project was done in
Helsinki, Finland, 2000, pp 204-207, 3 figs, 1 two phases. The first portion was a proof of
tab, 1 ref. concept phase in which the goal was an
ABSTRACT The vane anemometer is often accuracy of ±10% of the actual flow. The
used to make measurements on fume second phase was for refinement of the design
cupboards, booths and at inlet and outlet grilles to improve manufacturability and ease-of-use
to measure velocities and calculate volume and to test the device in a variety of systems in
flow rates. However, its use at grilles presents actual homes
a problem in that because of the nature of the
flow, especially at inlet grilles, the velocity
indicated by the anemometer is not the true
velocity. Air emerges from the grilles in an
array of jets and it is found that the effect of
this is to make the instrument over-read. In the
case of grilles under pressure (i.e., inlets), the
range of applicability of correction factors
supplied by the ACGIH manual is very
limited, especially in relation to the open area,
i.e., 70% open area or greater. Many grilles,
especially at air inlets, but also on benches
Belgium, France, Greece, the Netherlands, Norway and United States of America.
The Centre provides technical support in air infiltration and ventilation research and application. The
aim is to provide an understanding of the complex behaviour of the air flow in buildings and to
advance the effective application of associated energy saving measures in both the design of new
buildings and the improvement of the existing building stock.