A.

What is Error

There are some experts stated the definition of error, some of them are;

Noss (1948) defines that an error is a departure from linguistic structure of

the language by which the message is intended to be conveyed; it is a departure
from the rules of phonology, lexis, syntax, and semantic of language,
Delay (1982) states that errors are the flawed side of learners’ speech or
writing. They are those parts of conversations or compositions that deviate from
some selected norm of nature language.
Corder (1981) differentiates errors from mistake in what those errors are
systematic in nature being “errors of competence” which occur in the continuum of
the learning process. They are the result of learners’ traditional competence. On the
other hand, mistake is “errors of performance” which are not systematic.
Edge (1989) defines errors as forms that language users cannot correct by
themselves even though they have been taught.
James (1998) adds that language learners cannot correct their errors until
they have additional knowledge on the topic. These occur in the course of learners’
study because they haven’t acquired knowledge. In fact, the definition above have
the same core of meaning, that is “deviation”. Deviation of the students’ language
system for certain level is consistence and systematic. Deviation shows us that there
is a violation among the rules of the target language.

B. Classification of Error
Delay, Burt, and Krashen (1982) states that the criteria of descriptive classification
errors consist of four categories, they are; 1) linguistic category, 2) surface
categories, 3) comparative analysis, and 4) communication effect categories.
1. Linguistic categories
This category classifies errors according to language component included verb,
preposition, adverb, adjective, etc.

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 2. Surface categories
This category classifies errors according to the types of learners by omitting
necessary items or add unnecessary ones, they may miss alternate items or over
regulate them and they may miss order them.
3. Comparative analysis
This category classifies errors according to comparative between structure of
the learners’ own language, Bahasa Indonesia and the language that is learnt by
the learners.
4. Communication effect categories
This category deals with the errors from the prospective their effect on the
reader. It focuses on the differences between errors that seem to cause
miscommunication.

C. Classification of Error based on their Types

1. Omission
Kasper and Kellerman (1997) learners in the early stages of learning tend to
omit function words rather than content words. More advanced learners tend to
be aware of their ignorance of content words and rather than omit one, they
resort to compensatory strategies to express their idea. So omission of error is
the absence of an ele ment of language that must occur in a well-formed
utterance.
For examples:
1. There are many kinds non-formal education. (false)
There are many kinds of non-formal education. (true)
2. He invite me to go to the movie (false)
He invites me to go to the movie (true)
3. This book belong Amir (false)
This book belongs to Amir (true)

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 All the sentences above are ungrammatical. The first sentences doesn’t contain
“of” as a preposition that must be used after “kinds” and the second sentences
doesn’t present suffix “s” in the end of verb as the third persons marker as the
subject and also doesn’t contain “to” as a preposition that must be used after
“belong”.

2. Addition
According to Dulay, Burt, and Kreshen (1982) that the result of all-too-faithful
use of certain rules and they suggest that there are subtypes namely. First is
regularizations which involves overlooking exceptions and spreading rules to
domains where they do not apply, for examples, producing the incorrect “buyed”
for “bought”, “man” for “men”,etc. Second, it is double marking, defined as failure
to delete certain items which are required in some linguistic construction but
not in others.
For example;
1. We knows her name (false)
We know her name (true)
2. He did not went anywhere (false)
He did not go anywhere (true)
3. My father does not goes to the office today (false)
My father does not go to the office today (true)

3. Misformation
According to Dulay, Burt, Kreshen (1982) that to define misformation as used
the wrong form of a structure or a morpheme, such the examples like;
1. One of the teachers are my uncle (false)
One of the teachers is my uncle (true)
2. There are a lot of money in the bank (false)
There is a lot of money in the bank (noun)
3. I have finished do my assignment (false)

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 I have finished doing my assignment (true)
All of the sentences above are ungrammatical. The first sentence uses wrong
“be” as a copula (KATA KERJA PENGHUBUNG) . The learners focus their attention to
the word “teachers” so they think that there are some teachers. So they use be “are”
but it should be “is” because one of means that just one of the teachers. The second
sentence also uses wrong “be” as a copula. The learners focus on their attention to the
word “ a lot of “ so they think that there are plural. So they use “are” but it should be
“is” because “money” is uncountable noun. The third sentence using wrong verb “do”
as the verb after “finish”. The learners think that we use infinitive after the other verb.
So they use be infinitive “do” but it should be “doing” because after word “finish”
should be followed by gerund.

4. Mis- ordering
This category is relatively uncontroversial. The learners can select the right
form to use in the right context, but they arrange them in the wrong order, for
instance, adverbials, interrogatives and adjectives yielding error as in:
1. He is all the time late (false)
He is late all the time (true)
2. I do not know what is that (false)
I do not know what that is (true)
3. Andi says to his friend “very much thank you” (false)
Andi says to his friend “thank you very much” (true)
All the sentences above are ungrammatical. The first sentence misplaces “all the
time “as adverb of time, it should be placed at the end of the sentence. The second
sentence also misplaces to be “is”. The learners think that “what” is a question word.
So, the learners forms the sentences as the patter of interrogative sentences, so they
put “is” after “what” instead of the positive one. The third sentence also misplaces the
phrase “very much”. The learners think that very much is adjective that should be
placed in the front of “thank you”. So, the learners form the sentences as the patter of
adjective + noun or adverb.

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Classification of errors according to their sources:

Richards (1974) classifies error according their sources in two categories. They are ;

1. Inter – lingual errors ;

These errors that are caused by mother tongue interference. For example;
1. She saw there several people from Jakarta (false)
There, she saw several people from Jakarta (true)
2. Who is your name? (false)
What is your name? (true)
3. Where you come from? (false)
Where do you come from? (true)
2. Intra-lingual errors ;
These kinds of errors occur during the learning process of the second language at
a stage when they haven’t really acquired the knowledge. In addition, the errors
are also caused by the difficulty or the problem of language itself. For as Dulay and
Burt (1974) say almost 90% of errors are intra-lingual errors.
For example ;
1. He can sings well (false)
He can sing well (true)
2. They will in the campus tomorrow morning (false)
They will be in the campus tomorrow morning (true)
3. Andi has time enough teaches us today (false)
Andi has enough time to teach us today (true)

Classification of errors is based on the language analysis aspect. Parera (1987)

classifies error to the interference and transfer of the phonology, morphology,
syntax, and semantic.

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Besides that Richards (1974) also group the errors such as ;
1. Errors in the production of verb groups
a. Be + verb stem
Example ;
- We are* live in this hurt
- He is* speak French
- My mother will be* buy some sugar
b. Be + verb stem + ed for verb stem + ed
Example ;
- Farmers are* went to their house
- He is* study French
- My mother will be* played some sugar
c. Wrong form of “do”
Example ;
- He do* not find his dictionary
- They did* not speak French
- My mother* does not buy some sugar last night
d. Wrong form after modal verb
Example ;
- We must worked* hard
- He should went* to the office
- My mother will ar
- rived* here soon
e. “be” omitted before verb + stem + ed (participle)
Example ;
- He* born in Makassar
- The children* bought some toys
- My mother* helped to carry her basket
f. -ed omitted after be + participle verb stem
Example ;

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 - The sky is cover* with clouds
- This book is need* by a lot of people
- English is study* by many people
- They are hope* here every Sunday
g. Be omitted before verb + ing
Example ;
- They* running very fast
- He* speaking English
- My mother* making cake
h. Verb stem for stem + s
Example ;
- He come* from Jakarta
- She speak* English well
- My mother make* cake every Sunday

2. Errors in the production of verb groups

a. Be + verb + ed
Example ;
- The country was discovering* by Colombus
- This house was building* by the architecture
- These cars were buying* last year
- They were inviting* to the national seminar
b. Be + verb + ing for verb stem
Example ;
- Farmers are* come* from field
- He is* become* a teacher
- My mother is*look* for some milk for her cake

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c. Verb + ed in narrative
Example ;
. . . . . in the afternoon we were* going* back. On Saturday we were* going*
downtown, and we were* seeing* a film and after that we were* meeting
my brother.
d. “have” verb + ed for verb + ed
Example ;
- He had* come today
- The children had* bought some toys.
- My mother has* helped to carry her basket
- They have* arrived last week
e. Have be + verb + ed for be + verb + ed
Example ;
- She has* been* married long time ago
- This book has* been* needed last time ago
- English has* been* studied right now
- They have* been* hoped every time
f. Verb (+ed) for have + verb + ed
Example ;
- We* correspond* with them up to now
- He* help* me many times
- I* play* tennis since this morning
- They* wait* for you for an hour
g. Be + verb + ed for verb stem
Example ;
- This car is* belonged* to me
- She is* owned* a lot of money
- My mother is* looked* after me since last week

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3. Miscellaneous errors
a. Wrong verb form
Example ;
- We must wait here until the rain will* return*
- This house was building* by the architecture
- These cars were buying* last year
- They were inviting* to the national seminar
b. Object omitted or included unnecessarily
Example ;
- This is not to drink it*
- This is the letter that you have to receive it*
- They are invited them* to the party
c. Confusion of too, so , very
Example ;
- I am very* lazy to stay at home
- I cannot move this table it is so* heavy
- I help my mother to bring her bag because it is too* heavy to carry
4. Errors in the use of prepositions
a. With instead of from, against, of, at
Example ;
- Suffering with* a cold
- Different with* my opinion
b. In instead of on, with, for, at, to, by
Example :
- They have been living here since in* January 2009
- She lived on* the village
- My mother will meet the boos in* the end of this month
c. At instead of by, in, to, for
Example ;
- When I was in Surabaya i live at* the hotel

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 - Will go to Jakarta at* airplane
- My mother is intended at* buying this TV
d. For instead of in, from, since, of.
Example ;
- Please wait for* a few minutes.
- He is the student for* English.
- My mother was retired for* public servant.
- They have been waiting for you for* 9.00 am this morning.
e. On instead of in, at, with, of, to
Example ;
- On* many ways, on* the place
- Going on* care, on* the end
- Angry on* him
- On* January
f. On instead of in, by, for
Example ;
- Rich on* vitamins
- Please look on* my pen there
- On* incident
g. On instead of for, of
Example ;
- An occupation on*
- He falls in love on* someone

5. Errors in the use of articles

a. Omitted “the”
1. Before unique nouns

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 - *Sun is very hot
2. Before noun of nationality
- *Dutch and *Arab
3. Before nouns made particular in context
- She goes to* bazaar every day.
4. Before a noun modified by participle
- *Solution given in this article
5. Before superlatives
- *Richest person in this city
6. Before a noun modified by an of-phrase
- Instead of *Nuclear Physics
b. The is used instead of zero (ǿ)
1. Before proper nouns
- The* Shakespeare, the* Sunday
2. Before abstract nouns
- The* friendship, the* nature, the* science
3. Before nouns behaving like abstract nouns
- After the* school, after the* breakfast
4. Before some
- The* some knowledge
c. A is used instead of “the”
1. Before superlative
- Words is a* best boy in the class
2. Before unique nouns
- A* sun becomes red
d. A instead of zero (ǿ)
1. Before plural nouns qualified by adjective
- A* holy places, a* human beings, a* news
2. Before an adjective
- . . . . taken as a* definite

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 e. Before a class nouns defined by adjectives
He was* good boy.
He was* brave man.
6. Errors in the use of question
a. Omission of inversions
Example ;
- What was called the film? (false)
What was the film called? (true)
- How many brothers she has? (false)
How many brothers does she have? (true)
- When she is here? (false)
When is she here? ( true)
b. Be omitted before verb + ing
Example ;
- When Ina coming? (false)
When is Ina coming? (true)
- What he saying? (false)
What is he saying? (true)
c. Omission of “do”
Example ;
- Where it happened? (false)
Where did it happen? (true)
- How it looks like? (false)
How does it look like? (true)

d. Wrong form of auxiliary, or wrong form after auxiliary

Example ;
- Does he goes there? (false)
Does he go there? (true)
- Which road did you passed by? (false)

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 Which road did you pass by? (true)
e. Inversion retained in embedded sentences
Example ;
- Please write what is his name. (false)
Please write what his name is. (true)
- I told him I do not know how old it was. ( false)
I told him I do not know how old it is. (true)
- Do you know where is the post office? (false)
Do you know where the post office is? (true)

D. The meaning of Error Analysis

Cristal (1941: 112) states that error analysis is a technique for identifying,
classifying, and systematically interpreting the unacceptable forms produced by
someone learning a foreign language, using any of the principles and producers
provided by linguistic.
Error analysis is a part of inter language study. Error analysis focused on the
error produced by the second language learner in the target language. According to
Hammaberg in Nurhadi and Roekhan (1980), error analysis is only concerned with
the errors, whereas Corder in the same book expressed that error analysis studies
the speech errors produced by the second language learners or the learning degree.
Kitao and Kitao (2000) suggest that error analysis in the language use can predict
the learners’ types of errors which will be useful for developing teaching materials
and selecting teaching methods. Moreover the result of such analysis can be used as
an indicator of the learners’ achievement. It can also be used for researching
language acquisition and learners’ strategy in language learning.
Dulay (1982 : 138) states that error analysis is subject however, studying the
learners’ errors is said to reserve two main purposes. On the one hand, it indicates
to teach and a curriculum developer which part of target language of the students
have most difficulty in producing correctly and which error types detract most from
the learners’ structure ability to communicate effective.

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 Based on the definitions cited above, we can draw conclusions that error
analysis is the study of differences between learners’ foreign language and native
speaker in language.

E. Procedure of Errors Analysis

According to Corder (1981 ; 21) that the procedure of analyzing errors consist
of three stages, there are ; 1) recognition, 2) description, and 3) explanation.
1. Recognition of Error
As this stage, the teacher can recognize an error when it committed. It
depends crucially upon the analysis making correct interpretation of the
learners’ utterances as being overtly erroneous ( i.e. superficial deviant) or being
covertly erroneous (superficially well-formed but not meaning what learner
intended to mean). After identifying the errors, all grammatical sentences are
listed and analyzed.
2. Description of Error
The description of errors is essentially a comparative process, the data
being the original erroneous utterance and the reconstructed utterance. At this
stage, the errors are explained linguistically and psychologically in other to help
the learner to learn. The description shows the respect in which the realization
rules of target language differ from those of the learners’ is of value. It is obvious
that we cannot do this unless adequate data.
3. Explanation of Error
This step covers many things which are to complex, such sociolinguistic and
psycholinguistic aspect. It also explained why and how the errors come about
and how the learners learn the foreign language.
The errors are interpreted whether or not, they are closely related to the
learners; mother tongue, finally, they are related to the process of the target
language teaching and learning.

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