CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter will be focused on the discussion about the concept of error, error

analysis, grammatical error, writing and recount text.

A. The Concept of Error

1. Definition of Error

Second language learning is a process that is clearly different from first

language learning and make the learners do some errors in their learning. Errors in

second language learning are difficult to avoid. Errors are so natural in learning

second language.

According to Norish (1987:7), Error is systematically deviation, when a

learner has not learnt something and consistently get it wrong. He said the child

his own language sometimes make the same error. In the same way, when a

learner of English make an error systematically. So, he has not learnt the correct

form. Another concept of Error by Brown (1994:206), he defined Errors as the

process to observe, analyze, and classify the deviation of the rules of the second

language and then to reveal the systems operated by learner. It seems this concept

is the same by Crystal (1987:43) he defined Error is a technique for identifying,

classifying and systematically interpreting the unacceptable form produced by

someone learning a foreign language, using any of the principles and producers

provide by linguistics.

Various definitions of error have been presented by experts. basically,

those definition above contain the same meaning while the difference lies only on

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the ways they formulate them. Those definitions are adequate to reveal the errors

showing up in the written texts.

According to the definitions above, the researcher conclude that error is an

activity to identify, classify and interpreted or describe the errors made by

someone and it is carried out to obtain information on common difficulties faced

by someone in writing English sentence.

2. The distinction of Error and Mistake

Error and mistake are not the same thing. But most people still

misunderstand about the definition both. To be more clarified between error and

mistake. Julian Edge (2001:99) suggests that mistake can be divided into two

broad categories: “slips (that is mistake which students can correct themselves and

which therefore need more explanation), and attempts (that is when a student tries

to say something but does not yet the correct to saying it). Hubbard et al (1991:10)

said “errors caused by lack of knowledge about the target language (English) or

by incorrect hypothesis about it, and mistake caused by temporary lapses or

memory, confusion, slips, of tongue and so on”.

From explanations above, it can be concluded that error is systematic and

the students cannot be self-corrected because it reflects the student’s competence

in the target language. On the other hand, mistake is an error that student can self-

corrected, because it is only the result of the student’s performance.

3. Types of Error

In the stage of identifying and describing the errors in this research, the

researcher will try to look at some classification of the types of errors based on the
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theory from Dulay et al. (1982). They classify errors into error taxonomies which

consist of Surface Strategy Taxonomy (SST), Linguistic Category Taxonomy

(LCT), Comparative Analysis Taxonomy (CAT), and Communicative Effect

Taxonomy (CET).

3.1 Surface Strategy Taxonomy (SST)

It is a set of categories of errors which consists of errors in addition,

omission, miss formation, and miss ordering. “Learners may commit necessary

items or add unnecessary ones; they may miss form items or miss order them”

(Dulay 1982:150). Classifying errors using surface strategy taxonomy can give a

clear description about cognitive processes that underlie the learner’s

reconstruction of the new language or language being learned. It also makes us

aware that learners‟ errors are the result of their active way in using the temporary

principles to produce the target language. Below is the detailed description of

each category used in surface strategy taxonomy: omission, addition,

misformation, and misordering.

1) Omission Errors

Omission is typical for the early stages of L2 acquisition, whereas in the

intermediate stages misformation, misordering, or overuse are much more

common (Dulay et al., 1982:154). Omission means that an item which must be

present in a well-formed utterance is absent. There is an evidence that

grammatical morphemes (e.g. noun and verb inflections, articles, prepositions) are

omitted more often that content morphemes which carry the meaning (Dulay et

al., 1982: 154-155).

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Examples:

He is … doctor (a)

He is … home (at)

2) Addition Errors

On committing these errors, learners usually add an item that should not

appear in a well-formed utterance. These errors usually occur in the later stages of

foreign language learning when learners learn some rules of the new language.

They are sub classified into three types: double marking, regularization, and

simple addition.

a) Double markings: It means the failure to delete certain items when adding

some new ones.

Examples:

Incorrect Correct

- He doesn't likes school. - He doesn’t like school.

- They didn't sent him his money. - They didn’t send him his

money.

b) Regularization: This represent learners’ failure to manage some rules

application, i.e. applying certain rules inflections to some irregular cases

such as plural and third person singular.

Examples:

Incorrect Correct

- Mans - Men (Plural form for man)

- Buyed - Bought (past tense from buy)

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-Childs - Children (plural from child)

c) Simple addition: If the addition is not one of the above mentioned types,

we call it simple addition.

Examples:

Incorrect Correct

- I am is a student - I am a student

3) Missformation Errors

These errors are characterized by the use of the wrong form of the

morpheme or structure, i.e. applying some part of the rule and leaving the other.

They are again of 3 types: regularizations, archi-forms, and alternating forms:

a) Regularization: Regularization is the application of one rule used with the

regular form to other irregular ones (an irregular marker is replaced by a

regular one). This type of error is also called overgeneralization. e.g.

Foots, hisself, bringed.

b) Archi-form: It is the selection of one member of a class of forms to

represent others in the class. e.g. This pen-this pens, give me that-me

hungry.

c) Alternating Form: It is the free alternation of various members of a class

with each other. As the learner’s vocabulary and grammar grow, the use of

archi-forms often gives way to the apparently fairly free alternation of

various members of a class with each other. e.g. These car-this cars.
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4) Misordering Errors

These errors are characterized by the incorrect placement of a morpheme

or a group of morphemes in an utterance. e.g. He is all the time working. This

taxonomy is expected to give much promise to the researcher for identifying

cognitive process that underlies the learner’s construction of the language. “The

taxonomy also makes us aware that the learner’s errors are based on logic. They

are not result of laziness or sloppy thinking, but of the learner’s use of interim

principle to produce a new language” (Dulay et al.,1982:150).

b. Linguistic Category Taxonomy (LCT)

A linguistic taxonomy includes categories which are based on descriptive

grammar of the target language. Such a grammar emphasizes on categories

concerning “basic sentence structure, the verb phrase, verb complementation, the

noun phrase, prepositional phrase, adjuncts, coordinate and subordinate

constructions and sentence connection” (Ellis & Barkhuizen in Nezami & Najafi,

2012: 161). Dulay et al. (1982: 146-147) states that this taxonomy is used to

classify errors according to the language component or linguistic constituent (or

both of them) which is affected by the error. Language components here include

phonology (pronunciation), syntax and morphology (grammar), semantics and

lexicon (meaning and vocabulary), and discourse (style). While, the constituents

include the elements that comprise each language component. For example,

within syntax one may ask whether the error is in the main or subordinate clause;

and within a clause, which constituent is affected, e.g. the noun phrase, the

auxiliary, the verb phrase, the preposition, the adverb, the adjectives, and so forth.
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c. Comparative Analysis Taxonomy (CAT)

The classification of errors in a CAT is based on comparisons between the

structure of second language errors and certain other types of constructions

(Dulay 1982: 163). For example, in this study the researcher will use the CAT to

classify the errors of Indonesian learners learning English, then the researcher

may compare the structure of the learners‟ errors to that of errors reported for

children learning English as a first language. These comparisons have yielded the

two major error categories in this taxonomy: developmental errors and

interlingual errors. Two other categories are derived from the first two: ambiguous

errors and other errors.

1) Developmental Errors

Developmental errors are errors similar to those made by children learning

the target language as their first language (Dulay et al., 1982: 165). For example,

an Indonesian learners learning English may produce a sentence “Dog eat it.” The

omission of the article and the past tense marker may be classified as

developmental because these are also found in the speech of children learning

English as their first language. These errors are caused by the learners‟ lack of

grammatical understanding about the target language.

2) Interlingual Errors

Interlingual errors are errors similar in structure to a semantically

equivalent phrase or sentence in the learner’s native language (Dulay 1982: 171).

For example, an Indonesian learner produced “My brother smart.” The omission
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of be may be classified as inter lingual because it reflects the learners’ native

language structure which has no be.

3) Ambiguous Errors

Ambiguous errors are errors that could be classified equally well as

developmental or inter lingual. It is because these errors reflect the learner’s

native language structure, and at the same time, they are of the type found in the

speech of children acquiring a first language (Dulay 1982: 172). For example in

the sentence “I no have money” produced by Indonesian learner. The negative

construction reflects the Indonesian structure and is also characteristic of the

speech of children learning English as their first language.

4) Other Errors

Other errors are errors that could not be classified as developmental or

inter lingual. For example, an Indonesian learner produced “They does great.”

This learner used neither his native Indonesian structure nor a target language

developmental form (i.e. This error is not produced by children learning English

as their first language, too). That is why this error would go into the other

category because of its uniqueness. These four errors are considered as the

sources of errors. Therefore, the comparative analysis taxonomy could be used to

predict the causes of learners’ errors.

d. Communicative Effect Taxonomy (CET)

The CET focuses on the effect the errors have on the listener or reader.

(Dulay 1982: 189) argue that “errors that affect the overall organization of the

sentence hinder successful communication, while errors that affect a single

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element of the sentence usually do not hinder communication.” They call the

former global errors and the latter local errors. The researcher only gives a brief

explanation of this taxonomy because this taxonomy is related more to semantics

than syntax. Since the researcher only focuses on syntactic area (grammar), this

taxonomy will not be used.

4. Source of Errors

The next step is analyzing what cause of errors. Brown (2008:224)

mentions that sources of errors are interlingual transfer, intralingual transfer,

context of learning, and communication strategy.

a) Interlingual Transfer, an error can be happen because of the interference of

mother or native language. In this case, students use their native language

as previous linguistic system to translate the target language, because they

are not familiar with second or target language and also the linguistic

system.

b) Intralingual Transfer, there is interference between native languages with

target language. In the context of intra lingual, students use their previous

knowledge to facilitate them in learning target language transfers, and

students’ knowledge will combine both native and target language. So, this

interference will help students to rearrange target language sentence in

their version. In short, intra lingual transfer is about overgeneralization in

arranging language sentences rules.

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c) Context of learning, this source of errors happens from the learning

context. Context here refers to the teacher, instructor, learning class,

learning material, or the learner itself.

d) Communication strategy, this source of error is related to learning style or

model. Students use many kinds of strategy production to convey their

message in language to have better communication with other.

5. Significance of Error

Errors play an important role in learning, in the sense that when people

learn a certain activity or language, they go through many stages of failure. The

errors committed by either children learning their mother tongue or by adults

learning a foreign language are natural phenomenon and evidence that language

learning is taking place. Their significance is stressed by many scholars in the

field of error analysis. Corder, for instance, in his influential book (1981:10-11),

remarks that they are significant in three different ways.

First to the teacher, in that they tell him, if he undertakes a systematic

analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and, consequently,

what remains for him to learn. Added to that, teacher can benefit from errors in

revealing the extent of the effectiveness of the teaching strategies and materials

whether they should continue teaching in the same way or to adopt a different

one. Error shows teacher the places where in pupils are weak and need help so

that they can devote more time to clarify and re-explain such points.

Secondly, they provide to the researcher evidence of how language is

learned or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in his

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discovery of the language. Researchers can also get benefit from errors as they

later show both the positive and negative sides of language teaching and learning.

Thirdly (and in a sense that this is the most important aspect), they are

indispensable to the learner himself, because we can regard the making of errors

as a device the learner uses in order to learn. In other words, it is a way the learner

has for testing his hypotheses about the nature of the language he is learning.

On the other hand, Bell in Aboud (2009:3) thinks that errors are a sure

sign that the learner has not mastered the code of the target language. “In other

word, errors emphasize the fact learners need more practice and attention in a

specific area. Above all, errors make it clear that the learner needs more time and

effort to try again since he has not achieved his task to learn”.

B. Error Analysis

1. Definiton of Error Analysis

Error analysis was born as a response of Contrastive Analysis theory

which claimed that native language is the source of errors made by learners.

Contrastive Analysis is based on theory of behaviorism which assumes that

language is a set of habit formation.

According to James (1998:2), error analysis is a branch of applied

linguistics which describes about comparison between Interlanguage with target

language of learners. Target language is languages that are learnt as second or

foreign language by the students, and Interlanguage is a term suggesting the

halfway position between knowing and not knowing target language. Still in

James (1998:7) defines that error analysis is a methodology for dealing with data,
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rather than a theory of acquisition. So, that means when people want to do a study

about error analysis, people also need a written data and documentation from the

subject to support the theory.

According to Erdogan (2005:262), error analysis is a branch of applied

linguistic to demonstrate those learners’ errors were not only because of learners’

native language but also it reflects to the learning strategies. Error analysis deals

with learners’ performance in target language, related with cognitive process of

coding and recognizing the input of target language.

Based on the explanation above, the researcher concluded that error

analysis is a process of determining learners’ errors and the possible causes of

errors, as a source of information to the teachers which in turns help them correct

the students’ errors and improves the effectiveness of their teaching.

2. Procedures of Error Analysis

In analyzing students’ errors, it needed some steps to be followed as

guidance. These steps helped to describe students’ error structurally. In the study

of error analysis, there were some procedures stated by linguists. But in this study,

researcher followed the procedure stated by Corder (1981:36) that suggests five

steps in analyzing students’ errors, such as; collection of sample of learner

language, identification the error, description of errors, explanation of errors, and

evaluation of errors.
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1. Collection of sample of learner language.

In collection of sample of learner language, researcher needed to decide a

number of students to be the sample for the study. Then, researcher gave them a

controlled writing in order to take the data.

2. Identification of errors

After collecting data from students, the researcher had identify the errors

from data collection. In identifying errors, researcher needed to compare the

sentence produced by students to the correct sentence in target language. Here the

example:

Auxiliary

Incorrect sentence: He do not need a long time to graduate from this campus.

Correct sentence: He does not need a long time to graduate from this campus.

By comparing two sentences, the researcher noticed errors made by

students. It can be seen from example above that student makes error in simple

present tense, where she uses do instead of does in using auxiliary to personal

pronouns. In identifying students’ error, the researcher of this research uses the

correction symbols adapted and modified from Oshima and Hogue (2007:186).

3. Description of errors

In description of errors, the researcher classified errors that already being

identified into the type of errors. While, the researcher of this research classifies

the errors base on the error classification suggested by Dulay (1982) which is

surface strategy taxonomy that consists of omission, addition, misformation, and

misordering.
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4. Explanation of errors

This step explaining about the sources of errors made by learners. Ellis

(2000:19-25) mention two factors as sources of errors, they are:

- Developmental Patterns: this factor includes the way students commit omission,

overgeneralization and a transfer error of target language.

- Variability in leaner language: this factor happens when students involve their

native language in constructing sentence structure of the target language.

5. Evaluation of errors

In this step, the researcher will draw a conclusion and evaluated the result

of identified errors. The aim of evaluating errors is to distinguish which error

should get more attention and be taught in class. Because errors perhaps can

become more serious if it does not get well attention.

C. Grammatical Error

Grammar is being an important aspect in composing a good writing. A

draft of writing composed without applying good grammar will has less

possibility to be comprehensible, readable, and acceptable by the readers.

According to Brown (2001:362), he defines grammar as the system of rules

governing the conventional arrangement and relationship of words in sentence.

While, Harmer (2001:12) states that grammar of a language is the description of

the ways in which words can change their forms and can be combined into

sentences in that language (target language). According to Yule (2010:81),

grammar is the process of describing the structure of phrases and sentences in

such a way that we account for all the grammatical sequences in a language and
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rule out all the ungrammatical sequences. According to Thornbury (2012:36),

grammar is defined as partly the study of what forms (or structure) are possible in

a language that concerned with analysis of the sentences which describe the rules

how language sentences are formed.

From the statements above, researcher can conclude that grammar is a

sentences rule which concerned about how words and phrases are combined in

sentences and how sentences are formed into a good structure by arranging the

rules of language sentence structure. Applying good grammar in order to have

well structure writing is completely difficult and it still becomes a task in

language teaching and learning process. But essentially a language without

grammar will give suffered communication to communicate others. So it is not

surprising issue if in the process of applying good grammar in composing writing

there will be found some students who committed errors.

According to Nordquist (2015:27) in ThoughCo, grammatical is a term

used in prescriptive grammar to describe an instance of faulty, unconventional, or

controversial usage, such as misplaced, modifier or an appropriate verb tense. In

other hand, according to James in Novita (2014:3), grammatical errors is defined

as the errors at morphological and syntactical levels. Meanwhile morphological

error is the error which involves a failure to comply with the norm in supplying

any part of word classes (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and preposition).

Syntactical error is error that affect texts larger than word, namely phrase, clause,

sentence, and paragraph (phrase structure error, clause error, and sentence error).

So, it can be concluded that grammatical errors refer to the errors made by the
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students in their writings (based on the grammar construction) or the unsuccessful

condition when students fail in applying good grammar in writing and

Grammatical errors happen because students are lack of grammar knowledge or

pay less attention and careless in learning grammar. A study about students’

grammatical errors is still interesting for other researchers including the researcher

of this study. According to a few of previous study related about students’

grammatical errors, students commonly make errors around passive voice, verb

tense and form, subject-verb agreement, word order, preposition, plurality,

auxiliaries, part of speech, articles, and so on. For instance, a study about

grammatical errors taken by Uthman and Abdalla (2015:10), they mention that

there were several grammatical errors found in their study, such as wrong tense,

articles, verb to be, subject-verb agreement, pronouns, pluralization, adjectives,

word order, adverbs, possessives, and relative clauses. Thus, since there were

some kinds of errors in grammatical that were found in the students’ writings, thus

in this research, the researcher concluded the common grammatical errors were

found in students’ writing by using grammatical error list composed by Turton

(1995:393) in following below.

1. Verb Tense

English language has sixteen kinds of tenses in grammar which consist of

four kinds of simple tenses, four kinds of progressive tenses, four kinds of perfect

tenses, and four kinds of future tenses. All of these tenses have their own rules to

be applied and they will be used differently in different time, situation and

condition, and context.

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The example of error: I never work as a cashier until I get job there.

This will be an erroneous in English language structure, because the sentence

above discusses about past situation when the activity happened. So, the correct

sentence should be “I never had worked as a cashier until I got job there”.

2. Subject-Verb Arrangement

According to Salmaweh (2013:11), subjects and verbs must agree with one

another in number (singular or plural). Thus, if a subject (the person or thing

doing the action) is singular, its verb (the word representing the action) must also

be singular; if a subject is plural, its verb must also be plural. According the

explanation above, it can be concluded that subject-verb agreement error occur

when the subject does not agree with the verb in person or number. In other hand,

the verb that will be used in accordance with the subject who does the action,

singular verb for singular subject and vice versa.

The example of error: My brother and his friend goes to school by bus

together.

From the example above, it can be seen that there is an error occurred in the

sentence. The subject who does the action is plural subject but the verb that used

in sentence above is a singular verb so this will make a subject-verb agreement

error. The correct sentence from the example above must be “My brother and his

friend go to school by bus together”.

3. Subject-Complement Agrrement

According to Turton (1995), subject complement is normally a word or a

phrase which describes the subject. Thus, subject-complement agreement means

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that subject and its complement must agree one another in number (singular or

plural). According to Cambridge dictionary (2017) in online press, subject

complement can be adjective phrases, noun phrases, or prepositional phrases.

The example : My two English teachers are also a good friend of mine.

The correct sentence : My two English teachers are also good friends of mine.

4. Verb be

Verb be is a kind of verbs which consists of nominal verbs such as am, is,

are, or be. The error of verb “to be” commonly occurs in simple tense or

progressive tense.

The example of error : The teachers is applying cooperative learning method in

their classes.

The correct sentence : The teachers are applying cooperative learning method in

their classes.

5. Determiner

According to English British Council Website and Jauhar (2010),

determiners are the words which come at the beginning of the noun phrase. They

tell about the noun or noun phrase in specific or general. The example of

determiner is a/an, the, this, my, each, every, etc.

The example of error : That geese are swimming elegantly until someone threw a

stone near them.

The correct sentence : Those geese are swimming elegantly until someone threw a

stone near them.

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6. Plural

According to Zenius (2014:122), nouns are defined as the word of thing

which include of person, animals, plants, happiness, and so on. There are so many

kinds of noun in English such as countable and uncountable nouns, and singular

and plural nouns. Plural definition in Zenius (2014:127) is the things that counted

more than one while singular is the thing that counted just one. The example of

plural nouns can be mentioned such as glasses, , mice, geese, teeth, feet, pajamas,

and so on.

The example error: She treats her employees like slave.

This sentence will be incorrect as the well-formed sentence structure

because it has already been stated that the object of the sentence is plural so the

word of “slave” must be replaced with “slaves”.

7. Pronoun

According to Benner (2000) in Towson Edu Website, every pronoun is

written should refer clearly and mistakably to one particular noun (antecedent)

which means antecedent is the noun to which the pronoun refers. According to

Simmons (2017) in Rules for Finding and Fixing Pronoun Agreement Errors, the

pronoun must agree with its antecedent and the general rule for pronoun

agreement simply can be mentioned such as a singular antecedent requires a

singular pronoun while a plural antecedent needs a plural pronoun. There is a

possibility for the students to commit pronoun error. This error occurs when

students place the incorrect antecedent of the pronoun in sentences of writing.

The example of error: The restaurant’s specialty is duck. They are always fresh.
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The erroneous comes from the word “they”. It has already mentioned

above if a singular antecedent needs a singular pronoun, so that the pronoun they

which is plural must be replaced with the singular one (it).

8. Word Order

According to Suhud (2013:117), word order is an arrangement or a

placement of word in one phrase or sentence to ease in determining main word or

main phrase. This error probably happens in students’ writing. It occurs when

students are just wrong ordering the word in sentence. Mostly the word order error

is influenced by interlingual transfer and intralingual transfer. Interlingual transfer

affects ordering the well-formed sentence when students combine the sentence

structure of English rules with their native language.

For example, a wrong word order error influenced by interlingual transfer: Dodi

bought a hat red.

sentence will be correct in meaning but in the side of sentence structure it

is not close to correct. The correct sentence should be “Dodi bought a red hat”.

9. Verb

According to Niece and Masruchin (2016:18), verb is the word that is used

to describe about action, condition, or experience. Kind of verbs in English are

transitive and intransitive verb, finite and infinite verb, and regular and irregular

verb. The kind of verb error probably happens in students’ writing. Verb error

occurs when students ignore the verb rules and get confused with kind of verb.

Commonly they always over generalize the rules to make a correct sentence or

they are less knowledge of verb list vocabulary or less knowledge about the rules.
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The example of error : Children try to beauty their classroom with new

decoration.

That sentence is literally incorrect because the word “beauty” is not a verb

but a noun. Thus the correct verb will be used to complete the sentence is

“beautify”.

10. Preposition

According to Niece and Masruchin (2016:33), preposition is the word

which is used before noun and it can be a noun phrase or pronoun which connects

the other word. Preposition in English consists of the word about, after, against,

at, down, for, from, in, on, during, while, and so on. Commonly preposition in

English is used as time or place signal and to use the prepositions properly, the

rules are needed. When students commit preposition error commonly caused by

the interlingual interference or students are confused with the rules of preposition

use.

The example of error : We start serving dinner 6.00 P.M

The correct sentence : We start serving dinner at 6.00 P.M

11. Conjuction

According to Niece and Masruchin (2016:28), conjunction is the word

which is used to connect word, phrase, or clause in a sentence. The example of

conjunction such as and, but, while, also, besides, so, and so on. Conjunction

error commonly occurs because students misuse or students ignore the rules of

sentence structure.
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The example of error : The garlic shrimp, fried clams, broiled lobster are the most

favorite dishes.

The correct sentence : The garlic shrimp, fried clams, and broiled lobster are the

most favorite dishes.

12. Article

Article in English consists of a, an, and the. The word “a” and “an” is

basically used to describe the quantity of singular noun or unspecific noun. While

the word “the” is basically used for showing the specific noun that meant by the

speaker. Article error probably happens in students writing because of the

interlingual interference or students are lack knowledge about the use of article.

The example of article error : My father is mechanic.

The correct sentence : My father is a mechanic.

13. Auxillary

According to Jauhar (2010), auxiliary is a verb that is used with another

verb to describe about the difference of time, person and voice (active or passive)

or to provide supplementary or additional help and support. The common

auxiliary words in English are be, have and do. Committing auxiliary usually

occurs because of the lack of knowledge, less attention in auxiliary use, or over

generalization.

The example of error : It can been said that smoking is bad.

The correct sentence : It can be said that smoking is bad.

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14. Adverb

According to Niece and Masruchin (2016:28), adverb is the word that is

used to describe or give more information about verb, adjective, adverb, or phrase.

The example of adverb such as now, yesterday, between, beside, cheerfully,

terribly, very, rarely, maybe, likely, almost, seldom, etc. The adverb error

probably happens in students’ writing. The factor in committing error in adverb is

commonly caused by the ignorance or the lack knowledge of adverb vocabularies

and rules.

The example of error : I put some books above the table.

The correct sentence : I put some books on the table.

15. Adjective

According to Niece and Masruchin (2016:12), adjective is the word that is

used to describe or explain about noun or pronoun. Usually in English sentence

structure, adjective is always put before the noun and Indonesian structure rule

does the opposite. The example of adjectives in English such as well-known,

beautiful, bad, lucky, bored, expensive and so on. When adjective error occurs in

students’ writing, it is clearly because of the interlanguage interference or

intralingual transfer.

The example of error :Lulu bought a new beauty gown yesterday

The correct sentence :Lulu bought a new beautiful gown yesterday.

16. Possesive

Possessive in English means the word that is used to shows about a

possession on something. It is divided into three forms, they are possessive

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adjective (my, her, his, etc), possessive determiner (whose) and possessive

pronoun (mine, yours, hers, etc). To classify the type of errors in possessive, the

researcher only used one symbol to symbolize it which was “Poss.”.When a

possessive error happens in students’ writing, it probably occurs because of the

intralingual transfer, or misconcept of possessive rules or over generalization.

The example of error : This is mine drawing book

The correct sentence : This is my drawing book.

17. Noun

According to Suhud (2013: 169), noun is the word that is used to show the

name of person, place, animal, day, plant, concept, or the name of thing and so on.

The erroneous of noun can commonly occur because of the intralingual transfer or

the lack knowledge of the students. The example of noun error : Doni is so meant

to me because he puts ten mouses in my birthday gift box.

The sentence above is incorrect because the plural of mouse is “mice” not

“mouses”. So, the correct sentence must be “Doni is so menat to me because he

puts ten mice in my birthday gift box” and this is a kind of overgeneralization

commonly happen in students’ writing.

18. Infinitives

According to Suhud (2013:93), infinitives are the basic forms of verb

which is not modified or commonly known as V1. In grammatical, infinitives are

divided into two kinds such as infinitives with “to” and infinitives without “to”.

The example of infinitives with “to”: to go, to see, to listen, to hear, to speak, etc.

While the example of infinitives without “to”: go, see, listen, speak, hear, eat, etc.
 31

The example of error : We don’t have any idea about how solving this problem

The correct sentence : We don’t have any idea how to solve this problem.

19. Gerund

According to Suhud (2013:85), gerund is verb which is changed into noun

by adding the suffix –ing or simply it is called as a noun with the form –ing. The

example of gerund is sleeping, swimming, reading, writing, listening, etc. Gerund

in the sentence structure of English can be used as a subject, as a complement of

the subject, complement of the object, gerund after verb, gerund after preposition,

and so on.

The example of error : Play football is my hobby.

The correct sentence : Playing football is my hobby.

20. Modals

According to Suhud (2013:123), modals are part of auxiliary which gives

additional meaning to a sentence in order to stress the meaning. Commonly

modals are used to express a particular idea which cannot be expressed by using

verbs.

There are some kinds of modals in English grammar such as, can, could, had

better, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would, used to, etc.

The example of error : She would not asked him for anything.

The correct sentence : She would not ask him for anything.

21. Quantifiers

According to Jauhar (2010) and Turton (1995), quantifiers are the words

or phrases which show about “how many” or “how much” noun discussed.
 32

Quantifiers include all, any, many, (a) few, (a) little, less, much, most, more,

several, some, etc. The use of quantifier related with the number of noun (singular

or plural).

The example of error : My brother gave me so much apples yesterday.

The correct sentence : My brother gave me so many apples yesterday.

22. Comparative and Superlative

According to Zenius (2014:176), comparative is a form of word phrase

which is used to compare something (characteristic, shape, behavior, etc), or it is a

form of word which shows about comparison of adverb or adjective. Comparative

form explains about comparing the quality or degree of something by adding the

word “er or more”. While superlative is a word form of adjective or adverb which

expresses about the highest degree or quality of something by adding the word

“est or most”.

The example of comparative: “Christine is more beautiful than Daisy”.

The example of superlative: “Angela is the most beautiful girl in this class”.

Sometimes students commit error in the use of comparative or superlative form in

their writing. The lack of knowledge and the ignorance of rules is always

becoming the main factor of committing error.

The example of error : My sister is elder than me.

The correct sentence : My sister is older than me.

23. Question Tag

According to Suhud (2013:61), question tags are the question expression

that is used as confirmation or statement which is being expressed to other

 33

speaker in order to ask an agreement confirmation or disagreement confirmation.

For example, Our mother is the best mother, isn’t she?.

The example of error : You are not a bad boy, do you?

The correct sentence : You are not a bad boy, are you?

Those explanations above are about common grammatical error found in

students writing. In other hand, this research will be corrected by using correction

symbol modified by Oshima and Hogue. Oshima and Hogue are the other experts

focusing on grammatical errors in writing. The application of correction codes is

“normally done by underlining the mistakes and using some kind of symbols to

focus the attention of the students on the kind of mistake they have made” Byrne,

(1988:125). So, the coding technique consists of using a number of different codes

(either in the body or in a corresponding margin) to refer to the different aspects

of language such as word order, spelling, verb, tense etc. Correction symbols are

also called minimal marking. Using correction codes is a convenient way of

giving learners information on where they have gone wrong and “it is convenient

to have a system of signals to the pupil in order to help him to know what he is

looking for before he has acquired much proof-reading skill” Bright and

McGregor (1970:156). In addition, Hyland states “this technique makes correction

neater and less threatening than masses of red ink and helps students to find and

identify their mistakes”. (2003:181) and “makes correction look less damaging”

Harmer (2007:121). Hedge mentioned (2000:316) Correction codes encourage

students to look at writing as a skill that can be improved, and train them in
 34

looking for areas of improvement Students can therefore correct their mistakes

because their mistakes occur in “the hurly-burly of conversation where there are

many things to get right at the same time. The learner knows the right form, but

produces the wrong one” Johnson (2001:335).

Oshima and Hogue (2007), they classify errors into :
2.1 Types of Error and Correction Symbols

Simple Meaning Incorrect Correct

Symbol
V. be Verb “to be” V.be The teachers are
applying cooperative
The teachers is applying
learning method in their
cooperative learning method
classes.
in
their classes.
Det. Determiner Det. Those geese are
That geese are swimming swimming elegantly
elegantly until someone until someone threw
threw a stone near them
a stone near them.
The correct sentence
Aux. Auxiliaries Aux. It can be said that smoking
It can been said that smoking is bad.
is
bad.
v.t. Verb Tense v.t. had never worked as
I never work as a a cashier until I got job
v .t there.
cashier until I get job there
S.agr. Subject Verb S.agr. The manager work hard.
agreement The manager work hard. There
S.agr.
There is five employees
C. agr. Subject My two English teachers are My two English
complement also teachers are also
agreement C.agr good friends of mine.
a good friend of mine.
Pl. Plural She treats her She treats her employees
pl. like slaves.
employees like slave.

Uncess. Unnecessary Uncess. My boss watches everyone

My boss she watches all the time.
everyone all
the time.
 35

Adv. Adverb Adv. I put some books on the

I put some books above the table.
table.

Adj. Adjective Adj. Lulu bought a

Lulu bought a beauty gown beautiful gown yesterday.
yesterday.

Pro. Pronoun The restaurant’s specialty is The restaurant’s specialty

duck. is duck. It is always fresh.
Pron.
They are always fresh.

w.o Word Order w.o Friday is always our

Friday always is our busiest busiest night.
night.
Poss. Possessive Poss. This is my drawing book
This is mine drawing book.

Nn. Noun Doni is so meant to me Doni is so meant to me

because because he puts ten
Nn. mouses in my birthday gift
he puts ten mouses in my box.
birthday
gift box

Inft. Infinitives We don’t have any idea We don’t have any idea
about how to solve this problem.
Inft.
how to solving this problem

V. Verb V. The employees are on

The employees _ on time and time and work hard.
work hard.

Prep. Preposition Prep. We start serving dinner at

We start serving dinner _ 6.00 P.M.
6.00
P.M.
 36

Conj. Conjunction The garlic shrimp, fried The garlic shrimp, fried
Conj. clams, and broiled lobster
clams broiled lobster are are the most popular
the dishes.
most popular dishes.

Art. Article art. Diners expect a glass of

Diners expect _ glass of water when they first sit
water down at the table.
when they first sit
art.
down at _ table

Mod. Modals Mod. She would not ask him

She would not asked him for for anything.
anything.

Quant. Quantifiers My brother gave me My brother gave me so

Quant. many apples yesterday.
so much apples yesterday.

Q. Tag Question Tags Q.tag You are not a bad boy,

You are not a bad boy, don’t aren’t you?
you?

Sp. Spelling sp. The manager is a woman

The maneger is a woman

W. Miss Word Missing W.miss I am working in a

I _ working in a restaurant restaurant.

Comp. Comparative Com. My sister is older than me.

and Superlative My sister is elder than me
form

Ger. Gerund Ger. Playing football is my

Play football is my hobby. hobby.
 37

D. Writing

Writing is the most difficult skill among other language skills. Richards

(1990:101) stated that “learning to write in either the first or second language is

one of the most difficult tasks, a student encounters and one that few people can

be said to fully master. Because of that, to make a good writing, the students need

to hard thinking and they must have an extent knowledge to get correct writing.

1. Definition of Writing

There are several opinions about the definition of writing that have been

given by the experts. Ur (1996:161) said that “writing is learned skill”. From this

statement the researcher tries to identify that writing is a skill which can be

learned by anyone by practice intensively because writing is not an automatic

skill. writing is used as a tool for communication by the people who want to

communicate with others. Remembering that writing is more than the language is

used to express and communicate with others.

According to Yule (2010:212), writing is the symbolic representation of

language through the use of graphic signs which not has simply system and takes

conscious effort to be learned. Brown (2001:335), defines writing as a simply

graphic representation of spoken language where writers put their idea and

thought into words as the result of thinking and experience. Based on the

explanation above we know that writing is the result of our thinking that we

represent in the graphic form.

Writing is a complex activity. Writing is a difficult subject, especially for

students. Heaton (1989: 135) states that writing is complex and difficult to teach
 38

and also learn, requiring mastery not only of grammatical and theoretical devices

but also of conceptual and judgmental elements. Halliday in Nunan (1991: 84)

states that writing evolves in society as a result of cultural changes creating

communicative needs which cannot be readily met by the spoken language.

From the definition above, it can be concluded that writing is more than a

language. writing is a skill which can be learned by anyone who want to express

their thought, ideas, feelings, etc. In addition, it is a tool of communication, so that

writing is a hard skill because it is an unnatural act which is need conscious effort

to be learned.

2. Purpose of writing

According to Brookes and Grundy (1991:163) people write either because

they are required to or because they choose to write for their own reasons. If we

ask ourselves why we write at all, the first answer will be to get information to

someone we cannot presently talk to. Thus, writing allows us to transcend time.

The second answer might be especially when we need of society as a whole. To

solve the problem of volume, of having to store more than the human brain can

remember. A less likely, but nevertheless important, the third reason for writing

might be to filter and shape our experience. The purpose of writing is not only to

teach someone to convey idea to the readers but also to reinforce all aspect of

languages that have been learned by the students. There is some additional and

very important reason why writing is needed in teaching English. According to Ur

(1996:163) in her book she stated “A course in Language Teaching, she explained

that the purpose of writing, in principle is the expression of ideas, the conveying
 39

of a massage to the reader, so the ideas themselves should arguably be seen as the

most aspect of the writing.”

Furthermore, Miller (2006:47-69), on his book; Motives for Writing explained

the motives of writing. Purpose of writing is essentially the same as motive of

writing; both terms are used to describe what a writer hopes to accomplish. There

are motives of writing such as:

a. Writing to understand experiences.

b. Writing to report information.

c. Writing to explain information.

d. Writing to evaluate something.

e. Writing to analyze images.

f. Writing to analyze texts.

g. Writing to persuade others.

h. Writing to inspire others.

i. Writing to amuse others.

j. Writing to experiment with form.

The researcher tries to conclude that many reason when people want to

write something because the purpose of writing is the essentially the same as the

movie of writing. It depends on what the researcher’s need. It can be to get the

information. To explain information or to amuse others or etc like what the

researcher mentioned above.

3. Kinds of Writing

There are several kinds of text which is presented below :

 40

a. Narrative

According to Kane (2000:366), “Narrative is a meaningful sequence of

events told in words. It is sequential in that the events are ordered, not merely

random. Sequence always involves an arrangement in time (and usually other

arrangements as well).”

Narrative has social function to amuse, entertain and to deal with actual

vicarious experience in different ways, narrative deal with problematic events

which lead to a crisis or turning point of some kind, which in turn finds a

resolution”(Ayu et al in Emmaryana, 2010:13).

“There are many types of narrative. They can be imaginary, factual or a

combination of both. They may include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction,

romances, horror stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives, ballads,

slice of life, personal experience” (Sosilohadi et al in Emmaryana, 2010:14).

The generic structure of narrative are divided into three parts: a) Orientation: sets

the scene and introduces the participants, b) Complication: begins when a crisis

arises and c) Resolution: the crisis resolved, for better or for worse.

b. Procedure

Ayu et al in Emmaryana (2010:14) state that procedure is a written text to

help us how to do a task or make something. They can be a set of instructions or

directions. The generic structure of a procedure text:a) Goal : informing how to do

the instruction, b) Materials: Ingredients, utensils, quipments to do the instruction,

c) Steps: a set of instructions to achieve the goal.

 41

c. Explanation

Doddy et al in Emmaryana (2010:15) say that explanation has social

function to present at least many different aspects of an issuses and to explain the

processes involved in the information or workings of natural or socio-cultural

phenomena. There are the generic structures of explanation text, they are: a)

General Statement; provides a general statement to position the reader, b)

Explanation: gives a sequence explaining of why or how something occurs.

d. Analytical Exposition

Mustriana and Yulianti (2009:55) say that “analytical exposition persuades

the listeners that something in the case.” The structure of analytical exposition

consists of:

a. Thesis :

1) Position : introduces the topic and indicates the writer’s position.

2) Preview : outlines the main arguments outlined to be presented.

b. Arguments :

1) Point : Restates the main arguments outlined in the preview.

2) Elaboration: Develops and supports each point

c. Reiteration :

1) Restates the writer’s position.

2)

e. Report
 42

“The first thing to remember in a report is that the chief of any report is to

inform and you need to present your information as clearly and concisely as you

can”, said Palmer (2015:186).

Crème and Lea (2003:152) state that one thing that makes a report

distinctive is that it generally has a very clear structure, although this will vary

from context to context. A report needs a logical structure make things very clear

to the reader.

Sudarwati and Grace (2007:32) explain that report is a text to describe the

way things are such as a man-made thing, animals and plants. The generic

structure of report are general classification: introduces and description.

f. Spoof

Sudarwati and Grace (2007:178) state that spoof is a text to tell an event

with humorous twist. The generic structures of spoof are orientation: who were

involved in the story, when and where; events: tell what happened in

chronological order; and twist: provide the funniest part of the story.

g. Hortatory Exposition

Sudarawati and Grace (2007:178) quote that “hortatory exposition is a text

to persuade the reader or listener that something should or should not to be the

case”. The generic structure of hortatory exposition are thesis, arguments and

recommendation.

h. Discussion
 43

Sudarawati and Grace (2007:178) say that “discussion is a text to explore

various perspectives before coming to an informed decision and to present

information and opinions about more than one side of an issue.” The generic

structure of discussion are opening statement presenting the issue, arguments or

evidence for different points of view and concluding recommendation.

i. Review

Sudarawati and Grace (2007:178) state that “review is a text to summarize,

analyze and respond to art works and to critique an art work or event for a public

audience.” The generic structure of review are an art work (including characters

and plot); evaluation: statement and evaluative summation.

j. Descriptive

Description is writing about characteristic features of a particular thing.

According to Oshima and Hogue (1997:50), descriptive writing appeals to the

senses, so it tells how something looks, feels, smells, tastes, and/ or sounds. In

additon, a good description is like a “word picture”; the reader can imagine the

object, place, or person in his or her mind. A writer of a good description is like an

artist who paints a picture that can be “seen” clearly in the mind of the reader.

The generic structure of a descriptive text are as follows: (1) identification: an

introduction to the subject of the description; (2) description of features: describe

the characteristic features of the subject.

While the language features of a descriptive text are follows: (1) use of

particular nouns; (2) use of detailed noun groups to provide information about the

subject; (3) use of a variety of types of adjectives; (4) use of relating verbs to
 44

provide information about the subject; (5) use of thinking and feeling verbs to

express the writer’s personal view about the subject or to give an insight into the

subject’s thoughts and feelings; (6) use of action verbs to describe the subject’s

behavior; (7) use of adverbials to provide more information about this behavior;

(8) use of similes, metaphors and other types of figurative language, particularly

in literary descriptions.

k. Recount

There are many kind of English texts such as narrative text, descriptive text,

procedure text, and one of it is recount text. Recount text is very common learned

by the student in the school from junior high school and up to university. Many of

the students do not know how to write correctly because they do not know about

schematic structure of recount text. So, in this literature would like to explain

about definition of recount text and schematic structure of recount text and This

research, will only discuss about recount text.

1. Definition of Recount Text

Recount text is used to retell the story that had happened in the past time.

According to Anderson (1997:24) recount is a piece of writing that retells past

events usually in order in which they happened and the purpose of a recount is to

give the audience a description of what occurred and when it occurred. The

purpose of recount text is to describe what happened in the past time through

sequence of the events to the reader.

Knapp and Watkins (2005: 223) also say that a recount is a sequential text

that does little more than sequencing a series of events. It is the simplest type of
 45

narrative genre. A recount is different from a narrative text in terms of the

problems in the sequence of events. Another view comes from Recount can be in

the form of letters, newspaper reports, conversations, speeches, television

interviews and eyewitness account.

Recount is typically tells entertain by dealing with a sequence of events

that establishes a relationship between a writer/reader and speaker/listener.

Recount is a kind of genre that has social function to retell event for the purpose

of informing or entertaining. The tense that used in recount text is past tense.

Social purpose of recount is to reconstruct past experiences by retelling events in

original sequence. We can look at the sample of recount in personal letters, police

report, insurance claims, and incident reports (Hyland, 2004; 29).

Based on the explanations above about definition of recount text, it shows

that recount text is writing that retells past events for the purpose of informing or

entertaining and give the audience a description of what occurred and when it

occurred. Recount text should use past form because that text retells past events.

2. The Schematic Structure of Recount

Every text has a schematic structure. According to Anderson (1997:24),

recount has three schematic structures. They are, “orientation, events, and

reorientation.” The orientation is the opening of the recount text. It is consists of

background information about recount text. Events tell about what happened in a

chronological order. Re-orientation is the conclusion of the recount text.

a. Orientation
 46

In this part, the writer tries to introduce the recount writing to the readers,

so the readers know about the details of setting or background information about

the events. According to Anderson (1997:24) the orientation is consists of

background information about who were involved in the story, what, when, and

where the events takes a place. It is in the first paragraph. This orientation is in the

first paragraph as an opening of the recount text.

b. Events

The orientation is followed by the events of the recount text. According to

Sudarwati (2006:30) the function of the event is to tell what happened in a

chronological order. Event is the main important part of recount text because

those events are the core of the story. This is followed by a series of paragraph

that tell about all of the past events that happened in the story.

c. Reorientation

In this part, the writer can choose to give the conclusion for the readers or

not. Re-orientation is about the conclusion of the experience. It is optional

because some recounts are only consists of orientation, and the series of events.

The conclusion and commen of the story can be given in this last part.

3. The Language Features of Recount Text

Anderson (1997:24) divides the language features of recount text into four,

they are: (1) proper nouns to identify those involves in the text, (2) descriptive

words to give details about who, what, when, where and how, (3) the use of the

past tense to retell the events, and (4) words that show the order of events. In the

other words, those language features above help to write the recount text. The first
 47

is proper nouns to identify those involves in the text. It is useful to show who,

where and when the story took place, for example; Rina, at home, South Africa,

etc. The second is descriptive words. It is used to give details about who what,

when, where, and how the events happen. The next is the use of the past tense.

Because recount is retelling a story that happens in the past time, so the using of

the past tense is needed to make sure the readers that the events is happen in the

past time. The last is words that show the order of events, for example, first,next,

then, etc.

4. The Types of Recount Text

According to Anderson and Kathy Anderson (1997:56-75) there are many

types of recount text, they are: (1) eyewitness accounts, (2) letters, (3)

conversations, (4) newspaper Reports, (5) television, (6) interviews, and (7)

speech.

Firstly is the eyewitness account. The purpose of the eyewitness accounts

is to provide details about the past event chronologically, such as the accidents,

the explosion a flight, etc. The audience can be a reader of newspaper or can be a

police officer.

Secondly, is letters. Letters is written for some reasons, one of them is to

tell the events that have happened in the past, for example writing about the

activities in last holiday to a friend. Thirdly, is conversations. The conversation is

spoken by two or more people to tell the listener about something. In this case, the

conversation tells about past event, for example, telling about what happen this

morning or last night.

 48

The next type is newspaper reports. In newspaper the reader can read about

some events that have happened in the order in which they occur, for example

how a robber stole some money in the bank last night, etc. The next type is

television interview. In television interview, there are reporter (who asking the

questions) and interviewee (person who being interviewed). The reporter asks to

recount part of the interviewee life. The last type is speech. According to

Anderson (1997:74) speech is a spoken text that can have a variety of purposes. A

recount speech would be one where the speaker tells the audience about a past

happening. The speaker would recount the events in the order in which they took

place. On the other hand, a speech has many purposes, but in recount speech, the

speaker in speech is someone who tells to the audience about a past event.

E. Previous Study

There are several studies which related with this study. The first is

Conducted by Bariqah Rizquna at 2016 with the title “An Error Analysis on

Recount Text Written By The Eight Grader of MTs Negeri Kunir Wonodadi

Blitar”. The purposes of this study were to: 1) Identify the kinds of errors made

by the students of MTs Negeri Kunir in writing recount text, 2) Identify the

dominant kinds of errors made by the students of MTs Negeri Kunir in writing

recount text, 3) Identify the cause of error made by the students of MTs Negeri

Kunir in writing recount text. The research design of this study was descriptive

with quantitative approach. The result of this study showed that the students were

producing some errors in writing recount text. The most errors made by the

students were misformation with 142 errors or 53.18%, addition with 63 errors
 49

23.59%, omission with 55 errors or 20.6%, and the last was misordering with 7

errors or 2.62%. All of this errors was cover the grammatical features of recount

text, that were error in use of simple past tense with 257 errors or 96.25%, time

connective with 7 or 2.62%, the use of proper noun with 3 errors or 1.12% and the

last was the use of descriptive word with 0 errors. The sources of errors made by

the students were intralingual error and interlingual error.

The second is conducted by Anwar at 2014 with the title “An Error

Analysis On The Use Of Simple Past Tense In Students’ Narrative Writing. The

objective of this study was to know and explain the most frequent errors made by

the first grade students of SMA Dua Mei Ciputat in writing narrative focused on

simple past tense. The classification of errors in this study is divided into four

categories; they are omission, addition, misformation, and misordering. The

subject of this study consists of 20 students of the first grade of senior high school

who have more than 100 words writing. The method used in this study was

descriptive analysis method to describe students’ errors and analyze the data by

using formula: = × %, P=Percentage, F=Frequency of errors made, N=Total of

students’ errors. The data was taken from the test; it was written test. The findings

showed that there are 152 errors made by the students. The most frequent errors

made by the students in their narrative writing focused on the use of simple past

tense is misformation which consists of 82 errors or 54%, it is followed by

omission with 40 errors or 26%. The next is misordering which consists of 21

errors or 14%. And the last is addition with 9 errors or 6%.

 50

There were several studies which related with this study. The third is

Conducted by Nurul Amalia at 2013 with the title “Error Analysis of Students’

Writing Recount Text at the Second Year Students of SMAN 2 Banda Aceh on

Recount Text Written By The Eight Grader of MTs Negeri Kunir Wonodadi

Blitar”. The objective of this study was to ivenstigate the types of errors, the

dominant errors, the cause of errors, the students’ problems in writing recount

text. Based on the finding, there were omission errors, addition errors,

missformation errors, and missordering errors. total of 250 errors which consist of

50 or 20% in omission errors, 45 or 18% errors in addition errors, 140 or 56%

errors in missformation errors and 15 or 6% errors in missordering errors. from

those errors, missformation errors were the highest percentage of errors in this

study and it was the dominant errors.

There are several similarities and differences between the current study

and the previous study. They can be mentioned first, the similarities of this study

with previous study are about past tense and how to collect the data. The

differences of this study with previous study are about location for collecting the

data. Aminah also different with this study about English text which she chose

narrative text whereas the researcher chooses recount text.